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Green Energy and Technology

Annoula Paschalidou
Michael Tsatiris
Kyriaki Kitikidou
Christina Papadopoulou

Using Energy
Crops for Biofuels
or Food: The
Choice
Green Energy and Technology
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8059
Annoula Paschalidou Michael Tsatiris
•

Kyriaki Kitikidou Christina Papadopoulou

•

Using Energy Crops

for Biofuels or Food:
The Choice

123
Annoula Paschalidou Kyriaki Kitikidou
Department of Forestry and Management Department of Forestry and Management
of the Environment and Natural Resources of the Environment and Natural Resources
Democritus University of Thrace Democritus University of Thrace
Orestiada Orestiada
Greece Greece

Michael Tsatiris Christina Papadopoulou

Department of Forestry and Management Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
of the Environment and Natural Resources Thessaloniki
Democritus University of Thrace Greece
Orestiada
Greece

ISSN 1865-3529 ISSN 1865-3537 (electronic)

Green Energy and Technology
ISBN 978-3-319-63942-0 ISBN 978-3-319-63943-7 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-63943-7
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018939135

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
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or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
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part of Springer Nature
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Contents

1 Global Nutritional Need—The Energy Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Global Nutritional Need . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 The Energy Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2 Bioenergy–Biomass–Energy Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1 Bioenergy–Biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Energy Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.1 Perennial Energy Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2.2 Annual Energy Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3 Biofuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4 Biomass–Biofuels and Sustainable Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.1 Biomass–Biofuels and Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.2 Energy Planning—Sustainable Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5 Using Energy Crops for Biofuels or Food: The Choice . . . . . . . . . . . 35
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6 Methods (SWOT Analysis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.1 SWOT Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.1.1 External Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.1.2 Internal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.1.3 Generating Alternative Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.1.4 Formulation of Strategic Choice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.2 The Use of SWOT Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

v
vi Contents

7 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

7.1 Energy Crops for Biofuel Production—SWOT Analysis . . . . . . . . 45
7.1.1 Strengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7.1.2 Weaknesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.1.3 Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
7.1.4 Threats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
7.2 Energy Crops for Food—SWOT Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
7.2.1 Strengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
7.2.2 Weaknesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
7.2.3 Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
7.2.4 Threats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
8 Alternative Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
9 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Concepts and Abbreviations

AFOLU Agriculture, forestry, and other land use

ARPA-E Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy
AUA Agricultural University of Athens
Bioenergy Energy from biomass (does not include, e.g., wind, solar, or
hydroelectric power)
Biofuel Solid, liquid, or gaseous fuel produced from biomass. For example,
wood chips, ethanol, and biogas
Biomass The biodegradable fraction of products, waste, and residues of
biological origin from agriculture (including vegetable and animal
matter), forestry and related industries, including fisheries and
aquaculture, as well as the biodegradable fraction of industrial and
municipal waste
BNEF Bloomberg New Energy Finance
Bnl Billion liters
BTU British thermal unit
CAP Common Agricultural Policy
CFS Committee on World Food Security
CO Carbon monoxide
CO2 Carbon dioxide
CRES Center for Renewable Energy Sources and Saving
EC European Commission
EEA European Economic Area
Energy crops The crops cultivated in the field for bioenergy purposes
ES Expected shortfall
EU European Union
EV Electron volt
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FITs Feed-in tariffs
FQD Fuel Quality Directive
GDP Gross domestic product

vii
viii Concepts and Abbreviations

GHG Greenhouse gases

GM Genetic modification
Gm3 Billion cubic meters
GMOs Genetically modified organisms
HLPE High-Level Panel of Experts
IEA International Energy Agency
IEO International Energy Outlook
IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute
ILUC Indirect land use
INDC Intended Nationally Determined Contributions
KW Kilowatt
LCA Life cycle analysis
MMT Million metric tons
MS Member State
MW Megawatt
MWh Megawatt hours
OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
OPEC Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries
OPEKEPE Greek Payment Authority of Common Agricultural Policy
OPTIMA OPTImization of perennial grasses for biomass production in
Mediterranean Area
PETRO Plants Engineered to Replace Oil
PV Photovoltaics
R&D Research and development
RED Renewable Energy Directive
RES Renewable energy sources
SDG Sustainable development goal
SWOT Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats
TOE Tonnes of oil equivalent
UAA Utilized agricultural area
UN United Nations
US United States
WEO World Energy Outlook
List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 Population and cereal production growth rates

(Source [14]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2
Fig. 1.2 World energy consumption by country grouping, 2012–40
(quadrillion Btu) (Source [7]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3
Fig. 1.3 Total world energy consumption by energy source, 1990–2040
(quadrillion Btu) (Source [7]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4
Fig. 1.4 Primary energy use by fuel in EU (2009) (Source [15]) . . . . . .. 5
Fig. 1.5 Non-OPEC liquids production by region and country, 2010
and 2040 (million barrels per day) (Source [2]) . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5
Fig. 1.6 World non-petroleum liquids production by type, 2010
and 2040 (million barrels per day) (Source [2]) . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5
Fig. 1.7 World’s oil reserves in 2012 (Source [10]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6
Fig. 1.8 World top ten oil reserve holders in 2012 (Source [16]) . . . . . .. 6
Fig. 1.9 Primary energy consumption by fuel (%) in 2010 (Greece)
(Source [17]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Fig. 1.10 Renewables installed power (2009 data) (Source [12]) . . . . . . . . 7
Fig. 2.1 Biofuels (Biomass) sources (Source [3]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Fig. 2.2 Added value pyramid of biomass uses (Source [3]) . . . . . . . . . . 12
Fig. 2.3 Worldwide allocation of harvested biomass by production
target (main product) in 2008 (Source [5]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13
Fig. 2.4 Share of bioenergy in the world primary energy mix
(Source [38]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13
Fig. 2.5 Growth of EU biomass, wind and solar 2000–2011
(Source [7]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 14
Fig. 2.6 Biomass to bioenergy–energy crops (Source [3]) . . . . . . . . . . .. 15
Fig. 2.7 Mix of energy crops, 2006–2008 and European Economic
Area (EEA) scenario for environmentally compatible energy
cropping in 2020 (Source [35]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 19
Fig. 3.1 World biofuel production by country [ITP9IEA-WEO 20080
Reference Scenario] [Total: *5% of total world fuel
production] (Source [3]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 26

ix
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x List of Figures

Fig. 3.2 World biofuel production by type (Source [3]) . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 26

Fig. 3.3 Global ethanol production and projections to 2021
(Source [6]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 27
Fig. 3.4 Global biodiesel production and projections to 2021
(Source [6]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 27
Fig. 3.5 Crop used for ethanol and biodiesel production and countries
where they are generated (Source [14]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 28
Fig. 3.6 Biomass and biofuels in the European Union (Source [7]) . . . .. 28
Fig. 3.7 Biodiesel production—provisions, Greece 2005–2010 (tons)
(Source [8]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Fig. 4.1 General concept of sustainable approach (Source [1]). . . . . . . . . 32
Fig. 4.2 General approach for a Bioenergy project (Source [1]) . . . . . . . . 32
Fig. 6.1 General scheme of the SWOT tables (Source [1]) . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Fig. 6.2 SWOT matrix: enhanced format (Source [3]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Fig. 6.3 Stages of the SWOT analysis of the two options . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Fig. 7.1 Turnover and employment in the EU bioeconomy (2011)
(Source [12]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 47
Fig. 7.2 Total employment (agricultural and manufacture) in biofuels
and bio-based chemicals in EU-28, year (Source [12]) . . . . . . .. 47
Fig. 7.3 Employment in biofuels and bio-based chemicals, per 1
million tones of feedstocks in EU (Source [12]) . . . . . . . . . . . .. 47
Fig. 7.4 Operation and maintenance jobs/MWh generated for a wide
range of energy projects, both fossil fuel and renewable
(Source [13]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 48
Fig. 7.5 Construction jobs and operation and maintenance jobs per
MW of installed power-generating capacity for several
renewable energy technologies compared with natural gas
(Source [13]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 49
Fig. 7.6 Electricity cost and carbon dioxide emissions per kilowatt hour
(Source [17]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 50
Fig. 7.7 Power generation capacity additions (GW) Bloomberg New
Energy Finance (Source [18]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 50
Fig. 7.8 Share of energy from renewable sources in the European
Union (in 5% of gross final energy consumption)
(Source [19]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 51
Fig. 7.9 Carbon footprint comparison (Source [22]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 52
Fig. 7.10 CO2 emissions (g per kWh for biomass, compared to other
fuels (Source [5]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 52
Fig. 7.11 Biomass carbon cycle (Source [25]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 53
List of Figures xi

Fig. 7.12 Carbon intensity of biofuels resulting from different feedstock

and technology, compared to traditional fossil fuels
(Source [24]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 53
Fig. 7.13 Estimates of net reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
from the displacement of gasoline or diesel use in transport
by different types of biofuels, including bioethanol
(Source [26]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 54
Fig. 7.14 Global energy-related CO2 emissions in the INDC Scenario
and remaining carbon budget for a > 50% chance of keeping
to 2 °C (Source [27]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 54
Fig. 7.15 Linking phytoremediation with dedicated energy crops
to accomplish the “sustainable phytoremediation”
(Source [33]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 55
Fig. 7.16 Arable land per capita is decreasing (hectares per thousand
people) (Source [51]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 57
Fig. 7.17 Projected land-use intensity in 2030 (Source [52]) . . . . . . . . . .. 58
Fig. 7.18 Global AFOLU greenhouse gas emissions by sub-sector
(2010) (Source [56]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 59
Fig. 7.19 Most appealing aspects of energy grasses (Source [63]) . . . . . .. 60
Fig. 7.20 Average global internalized costs of new builds of different
electricity options (Source [64]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 61
Fig. 7.21 Average global internalized costs of different transportation
energy options (Source [64]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 62
Fig. 7.22 Net production cost (in CHF/I) of biofuels according
to the producing country/region (Source [65]) . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 62
Fig. 7.23 GHG reductions for different biofuels (Source [3]) . . . . . . . . . .. 65
Fig. 7.24 Biofuel production and GHG emissions (IEA 2012)
(Source [118]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 65
Fig. 7.25 Model chart of improving energy plant production through
intercropping in marginal land to ensure food and energy
security (Source [80]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 66
Fig. 7.26 Food commodity price indices from 2000 to 2007,
and the first three months of 2008 (Source [26]) . . . . . . . . . . .. 68
Fig. 7.27 Biofuel consumption and global food prices (Source [89]) . . . .. 69
Fig. 7.28 Distribution of global food insecurity in 2012 (Source [56]) . .. 70
Fig. 7.29 Share of US corn used for ethanol and US soybean oil
production used for biodiesel (Source [99]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 71
Fig. 8.1 Expected arable land expansion toward 2050 (Source [31]) . . .. 93
Fig. A.1 Advanced biofuels create jobs (Source [126]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Fig. A.2 Share of energy from renewable sources (in % of gross final
energy consumption) (Source [104]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Fig. A.3 High biomass yielding non-food crops (Source [173]) . . . . . . . . 105
List of Tables

Table 2.1 Biofuels produced from different energy crops and yields per
1000 m2 in seed and oil (1000 m2 are about ¼ of an acre) . . .. 16
Table 2.2 Data of energy crops in Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 16
Table 2.3 Energy crops, according to the EU most suitable for southern
European countries and especially for Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 17
Table 2.4 Data of annual energy crops in Greece—2013 . . . . . . . . . . . .. 21
Table 4.1 Hierarchy of sustainability considerations of biomass projects
(Source [1]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Table 5.1 Basic energy crops for biofuel production and human food . . . . 35
Table 6.1 Aspects of the energy crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Table 7.1 Overall comparison of employment in EU-28 (year 2011) . . . . 48
Table 7.2 Results from phytoremediation experiments conducted
at AUA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 56
Table 7.3 Available arable land for bioenergy crop production in EU22
in 2010, 2020, and 2030 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 57
Table 7.4 Energy crops for biofuel production—SWOT analysis . . . . . .. 70
Table 7.5 Non-edible energy crops, according to the EU most suitable
for southern European countries and especially for Greece
(Source [116]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 74
Table 7.6 Energy crops for food—SWOT analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 75
Table 8.1 Energy crops for biofuels: SWOT matrix/alternative
strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 86
Table 8.2 Energy crops for food: SWOT matrix/alternative strategies . . .. 87
Table A.1 Required arable land for ten different energy crops [assuming
10% substitution of current global energy demand (450 EJ/a)
or 25% of current oil demand (5000 bn l/a), assuming global
arable land is 2.5 bln ha] [95] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Table A.2 Share of energy from renewable sources (in % of gross final
energy consumption) (Source [104]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

xiii
Abstract

The challenge of feeding a constantly increasing population and covering the

insatiable energy demand of contemporary economies is a difficult one for human
race and may prove fatal for the environment and the planet. Although biofuel
production from energy crops attempts to address the energy problem, it leads to a
serious dilemma: “energy crops for biofuel production or for food?” This paper
aims to examine these two options through SWOT analysis. As well as identifying
the positive and negative points of each option considering a large variety of
environmental, social, economic, and sustainability aspects, this paper also suggests
an array of strategies and alternative choices for sustainable, green energy supply
and adequate nutrition for the earth’s growing population.

Keywords Energy crops
Food
Biofuel
Bioenergy
SWOT analysis

xv
Introduction

Today, mankind is facing three basic threats: hunger, the lack of energy, and the
deterioration of the environment. The challenge is to eliminate all three simulta-
neously, since any one of them can singularly pose a grave threat to humanity and
civilization [1]. Covering humanity’s nutrition needs presents major difficulties
which become even more when trying to anticipate future global population growth
[2]. According to Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) data, in 2050 more
than nine billion people will have to share the planet’s limited resources. In order to
cover these needs, food production will have to rise by 50% over present levels [3].
This estimate can even reach 60% or 70% according to other forecasts [4, 5]. The
global demand for food, fuel, and fiber will place an increasing pressure on natural
capital, land, and water resources. The question whether these resources will be
adequate may become academic since they are already in peril due to climate
change and must not be taken for granted. Moreover, along with earth’s climate,
ecosystems and habitats are among the first to face threats from human presence
and consumption [4, 6]. Consequently, it will be extremely difficult to feed the
world’s growing population in a way that it does not harm the soil, water, and
biodiversity and generally complying with environmental goals. This will be fea-
sible only if energy systems and agricultural produce change dramatically [3].
On the other hand, global energy demand is increasing even faster than popu-
lation growth. Fossil fuels, apart from being a depletable energy source, entail
catastrophic results for the environment so seeking alternative energy sources has
been a priority for many countries for the past decades. Renewable energy sources
like solar, wind, and bioenergy have been gaining momentum and are a constant
subject of research and development globally [7]. Bioenergy, which was the main
source of power and heat prior to the industrial revolution, currently provides
roughly 10% of global supplies and accounts for roughly 80% of the energy derived
from renewable sources [6]. Many multinational corporations from powerful
countries have been involved in the production of biodiesel and bioethanol [8]. In
2010, bioenergy was the source of approximately 7.5% of energy used in the EU.
Biofuels are an important component of the renewable energy share in EU’s energy
plan, particularly in the transport sector, in an effort to mitigate climate change [9].

xvii
xviii Introduction

Countries like Brazil and USA are leading the biofuel production sector. The
development of the biomass energy industry has also contributed to the improve-
ment of the rural economy [10].
This rapid expansion of bioenergy production has not come without its costs,
especially since almost all of the commercially available biofuels are produced from
either starch- or sugar-rich crops (for bioethanol), or oilseeds (for biodiesel) [11,
12]. It has resulted in a significant shift of arable land and agricultural products to
biofuels instead of food or feed. The displacement of agricultural production has
been discussed extensively and is generally called the indirect land-use change
(ILUC) effect [13]. This land-use change has been blamed for increasing food
prices, intensive agrochemical use, stress on water and other resources, deforesta-
tion, land degradation, and biodiversity risks [6, 14]. Deforestation especially is
regarded as the greatest threat to the environment as forests are a major storage of
carbon and the most biologically diverse terrestrial ecosystems [15, 16]. Moreover,
large-scale bioenergy production may further intensify existing pressure on land
and resources with huge implications for ecosystems and biodiversity [17, 18].
Most importantly, bioenergy has raised the ethical issue of agricultural pro-
duction being used for energy when millions of people in the world are starving [8].
The most controversial aspect of biomass production so far, aptly termed as “the
food versus fuel debate,” is the fact that it competes with food and feed supply and
threatens food security, especially since first-generation biofuels are produced from
soy, palm, and rapeseed oils or starch and sugar crops like maize, wheat, or sug-
arcane, which are all valuable food resources [3].
The belief that increased food production and energy provision should be
practiced in an environmentally friendly way, which does not deplete natural
resources, has resulted in the evaluation of biomass production according to sus-
tainability principles [19]. In order to continue biomass use, as a means to reduce
fossil fuel use, without food and environmental risks, research has focused on
second- and next-generation biofuels such as lignocellulosic feedstocks, perennial
grasses, and algae among others, with significant results [20, 21].
This paper provides a comprehensive review on global nutritional need, the
energy problem, and bioenergy, especially biofuel production from energy crops.
The impact on food production, land requirements, and the environment are also
discussed. The objective of this paper is to investigate the two options of the choice
“Using energy crops for biofuels or food” through SWOT analysis, in order to
identify the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats regarding each one
of the two options. By taking into consideration a large variety of environmental,
social, economic, and sustainability aspects, strategies are formulated and suggested,
as well as alternative courses of action, in order to make informed strategic choices
than benefit the people, the planet, and the environment, now and in the future.
Chapter 1 addresses the increasing nutrition needs and the growing energy
demands of world population and how these are to be covered by the specific arable
land and the finite resources of the planet. It also explores the need for new
renewable energy sources and the efficient use of the existing ones.
Introduction xix

Chapter 2 describes the concept of bioenergy, as a renewable energy source from

energy crops, providing biomass production data for Europe and the world, together
with the features of biodiesel- and bioethanol-producing crops, both annual and
perennial.
Chapter 3 presents the main biofuel categories and their world production to
date. It also presents the major environmental, geopolitical, financial, and social
reasons for the increased biofuel production and consumption.
Chapter 4 examines biofuels from a sustainability perspective and stresses the
necessity of planning and developing energy systems that observe sustainability
principles.
Chapter 5 introduces the two options regarding the cultivation and the use of
energy plants, i.e., growing energy crops for biofuels or for food and provides
details about the origins of the debate and the basic concerns and controversies
of the two choices.
Chapter 6 presents the methodology tool that was used for investigating the
above-mentioned two options, namely SWOT analysis, the steps followed as well
as the environmental, social, and financial aspects taken into consideration.
Chapter 7 discusses the two options, i.e., “growing energy crops for biofuel or
for food” and identifies the opportunities and threats based on the external analysis,
and their existing strengths and weaknesses as evaluated by the internal analysis.
The results are then presented in a matrix.
Chapter 8 lists potential alternative strategies based on combinations of the four
strategic factors (WT, ST, WO, and SO) of the two options.
Chapter 9 presents a concise account of the basic results and conclusions of the
analysis as well as alternative strategies for judicious energy planning and resource
management.

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Chapter 1
Global Nutritional Need—The Energy
Problem

1.1 Global Nutritional Need

The perceived limits to producing food for a growing global population have been a
source of debate and preoccupations for ages. Population increased to 6.9 billion in
2010, up from 2.5 billion in 1950 and 3.7 billion in 1970 and according to the United
Nations (UN) could reach 9.15 billion in 2050 [1].
According to Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), food needs of the future
will vary dramatically from region to region. Solutions will have to be tailored to each
situation, which will require new approaches to production, trade and development
planning at national, regional, and inter-regional levels [2]:

• Industrialized countries needs are expected to remain constant or even to decline

[2].
• The needs of Latin America, and countries with maize dominated nutritional pat-
terns, are expected to double by 2050 [2].
• An almost triple increase is predicted for the Arab countries and West Asia, i.e.,
the wheat zone. This will result in major differences in those countries that are
financially able to import and those that are not [2].
• Countries with a rice-based diet, mainly Asian, will more than double their needs.
Since land is at a premium in this region, they will have to increase productivity
and import to meet the additional demand [2].
• The needs of sub-Saharan African countries will present a dramatic increase,
considerably greater than those of the rest of the world: In countries with millet-
and sorghum-based diet, needs may be multiplied almost fivefold, and where the
diet is dominated by roots and tubers by more than sevenfold. However, to cover
this increased demand, Africa might not be able to utilize its major land reserves,
because it lacks the resources to develop them [2].

Consequently, Asia and sub-Saharan Africa are projected to be areas with potential
food security issues by the middle of the next century [2].

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 1

A. Paschalidou et al., Using Energy Crops for Biofuels or Food: the Choice,
Green Energy and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-63943-7_1
2 1 Global Nutritional Need—The Energy Problem

Fig. 1.1 Population and

cereal production growth
rates (Source [14])

International statistical data predict much slower world population growth rates
in the following years, while cereal production growth rates will stabilize at a level
of 1.2%. However, it is estimated that by 2030 the average daily caloric intake will
be 3050 kcal/capita*day compared with today 2800 kcal/capita*day. In other words,
the growing world population will absorb the increased production of cereals by
increasing the average daily caloric intake in the following years [3].
By 2030, the developing countries will produce only 86% of the required cereal
supply. Consequently, they will have to increase net imports from currently 103 to
265 MMT by 2030. This is expected to lead to higher prices which will mainly affect
underprivileged portions of the population in developing countries (Fig. 1.1) [3].
Despite the fact that, on a global level, the total food production can adequately
feed the population, not all people are well fed. The obvious cause for that is poverty,
which is, in many low-income countries, the main reason behind the underdeveloped
agriculture, and the limited access to imported food [1].
The agricultural policy in the last decade in Greece as well as the new Common
Agricultural Policy (CAP) of the European Union (EU) has been leading agriculture
to complete disassociation from the intensified food crisis. The fact that subsidies are
not essentially linked to actual production, combined with low prices for producers
and increased production cost, contributed to the diminishing of rural income both
in volume and in value [4]. It is important to point out that 30 years ago Greece
had a positive trade balance, while it is currently importing 40% of the food con-
sumed. The local varieties have been replaced by few genetically improved varieties
(hybrids), almost completely [5]. These developments in the agricultural sector have
dramatically reduced the nutritional self-sufficiency of the country, resulting in the
increase of imports and the trade deficit and the volume of “food addiction” [4].
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1.2 The Energy Problem 3

1.2 The Energy Problem

The disparity between the perpetually increasing energy demands and the dimin-
ishing energy reserves, together with the detrimental environmental effect of power
consumption, has come to be known as the energy problem.
The fact that energy reserves are not unlimited and that a country’s national
independence is closely linked to its energy policy became painfully apparent in
1973, when the first energy crisis broke out and oil prices increased dramatically
overnight. For the first time, governments put forward energy saving programmes
and considered alternative sources instead of fossil fuels [6]. A new course of action
both on a local and international level seemed exigent to address the problem, taking
into consideration pressing matters such as global warming, the exploding energy
demand of emerging economies, and the need for secure energy supply, in light of
the fluctuation in fuel prices [6].
Most countries have taken measures to face the energy problem, and a lot has
been done globally over the last 40 years. However, despite the ongoing efforts of a
large part of the world, the energy problem is still a grave concern and a top priority
in every country’s policy.
According to International Energy Outlook 2016 (IEO 2016), energy demands
will continue to rise over the next three decades, particularly in countries outside
of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). Non-
OECD Asia, including China and India, accounts for more than half of the world’s
total increase in energy consumption over the 2012–2040 projection period. By 2040,
energy use in non-OECD Asia exceeds that of the entire OECD by 40 quadrillion
British thermal units (Btu) in the IEO 2016 Reference case (Fig. 1.2) [7].
Moreover, the same Reference case reports a 48% increase in the total world
energy consumption by 2040. It is worth noting that while OECD nations will present
a 18% energy consumption growth, non-OECD nations’ respective increase, driven

Fig. 1.2 World energy

consumption by country
grouping, 2012–40
(quadrillion Btu) (Source [7])
4 1 Global Nutritional Need—The Energy Problem

Fig. 1.3 Total world energy

consumption by energy
source, 1990–2040
(quadrillion Btu) (Source [7])

by strong, long-term economic development, will reach 71% by 2040 (Fig. 1.2)
[7]. By 2040, almost two-thirds of the world’s primary energy will be consumed
in the non-OECD economies. It is apparent, therefore, that the major factor that
affects energy demand is economic growth—as measured in gross domestic product
(GDP). According to the said Reference case, while the world’s GDP (expressed in
purchasing power parity terms) rises by 3.3%/year from 2012 to 2040, the fastest
rates of growth are projected for the emerging, non-OECD countries, where combined
GDP increases by 4.2%/year. In OECD countries, GDP grows at a much slower rate
of 2.0%/year over the projection as a result of their more mature economies and slow
or declining population growth trends (Fig. 1.2) [7].
According to the IEO2016 Reference case, worldwide marketed energy consump-
tion from all fuel sources will increase through 2040. While renewable energy, with
an average 2.6%/year growth, will be the fastest-growing energy source, nuclear
power with 2.3%/year is close second (Fig. 1.3) [7]. Generally, non-fossil fuel con-
sumption is expected to grow faster than fossil fuels. On the other hand, fossil fuels
still account for 78% of energy use in 2040, with natural gas being the fastest-growing
fossil fuel in the outlook by 1.9%/year, due to the abundance of natural gas resources.
Oil prices account for the decline of liquid fuel consumption 33% in 2012–30% in
2040, although they remain the largest source of world energy. The slowest growing
energy source is coal, which rises by 0.6%/year and is surpassed by natural gas by
2030 (Fig. 1.3) [7].
According to European Environment Agency (2009), the primary energy use in
EU categorized by fuel can be seen in Fig. 1.4.
Finally, according to the International Energy Outlook 2013, through 2040, new
energy sources like clean fossil fuel and renewable energy sources, which will employ
the new technologies in the energy sector, will partly replace fossil fuel production
(Figs. 1.5 and 1.6) [6, 8].
Since oil formation and accumulation occurred due to specific geological features
of certain areas, it is apparent that the world’s oil reserves are not equally distributed
1.2 The Energy Problem 5

Fig. 1.4 Primary energy use

by fuel in EU (2009) (Source
[15])

Fig. 1.5 Non-OPEC liquids

production by region and
country, 2010 and 2040
(million barrels per day)
(Source [2])

Fig. 1.6 World

non-petroleum liquids
production by type, 2010 and
2040 (million barrels per
day) (Source [2])
6 1 Global Nutritional Need—The Energy Problem

Fig. 1.7 World’s oil reserves in 2012 (Source [10])

Fig. 1.8 World top ten oil reserve holders in 2012 (Source [16])

across the globe [9]. The Middle East concentrates about 48% of the world’s reserves,
whereas Europe and Eurasia have 8%, Africa 8%, Central and South America 20%,
North America 13%, and Asia 3% (Figs. 1.7 and 1.8) [10].
In Greece, the main energy sources are: a) the renewable energy sources and b)
the fossil fuels (lignite and, in the future, perhaps the Greek hydrocarbons) [11].
Combination of Energy Sources of Greece in 2010, according to Eurostat, consists
of (a) 6% renewable energy sources (RES), (b) 21% coal and lignite, (c) 9% natural
gas (imported), (d) 1% electricity imports, (e) 41% oil (Fig. 1.9).
1.2 The Energy Problem 7

Fig. 1.9 Primary energy consumption by fuel (%) in 2010 (Greece) (Source [17])

Fig. 1.10 Renewables installed power (2009 data) (Source [12])

Over the last years, Greece has attempted to introduce all kinds of renewable
sources (RES) with measures such as feed-in tariffs (FITs). In 2011, RES produced
energy that increased to percentage of 11.6%, when at 2010, it was 9.2%. Detailed
data of installed power of RES can be seen in Fig. 1.10. Today, the RES total installed
energy is higher [12].
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click, click, clop! That’s the way it sounds. The first two clicks indicate the
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Flesh From Body Saves Eye.

The sight of Doctor E. Lerendinger, a professor of Hood College,
Frederick, Md., has been restored as the result of an unusual surgical
operation. Flesh was removed from the professor’s abdomen and placed in a
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Tallest Couple are Wedded.

The tallest couple in Pennsylvania were united in marriage a few days
ago in Lewistown. The bridegroom, George Schaffer, who stands six feet
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Mrs. Schaffer is a prospective heiress if she can break the will of the late
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she would take care of him in his declining years he would leave her his
homestead in Allentown, valued at $12,000. Schaffer says he often heard
Losch say he would leave Mrs. Kern the homestead.
The newlyweds have purchased a farm, and whatever the outcome of the
will contest, it will not affect their happiness. The bride says she fell in love
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 This Modest Inventor Would Stop World War.
“I can make the United States the strongest nation in the world. I can end
the European struggle in a short time. I can make the smallest nation most
powerful.”
This is the assertion of John Vogelzangs, of Menominee, Mich., an
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so that air craft might be manned with powerful guns and not be forced to
land until they want to.
“I can sweep the seas clear of vessels. I can kill armies and level cities,”
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He says Secretary Daniels’ plan for an advisory board is good.
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Walks on 113th Birthday.

Mrs. Edna G. Goldman, of Glamorgan, Va., celebrated her 113th
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her age, she cultivates a small patch of land in corn and beans each year.
This year she is “farming” about two acres.

Flivver is Not Amphibious.

Edward Kirby, of Newton, N. J., erred in believing a flivver amphibious.
It is alleged that he stole the automobile at the Grand Hotel, Golden
Springs, and, when closely pursued by other automobiles, he ran the flivver
into the Delaware River, seeking to reach Pike County shore.
 The flivver floated several minutes and made quite a little progress in the
current, but when the body filled, she went down at the bow and soon
plunged to the bottom.
Kirby swam out and made his way across the river. He disappeared into
the woods there, and a posse under Sheriff Applegate is seeking him.

Song Tells of Old Man Who Had a Wooden Leg.

John Strain, of Greenwich, Conn., who lost his leg three years ago and
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four children, told John the weather could scarcely affect a man who sat in
the house smoking all the time. It was then that John, according to the
testimony of his wife in police court, threw eight volumes of Dumas,
apparently bound in zinc. His aim was true.
Mrs. Strain then took John’s artificial limb and hung it just west of
where he parts his hair. Her judgment of distance was perfect—it generally
is. She then cried for help.
When help arrived, John had hopped on one foot over the State border,
into New York. A sheriff with a rich baritone voice explained to him that
hopping about New York State with no hat and only an undershirt over his
shoulders would mean but little in his life. John thought deeply, hopped
over into Connecticut again, and was sentenced to thirty days in jail by
Judge James R. Meade.
 Machine That Remembers.
A machine which will remember the date and hour of an appointment
made several weeks previous is one of the latest efficiency devices to be
placed on the market. A roll of paper strip passes over a flat surface where
the appointment is indicated, and a punch mark made in the margin. When
that time occurs, a gong is sounded and a reference to the strip will give the
information as to what appointment is to be kept.

Fifty Dollars Gone, Flivver May Survive.

Probably the maddest man in and about Montgomery County, New York
State, just at present is Reuben Hyney, who keeps a shoe store on the main
street of Fonda, and who, as a side line, rents his automobile to any one
who can fit in it. Mr. Hyney has no more temper than any other normal man
who lives in Montgomery County, but the shoe business has run over at the
heel a bit recently, and the other afternoon something happened which
increased Mr. Hyney’s height four inches.
Hyney was adjusting a spring-heeled shoe to a broad foot at about a
moment after two o’clock, when the telephone rang sharply. He dropped his
client’s foot onto his own and limped to the booth. A man with an educated
voice, as Mr. Hyney describes it, was asking if he might hire an automobile
for the afternoon. He said he was a school inspector and was as busy as a
one-eyed mouse in a cheese factory. He would come running if the buzz
wagon was not busy. It was not.
Hardly had the satisfied customer walked from the store when a bearded
stranger, wearing a slouch hat, stopped at the door, looked up and down the
street craftily, and entered.
“Wait there,” said the shoe merchant, pointing to the central design on a
piece of linoleum. “I will oil the machine and call my daughter.”
The stranger, laughing up his sleeve, through his vest and along his
hatband, reached into the cash register and took fifty dollars. Then he sat
down and waited until Miss Hyney came to watch the store. By this time it
was hardly worth it.
An hour later the mysterious stranger told the owner of the machine to
stop in front of a building in Fort Plain. He went upstairs.
 Three hours later Hyney decided the stranger had given him the
metropolitan fare-thee-well. He entered the building and found nothing but
the janitor and a flock of rent signs.
Two hours later he was back in Fonda, telling his daughter about the
“cuss” who tore the soul out of a dandy four-hundred-dollar touring car and
didn’t pay for it. Then his daughter asked him if he had taken fifty dollars
from the cash register.
Mr. Hyney is in bed. But what’s the use?—he can’t sleep.

Capture Odd Pair of Mice.

A most remarkable freak of nature is a white mouse and a black one
captured in a bureau drawer by John Elias, who lives in Atchison, Kan. The
white mouse hasn’t a black spot on it and has black eyes. The black mouse
has fur as black as the ace of spades, and its eyes are brown.
Local zoölogists are unable to account for the strange markings of the
mice. They are very vicious and never miss a chance to attempt to bite
members of the Elias family while being fed.

Billy Goat is Boss of Town.

A billy goat tied up traffic in Kokomo, Ind., as effectively as the street-
car strike did in Chicago. The goat broke away from a colored man who
was leading it at the transfer corner.
The conductors of two cars standing there were on the sidewalk at the
time. They started for their cars and the goat started for them. The men
“beat it” for a candy store and won.
The goat then turned his attention to several pedestrians and soon made a
scatterment. About this time Patrolmen Elkins and Webb came along.
Webb lived on a farm and knew the habits of the goat. He kept in the
rear. Elkins bravely went forward to capture the goat. He managed to seize
the animal by the head and tried to go with him to the station. Every time he
pulled, the goat started to butt him. He held on for several minutes, afraid to
let go, until the owner of the goat relieved him.

Aged Couple Joined at Last.

 George W. Hayden, a retired farmer of Big Laurel, Va., and Larestia
Fulton, of Lipps, were married at the home of the bride’s son, Henry Fulton,
a few days ago. The bridegroom was some few days past ninety years of
age when the knot was tied and the bride was lacking a few days of being
eighty-seven.
About seventy years ago Hayden and Miss Helt—the bride’s maiden
name—were engaged, but quarreled, and both married other parties and
reared large families. Hayden’s wife died eighteen years ago and Mrs.
Fulton was left a widow three years ago.

“Well Broken to Hard Work.”

Although many bones in his body have been broken as a result of
various accidents during his life, W. M. Morgan, who lives near Lancaster,
Kan., finds little cause for complaint for the treatment he has had at the
hands of “cruel fate.”
At various times he has had both shoulders fractured, a number of ribs
cracked, a thumb broken, both legs broken, and his right foot has almost
every bone in it broken. Despite all these handicaps, he works every day at
hard labor and has little use for the fellow who thinks hard luck has given
him a jolt.

Snake Swallows China Egg.

Blacksnakes down Gales Ferry way cannot tell china nest eggs for hen’s
eggs, according to a story related by Mr. and Mrs. R. B. de Bussy, of Mount
Vernon, N. Y. The De Bussys were recent guests of Miss Caroline Freeman
at the Bouwerie, Gales Ferry. Miss Freeman’s guests at that time included
Professor Heuser, instructor in German at Columbia University, and his
family.
Professor Heuser’s daughter, six years old, returning from the poultry
house at Bouwerie, reported no eggs, but said a big snake was in a hen’s
nest. A manservant, using an ax, killed the five-foot snake.
Miss Freeman then discovered that the china nest egg was missing from
the nest. The search led to the interior of the snake, where the missing china
nest egg was recovered.
 Lightning’s Queer Freak.
Lightning apparently photographed a perfect likeness of a tree, branches,
twigs, and leaves, in minutest detail, on the breast of Edwin Liesman, who
was instantly killed in the Magnolia clubhouse on Mount Penn, near
Reading, Pa., in a violent electrical storm.
Liesman’s mother, Mrs. Bernard Liesman, and a friend, Harry
Opperman, were badly shocked, but will recover.
Liesman was sitting at a window next to a telephone. The bolt followed
the telephone wire. The tree outside the window was almost exactly
reproduced on Liesman’s body. The tragedy occurred during four brilliant
flashes in swift succession, putting out all the lights in the cottage. Medical
men and photographers were puzzled by the strange features wrought on the
dead man.

Sounds Like a Fish Story.

A flock of geese were swimming in White River, near Augusta, Ark.,
and a splash attracted the attention of several men and boys who were near
by. A large blue channel catfish came up and grabbed a goose, taking the
fowl under with him.
People watched for some time, but the goose never came up. This may
sound like a fish story, but nevertheless it is true.

Ghostly Figure That is an Awful Shrieker.

A ghost, or some other creature with a voice like an armload of siren
whistles, has frightened the residents of Somerville, N. J., to the point
where it is no longer a joke, and they want to get to sleep. The disorder,
frightful beyond words, ghastly, ghostly, and hair elevating, has been going
on for a week, and the whole town is determined that something is to be
done about it.
Thomas Hagen, night roundhouse watchman, was the first one to hear
the shrieks. He was going round and round the roundhouse when the most
frightful bellow imaginable rent the air. Mr. Hagen, who comes of a warm-
blooded race, was so startled that his blood ran cold. It could barely run,
even.
 Right across the railroad tracks from the roundhouse is the cemetery, and
Mr. Hagen, after recalling this, took a little jaunt up the road that restored
his circulation to normal. He notified the police force, who were sitting up
late, reading, and he became indignant when the department took a cigar
out of its mouth and laughed at him.
Every night since then the terrible noise has been repeated, and persons
who have passed the roundhouse have seen a strange figure flitting about
among the bushes and trees which border the railroad tracks at that point.
Some of them even describe the flitter, which is going some, considering
the speed with which they invariably leave the neighborhood.
For the last two nights every one in the village has been shuddering in
unison, and the vibration can be felt as far as Philadelphia. Every now and
then the shriek ceases and is replaced by a wail—and the wail is a whale of
a wail. It is a relief when the shriek starts again.
Mr. Hagen, who originally heard the alleged ghost and who has become
more bored with the noise than any of the comparative beginners, yesterday
resigned his position as watchman in the roundhouse. He declared that if
everything was on the square he would work forever and willingly walk
around and around and around all night, but that under present conditions
no self-respecting roundhouse watchman could stand around watching.
Chief of Police Bellis will watch with seven railroad detectives. They
will stay right at the roundhouse until the ghost appears. Beyond that they
have made no arrangements.

Hoodoo Pursues Two Miners.

Two mining partners, Gus Erickson and Bert Pinney, of Hailey, Idaho,
are certainly pursued by some hoodoo. While working on a stage ten feet
below the surface, the stage broke away from its fastenings, dropping
Pinney down the shaft twenty feet, where, after he had turned head down,
his buckskin shoe laces caught on a nail and held him until help arrived.
Three hundred feet of water would have received him had his laces broke.
The next afternoon Erickson came to town on his motor cycle to get the
mail. Returning, the motor cycle skidded in a rut, throwing its rider over the
handlebars into the road, the machine piling on top of him. With his skull
fractured in three places, he lay in the road an hour before he was found.
Both men will recover.

Former Water Boy’s Story.

A prominent business man of Castleton, Ill., told the following story the
other night to three or four citizens assembled in A. A. Webber’s real-estate
office:
“When I was a boy,” he said, “I used to carry water for the men to drink
when they were working in the field some distance from the house. One
real warm day I carried water to my father, who was running a mower and
cutting timothy for hay. As I was about to return home, I noticed a prairie
chicken fly up from the freshly mown swath. Thinking there might be a nest
of eggs—which, by the way, are fine eating—I investigated, and what do
you think I found? A prairie chicken with its head cut off, the mowing bar
being just the right height to perform the operation. I also found the feet and
legs that belonged to the one that flew away. It probably stood up ready to
fly as the mowing bar came along, while the other remained sitting and lost
its head. Needless to say, we had prairie chicken for dinner.”

The Nick Carter Stories

ISSUED EVERY SATURDAY BEAUTIFUL COLORED COVERS
When it comes to detective stories worth while, the Nick Carter Stories
contain the only ones that should be considered. They are not overdrawn
tales of bloodshed. They rather show the working of one of the finest minds
ever conceived by a writer. The name of Nick Carter is familiar all over the
world, for the stories of his adventures may be read in twenty languages. No
other stories have withstood the severe test of time so well as those
contained in the Nick Carter Stories. It proves conclusively that they are
the best. We give herewith a list of some of the back numbers in print. You
can have your news dealer order them, or they will be sent direct by the
publishers to any address upon receipt of the price in money or postage
stamps.
730—The Torn Card.
731—Under Desperation’s Spur.
732—The Connecting Link.
733—The Abduction Syndicate.
738—A Plot Within a Plot.
739—The Dead Accomplice.
746—The Secret Entrance.
747—The Cavern Mystery.
748—The Disappearing Fortune.
749—A Voice from the Past.
752—The Spider’s Web.
753—The Man With a Crutch.
754—The Rajah’s Regalia.
755—Saved from Death.
756—The Man Inside.
757—Out for Vengeance.
758—The Poisons of Exili.
759—The Antique Vial.
760—The House of Slumber.
761—A Double Identity.
762—“The Mocker’s” Stratagem.
763—The Man that Came Back.
764—The Tracks in the Snow.
765—The Babbington Case.
766—The Masters of Millions.
767—The Blue Stain.
768—The Lost Clew.
770—The Turn of a Card.
771—A Message in the Dust.
772—A Royal Flush.
774—The Great Buddha Beryl.
775—The Vanishing Heiress.
776—The Unfinished Letter.
777—A Difficult Trail.
782—A Woman’s Stratagem.
783—The Cliff Castle Affair.
784—A Prisoner of the Tomb.
785—A Resourceful Foe.
789—The Great Hotel Tragedies.
795—Zanoni, the Transfigured.
796—The Lure of Gold.
797—The Man With a Chest.
798—A Shadowed Life.
799—The Secret Agent.
800—A Plot for a Crown.
801—The Red Button.
802—Up Against It.
803—The Gold Certificate.
804—Jack Wise’s Hurry Call.
805—Nick Carter’s Ocean Chase.
807—Nick Carter’s Advertisement.
808—The Kregoff Necklace.
811—Nick Carter and the Nihilists.
812—Nick Carter and the Convict Gang.
813—Nick Carter and the Guilty Governor.
814—The Triangled Coin.
815—Ninety-nine—and One.
816—Coin Number 77.
NEW SERIES
NICK CARTER STORIES
1—The Man from Nowhere.
2—The Face at the Window.
3—A Fight for a Million.
4—Nick Carter’s Land Office.
5—Nick Carter and the Professor.
6—Nick Carter as a Mill Hand.
7—A Single Clew.
8—The Emerald Snake.
9—The Currie Outfit.
10—Nick Carter and the Kidnapped Heiress.
11—Nick Carter Strikes Oil.
12—Nick Carter’s Hunt for a Treasure.
13—A Mystery of the Highway.
14—The Silent Passenger.
15—Jack Dreen’s Secret.
16—Nick Carter’s Pipe Line Case.
17—Nick Carter and the Gold Thieves.
18—Nick Carter’s Auto Chase.
19—The Corrigan Inheritance.
20—The Keen Eye of Denton.
21—The Spider’s Parlor.
22—Nick Carter’s Quick Guess.
23—Nick Carter and the Murderess.
24—Nick Carter and the Pay Car.
25—The Stolen Antique.
26—The Crook League.
27—An English Cracksman.
28—Nick Carter’s Still Hunt.
29—Nick Carter’s Electric Shock.
30—Nick Carter and the Stolen Duchess.
31—The Purple Spot.
32—The Stolen Groom.
33—The Inverted Cross.
34—Nick Carter and Keno McCall.
35—Nick Carter’s Death Trap.
36—Nick Carter’s Siamese Puzzle.
37—The Man Outside.
38—The Death Chamber.
39—The Wind and the Wire.
40—Nick Carter’s Three Cornered Chase.
41—Dazaar, the Arch-Fiend.
42—The Queen of the Seven.
43—Crossed Wires.
44—A Crimson Clew.
45—The Third Man.
46—The Sign of the Dagger.
47—The Devil Worshipers.
48—The Cross of Daggers.
49—At Risk of Life.
50—The Deeper Game.
51—The Code Message.
52—The Last of the Seven.
53—Ten-Ichi, the Wonderful.
54—The Secret Order of Associated Crooks.
55—The Golden Hair Clew.
56—Back From the Dead.
57—Through Dark Ways.
58—When Aces Were Trumps.
59—The Gambler’s Last Hand.
60—The Murder at Linden Fells.
61—A Game for Millions.
62—Under Cover.
63—The Last Call.
64—Mercedes Danton’s Double.
65—The Millionaire’s Nemesis.
66—A Princess of the Underworld.
67—The Crook’s Blind.
68—The Fatal Hour.
69—Blood Money.
70—A Queen of Her Kind.
71—Isabel Benton’s Trump Card.
72—A Princess of Hades.
73—A Prince of Plotters.
74—The Crook’s Double.
75—For Life and Honor.
76—A Compact With Dazaar.
77—In the Shadow of Dazaar.
78—The Crime of a Money King.
79—Birds of Prey.
80—The Unknown Dead.
81—The Severed Hand.
82—The Terrible Game of Millions.
83—A Dead Man’s Power.
84—The Secrets of an Old House.
85—The Wolf Within.
86—The Yellow Coupon.
87—In the Toils.
88—The Stolen Radium.
89—A Crime in Paradise.
90—Behind Prison Bars.
91—The Blind Man’s Daughter.
92—On the Brink of Ruin.
93—Letter of Fire.
94—The $100,000 Kiss.
95—Outlaws of the Militia.
96—The Opium-Runners.
97—In Record Time.
98—The Wag-Nuk Clew.
99—The Middle Link.
100—The Crystal Maze.
101—A New Serpent in Eden.
102—The Auburn Sensation.
103—A Dying Chance.
104—The Gargoni Girdle.
105—Twice in Jeopardy.
196—The Ghost Launch.
107—Up in the Air.
108—The Girl Prisoner.
109—The Red Plague.
110—The Arson Trust.
111—The King of the Firebugs.
112—“Lifter’s” of the Lofts.
113—French Jimmie and His Forty
Thieves.
114—The Death Plot.
115—The Evil Formula.
116—The Blue Button.
117—The Deadly Parallel.
118—The Vivisectionists.
119—The Stolen Brain.
120—An Uncanny Revenge.
121—The Call of Death.
122—The Suicide.
123—Half a Million Ransom.
124—The Girl Kidnapper.
125—The Pirate Yacht.
126—The Crime of the White Hand.
127—Found in the Jungle.
128—Six Men in a Loop.
129—The Jewels of Wat Chang.
130—The Crime in the Tower.
131—The Fatal Message.
132—Broken Bars.
133—Won by Magic.
134—The Secret of Shangore.
135—Straight to the Goal.
136—The Man They Held Back.
137—The Seal of Gijon.
138—The Traitors of the Tropics.
139—The Pressing Peril.
140—The Melting-Pot.
141—The Duplicate Night.
142—The Edge of a Crime.
143—The Sultan’s Pearls.
144—The Clew of the White Collar.
145—An Unsolved Mystery.
146—Paying the Price.
147—On Death’s Trail.
148—The Mark of Cain.
Dated July 17th, 1915.
149—A Network of Crime.
Dated July 24th, 1915.
150—The House of Fear.
Dated July 31st, 1915.
151—The Mystery of the Crossed Needles.
Dated August 7th, 1915.
152—The Forced Crime.
Dated August 14th, 1915.
153—The Doom of Sang Tu.
Dated August 21st, 1915.
154—The Mask of Death.
Dated August 28th, 1915.
155—The Gordon Elopement.
Dated Sept. 4th, 1915.
156—Blood Will Tell.

PRICE, FIVE CENTS PER COPY. If you want any back numbers of our
weeklies and cannot procure them from your news dealer, they can be
obtained direct from this office. Postage stamps taken the same as money.

STREET & SMITH, Publishers, 79-89 Seventh Ave., NEW YORK CITY
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NICK CARTER
STORIES NO. 157, SEPTEMBER 11, 1915: A HUMAN
COUNTERFEIT; OR, NICK CARTER AND THE CROOK'S DOUBLE
***

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