Structure and Tectonics of The Indian Continental Crust and Its Adjoining Region: Deep Seismic Studies Harish C Tewari All Chapters Instant Download

Download the full version of the textbook now at textbookfull.
com
Structure and Tectonics of the Indian

Continental Crust and Its Adjoining Region:
Deep Seismic Studies Harish C Tewari
https://textbookfull.com/product/structure-and-
tectonics-of-the-indian-continental-crust-and-its-
adjoining-region-deep-seismic-studies-harish-c-
tewari/
Explore and download more textbook at https://textbookfull.com

Recommended digital products (PDF, EPUB, MOBI) that
you can download immediately if you are interested.
The Geology of the Belingwe Greenstone Belt, Zimbabwe: A

study of Archaean continental crust First Edition Bickle
https://textbookfull.com/product/the-geology-of-the-belingwe-
greenstone-belt-zimbabwe-a-study-of-archaean-continental-crust-first-
edition-bickle/
textbookfull.com
THE PROBLEM OF THE RUPEE ITS ORIGIN AND ITS SOLUTION

History of Indian Currency Banking B.R. Ambedkar
https://textbookfull.com/product/the-problem-of-the-rupee-its-origin-
and-its-solution-history-of-indian-currency-banking-b-r-ambedkar/
textbookfull.com
The Hidden Treasure of Black ASL Its History and Structure

Carolyn Mccaskill
https://textbookfull.com/product/the-hidden-treasure-of-black-asl-its-
history-and-structure-carolyn-mccaskill/
textbookfull.com
The Stolen Sisters psychological thriller 1st Edition

Louise Jensen [Jensen
https://textbookfull.com/product/the-stolen-sisters-psychological-
thriller-1st-edition-louise-jensen-jensen/
textbookfull.com
Energy Transfer and Dissipation in Plasma Turbulence From
Compressible MHD to Collisionless Plasma Yan Yang
https://textbookfull.com/product/energy-transfer-and-dissipation-in-
plasma-turbulence-from-compressible-mhd-to-collisionless-plasma-yan-
yang/
textbookfull.com
Curriculum Planning with Design Language Building Elegant

Courses and Units 1st Edition Ken Badley
https://textbookfull.com/product/curriculum-planning-with-design-
language-building-elegant-courses-and-units-1st-edition-ken-badley/
textbookfull.com
Operating Room Leadership and Perioperative Practice

Management 2nd Edition Alan David Kaye (Editor)
https://textbookfull.com/product/operating-room-leadership-and-
perioperative-practice-management-2nd-edition-alan-david-kaye-editor/
textbookfull.com
Making amulets Christian. Artefacts, scribes, and contexts

1st Edition Theodore De Bruyn
https://textbookfull.com/product/making-amulets-christian-artefacts-
scribes-and-contexts-1st-edition-theodore-de-bruyn/
textbookfull.com
The History of Creation Or the Development of the Earth

and its Inhabitants by the Action of Natural Causes Volume
1 1st Edition Ernst Haeckel
https://textbookfull.com/product/the-history-of-creation-or-the-
development-of-the-earth-and-its-inhabitants-by-the-action-of-natural-
causes-volume-1-1st-edition-ernst-haeckel/
textbookfull.com
Miller's Anesthesia 9th Edition Michael Gropper
https://textbookfull.com/product/millers-anesthesia-9th-edition-
michael-gropper/
textbookfull.com
STRUCTURE AND
TECTONICS OF THE INDIAN
CONTINENTAL CRUST AND
ITS ADJOINING REGION
Deep Seismic Studies
STRUCTURE AND
TECTONICS OF THE INDIAN
CONTINENTAL CRUST AND
ITS ADJOINING REGION
Deep Seismic Studies
HARISH C. TEWARI
B. RAJENDRA PRASAD
PRAKASH KUMAR
Elsevier
Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
© 2018 BSP Books Pvt Ltd. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Distributed in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka by BS Publications.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage
and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to
seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our
arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright
Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by
the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and
experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices,
or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described
herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and
the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors,
assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of
products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods,
products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN: 978-0-12-813685-0 (print)
ISBN: 978-0-12-813686-7 (online)
For information on all Elsevier publications

visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals
Acquisition editor: LaFleur, Marisa (ELS-CMA)

Editorial Project Manager: Hilary Carr
Production PM: Maria Bernard
Publisher: Candice Janco
Cover Designer: Christian Bilbow
Typeset by SPi Global, India
CHAPTER ONE
Overview of Crust and

Introduction to Seismic
Observations on Indian Plate
Five billion years ago the planet Earth was formed as a large conglomerate.
The immense amount of heat energy released by massive high-velocity
bombardment of meteorites and comets melted the entire planet. Since
then, the planet has been cooling off and the process continues even today.
During the cooling process, denser materials, such as iron from meteorites,
sank into the core of the Earth while lighter material, e.g., silicates, oxygen
compounds and water from comets, rose near to the surface.
Studies of the Earth’s structure over the last 100 years have proven that
the Earth consists of several layers. Characteristic properties of each layer are
different in terms of physical and chemical parameters. The chemical
parameters, e.g., alkalinity, acidity, salinity, etc., and the physical
parameters, e.g., pressure, temperature, density and elasticity, vary from
layer to layer. The parameters of elasticity and density determine the seismic
wave velocity, which normally is different for each of these layers.
From the study of the seismic wave velocity and density, the Earth has
been subdivided into four main units (Fig. 1.1): the inner core, outer core,
mantle and crust (Ritter Michael, 2006). The equatorial radius of the Earth is
6378 km, out of which the inner core is about 1250 km, the outer core
2200 km and the mantle 2900 km thick, respectively. The core is composed
mostly of iron and is so hot that its outer part (outer core) is molten, with
about 10% sulfur. The inner core is under extreme pressure and remains
solid. Most of the Earth’s mass is in the mantle, which is composed of iron,
magnesium, aluminum, silicon and oxygen compounds. At over 1000°C,
the mantle is solid but can deform slowly in a plastic manner. The crust is
composed of the least dense calcium and sodium/aluminum-silicate
minerals. Being relatively cold, the crust is rocky and brittle and therefore
is easier to fracture.
Structure and Tectonics of the Indian Continental Crust and Its Adjoining Region © 2018 BSP Books Pvt Ltd. 1
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-813685-0.00001-7 Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2 Harish C. Tewari, B. Rajendra Prasad, and Prakash Kumar
Ocean Continent
Crust Crust
(6–8 km) (30–40 km)
Lithosphere Upper
Asthe Lithosphere
(70–100 km) mantle nosp (100–150 km)
here
0
400 Lower
mantle Transition
670
zone
Outer D" layer

2891 core
5150 Inner
core
6371
Fig. 1.1 Generalized structure of the Earth. Depths to major boundaries are given.
1.1 LITHOSPHERE AND ASTHENOSPHERE

The crust and the uppermost mantle, down to a depth of about
70–100 km under the deep ocean basins and 100–200 km under the continents,
is called the lithosphere. It is rigid and forms a hard outer shell that deforms in
an essentially elastic manner. The lithosphere is composed of various plates
that float on partially molten asthenosphere. Delineation of an unambiguous
boundary that separates the lithosphere from the underlying asthenosphere
has not yet become possible, most likely because the asthenosphere under
old continental platforms is imaged as a broad zone in the seismic velocities.
Here, instead of a single low-velocity zone, a series of high- and low-velocity
layers are intermingled (Fuchs et al., 1987).
The upper mantle plays a crucial role in structural development of the
Earth’s crust. Critical levels of thermodynamic conditions prevail in individ-
ual zones of the upper mantle, under the influence of differential and
thermoelastic stresses. A discontinuous increase or decrease of volume takes
place due to polymorphic, phase and chemical transformation of the inho-
mogeneous mantle substance. Distribution of structural forms within the
Earth’s crust and mineral deposits on the surface have a close dependence
on the processes occurring in the upper mantle.
Overview of Crust and Introduction to Seismic Observations on Indian Plate 3
The asthenosphere is a rheologically weak, semiviscous layer in the upper

mantle. In this layer the velocities often decrease, suggesting lower rigidity.
This weaker layer is thought to be partially molten; the melt may be able to
flow over long periods of time like a viscous liquid or plastic solid, in a way
that depends on its temperature and composition. The asthenosphere plays
an important role in plate tectonics, because its viscous state allows relative
motion of the overlying rigid lithospheric plates. Some of the researchers
suggest that the asthenosphere should be defined not as a weak upper mantle
layer but as a zone of partial melting (Pavlenkova, 1988).
The lithosphere is divided into several plates, of which the crustal com-
ponent could be either continental or oceanic. Very little progress has been
achieved so far in understanding the evolution of the continental litho-
sphere, due to the inaccessibility of its subcrustal part for direct studies.
Explosion seismology studies in different tectonic settings (viz. old Precam-
brian shields, young continental platforms and the oceans) show that several
velocity layers exist in the upper mantle (Mooney and Meissner, 1992). The
most important findings are: (1) occurrence of the low velocity layers at shal-
low depths in the continental upper mantle, with large velocity contrasts at
their boundaries; and (2) observation of unexpectedly high-compressional
(P) wave velocities, up to 8.6–8.9 km s1, and high-velocity gradients of
0.02–0.04 km s1 at depths of 10–30 km below the crust-mantle boundary
(Bean and Jacob, 1990). These findings provide indirect evidence that the
elastic anisotropy continues within the uppermost mantle.
1.1.1 The Crust

The crust covers the mantle and is the Earth’s hard outer shell, the surface on
which we are living. Compared to other layers of the Earth, the crust is
much thinner, like a stamp on a football. It generally consists of solid mate-
rial, but this material is not the same everywhere and is less dense and more
rigid than the material of the Earth’s mantle. The crust over the oceans is
different in nature as compared to the rocks of the continental crust. The
oceanic crust is about 6–11 km thick and the rocks in it are very young,
not older than 200 million years, compared to the rocks of the continental
crust. Its igneous basement consists of a thin (about 500 m thick) upper layer
of superposed basaltic lava flows underlain by basaltic intrusion, the sheeted
dike complex and the gabbroic layer. A greater part of the oceanic crust con-
sists of the tholeiitic basalt (basalt without olivine), which has a dark, fine and
gritty volcanic structure. It is formed out of liquid lava, which cools off
Visit https://textbookfull.com
now to explore a rich
collection of eBooks, textbook
and enjoy exciting offers!
quickly. The grains are so small that they are only visible under a micro-
scope. The average density of the oceanic crust is 3000 kg m3.
The crust under the continents and areas of shallow seabed close to their
shores (continental shelves) is called the continental crust. It covers more
than one-third of the Earth’s surface. It is thicker than the oceanic crust,
35–40 km thick under the stable areas and 50–80 km under the young
mountain ranges, and mainly consists of igneous rocks. It is divided into
two layers. The upper crust mainly consists of sediment, gneiss, granite
and granodiorite rocks, while the lower crust consists of basalt, gabbros,
amphibolites and granulites. The average density of the upper crust is
2700 kg m3 while that of the lower crust is 2850 kg m3. It is older than
the oceanic crust; some rocks are as old as 3800 million years. When active
margins of the continental crust meet the oceanic crust in subduction zones,
the oceanic crust is subducted due to relatively lower density of the former.
The lower density does not allow the continental crust to be subducted or
recycled back into the mantle. For this reason, the oldest rocks on the Earth
are within the cratons or cores of the continents, rather than in the repeat-
edly recycled oceanic crust. Increasingly younger units surround the older
cores in the center of the continents.
Six principal types of crust are identified based on the sedimentary thick-
ness, crustal thickness and mean seismic velocities (Beloussov and
Pavlenkova, 1985). Type I, in the regions of the most recent mountains
where high relief is accompanied by mountain roots, is 50–70 km thick.
It has generally high-heat flow values and mean velocities are in the range
of 6.4–6.5 km s1, but in some subtypes velocities as high as 7.0 km s1 are
also seen. Type II crust covers almost half the area of the continents and is
common to areas with thin (<3 km) sedimentary cover and also crystalline
shields. It is about 40-km thick, mean seismic velocity in the consolidated
part is around 6.5 km s1, and has low heat flow values. Type III is an atten-
uated, low-velocity crust in exterior parts of the continents, e.g., West Euro-
pean platform. It is 25–30 km thick, has an inconsistent heat flow and a mean
seismic velocity of 6.1–6.3 km s1. Type IV is the transitional crust between
the continents and oceans and is similar to Type III but with higher mean
seismic velocity of about 6.6 km s1. It is observed in continental margins.
Type V crust varies in thickness between 15 and 40 km and is associated with
deep basins. It has large thickness of the sediments (5–15 km). The heat flow
values are generally high and determination of its mean velocity is not pos-
sible. A typical feature of this type is the presence of the high-velocity lower
crustal layers (>6.8 km s1) and a lower thickness to the crust-mantle
boundary. Type VI is the crust of oceanic basins where the crustal thickness
is small and the upper part of the crust (granitic crust of velocity
6.0–6.3 km s1), whose thickness in the continental crust is in excess of
10 km, is absent.
The crust itself has no influence on the Earth but constant movement of
the lithospheric plates (crust + uppermost part of the mantle), better known
as the plate movement caused by influence of the convection current in the
asthenosphere, does. To be more precise, the convection currents actually
cause the Earth’s plates to move and sometimes collide with each other.
These movements cause earthquakes and at weak zones of the Earth’s crust
volcanoes can erupt. Because of ongoing plate movement in the last several
millions of years, mountains and valleys have been formed, and that is why
the surface of the Earth looks as it does now. Knowledge of characteristic
features of the continental crust, therefore, is very important to an under-
standing of the relationship between the processes in the Earth’s mantle
and the geological and geomorphological phenomena observed on the sur-
face, as the present-day configuration of the continental crust is mostly an
outcome of lithospheric evolution and crust-mantle interaction. This
knowledge, together with that of the physical and chemical properties of
the crust, is also vital for understanding the mechanism of crustal evolution
and tectono-thermal processes in the Earth’s interior. It is also important for
understanding characteristics of earthquakes and other natural hazards, for-
mation/distribution of the natural resources, and evolution of various struc-
tural features present on the Earth’s surface, as deep-seated structural
variations in the crust are manifested in near-surface geological patterns of
direct human socioeconomic interest.
1.1.2 The Mechanisms of Crustal Evolution

The mechanisms through which the continental crust evolved are debatable.
However, in general, a majority of geologists agree that the continental
crusts were formed in the oceanic arcs (Taylor, 1967; Kusky and Polet,
1999; Stern, 2008; Xiao et al., 2010), which is evidenced by the similarity
in bulk composition of continents to that of the oceanic arcs (Taylor and
McLennan, 1985; Rudnick and Gao, 2003; DeBari and Sleep, 1991;
Davidson and Arculus, 2006). Fig. 1.2 explains the mechanisms for the for-
mation of the continental crust, which shows the turbulent vs. stable con-
vection patterns. In Archean time, temperature was high and convection
was prevalent in the mantle (Olson, 1989), which resulted in thinner crust,
possibly due to the lack of supply of mantle materials. However, in the
Proterozoic, when the temperature was low, mantle convection reached
Archean Proterozoic
Kimberlite Kimberlite
with diamond Flood basalts without diamond
Kimberlite
Basalt
underplating
35 km
45 km
Komatitic
underplating
Depleted Fertile
(low FeO) (normal FeO)
Partial melting
Graphite
Diamond
Diamond
Fig. 1.2 A schematic diagram showing the Archean and Proterozoic crustal evolution.
(After Durrheim, R.J., Mooney, W.D., 1991. Archcan and Proterozoic crustal evolution:
evidence from crustal seismology. Geology 19, 606–609.)
a stable condition. As a result, the basaltic underplating played an important

role in crustal thickening and also in altering the composition from felsic to
mafic (Fig. 1.2). This also explains the high-mantle temperature in Archean
reflected in the eruption of komatiitic lavas and the formation of a refractory
lithosphere depleted in FeO ( Jordan, 1978; Hawkesworth et al., 1990).
Pavlenkova (1987) suggests that the crustal thickening resulted due to trans-
formation of the mantle material during crustal cooling.
With the advent of more sophisticated seismological tools, our knowledge
of the crust has increased tremendously. The continental crust was formed at
about 4.2 Ga (Compston and Pidgeon, 1986; Bowring et al., 1989). It is
suggested that the crust was stabilized before 2.9 Ga, when it was thinner
with a flat and sharp Moho (Durrheim and Mooney, 1991; Abbott et al.,
2013). Numerous geochronological studies propose that the age of the
Archean crust may range between 2.5 and 3.4 Ga and that of the Proterozoic
crust between 0.5 and 2.5 Ga (De Wit et al., 1992; Rudnick and Fountain,
1995; Condie, 2005; Hawkesworth and Kemp, 2006; Van Kranendonk
et al., 2011; Dhuime et al., 2012; Lowe, 1994; Kusky and Polet, 1999;
Choukroune et al., 1997; Bastow et al., 2011; Arndt, 2013).
The continental crust is formed by the solidification of lava or magma
through successive crystallization of erupted molten material extracted from
the Earth’s interior. The formation rate of the crust has, therefore, decreased
with time because the heat generation rate decreased inside the Earth due to
the progressive decay of radioactive elements. Two models (Fig. 1.3) have
Seafloor spreading and Intraoceanic duplex: Oceanic plateau
hydrothermal alteration cold, hydreated + buoyant thick, warm + buoyant
Calc–alkaline Oceanic crust

H2O volcano metamorphosed TTG
dry + dense
Sea level
MOR
Depleted ultramafics
Melt–depleted
residiuum
Dehydration melting Subcreted oceanic

yielding lithosphere
Upwelling mantle Na–granitoids (eclogite grade) Upwelling mantle
(A) (B)
Fig. 1.3 Models for Paleoarchean crust formation: (A) horizontal accretion (subduction) tectonics; (B) vertical (plume accretion) tectonics (Van
Kranendonk et al., 2014). ((A) Modified from De Wit, M.J., Roering, C., Hart, R.J., Armstrong, R.A., de Ronde, C.E.J., Green, R.W.E., et al., 1992.
Formation of an Archaean continent. Nature 357, 553–562; Helmstaedt, H., Gurney, J.J., 1995. Geotectonic controls of primary diamond deposits:
implications for area selection. J. Geochem. Explor. 53, 125–144.)
been advocated for the crustal formation: horizontal accretion of island arcs
or vertical accretion due to differentiation of magmatic material above hot-
spots (Hoffman, 1988; Percival, 1989; Kroner, 1984). It implies that the
composition of the crust may either be andesitic (Taylor and McLennan,
1985; Rudnick and Gao, 2003) or basaltic (DeBari and Sleep, 1991;
Davidson and Arculus, 2006) and is different from the single dominant
crust-forming process, i.e., basaltic volcanism throughout Earth’s history
(Ashwal, 1989; Turcotte, 1989). As the fundamental process is different
for Proterozoic and Phanerozoic crusts, the seismic characteristics of the
crust are expected to be different at different geologic provinces
(Drummond and Collins, 1986).
The configuration of continental crust is mostly an outcome of litho-
spheric evolution and crust-mantle interaction. This knowledge, together
with that of the physical and chemical properties of the crust, is also vital
to understand the mechanism of crustal evolution and tectono-thermal pro-
cesses in the Earth’s interior. It is also important for understanding charac-
teristics of earthquakes and other natural hazards, formation/distribution of
the natural resources, and evolution of various structural features present on
the Earth’s surface, as deep-seated structural variations in the crust are
manifested in near-surface geological patterns of direct human socioeco-
nomic interest.
1.2 SEISMOLOGICAL STUDIES OF THE EARTH’S CRUST

Due to the essentially elastic behavior of the continental crust, all types
of seismic studies, ranging from passive source seismic tomography to con-
trolled source, high-resolution seismic reflection imaging, are preferred for
gaining knowledge of the Earth’s interior, as compared to other methods.
Strong lateral variation in structure of the Earth’s crust and mantle makes
their study a complex problem. Virtually all of our direct information about
the interior of the Earth has been derived from studies related to propagation
of the elastic waves generated by earthquakes. Earthquakes generate two
types of waves: surface waves and body waves. The surface waves are guided
by the density and velocity layering, particularly at and near the surface, and
are important in elucidation of the crustal and upper mantle structures. But
of greater general interest and more easily understood are the body waves
that propagate through the Earth. The compressional (P) and shear
(S) waves that travel through the body of a medium are known as the body
waves. A body wave in which the particle motion is in the direction of
propagation is called a P-wave and a wave in which the particle motion is

perpendicular to the direction of propagation is known as an S-wave. These
conform to the laws of geometrical optics, being reflected and refracted at
interfaces where the velocities change.
Historically, seismological methods have provided the first information
about the crust. Among the oldest and most fundamental problems in seis-
mology are: (a) determining the velocity-depth relation accurately, and
(b) asserting the nature of the discontinuities within the Earth and translating
this into knowledge about the interior of the Earth. Early in the 20th cen-
tury, study of the seismic waves generated through earthquakes showed that
the interior of the Earth has a radially layered constitution and the bound-
aries between the layers are marked by abrupt changes in seismic velocities/
velocity gradient. In 1906 Oldham noted that at large epicenter distances,
travel times of the seismic compression waves that traversed through the
body of the Earth were greater than expected; the delay was attributed to
a fluid outer core. Support for this idea came in 1914, when Guttenberg
described a shadow zone for the seismic waves at distances of greater than
105 degrees (1 degree ¼ about 110 km at the equator). In 1936, Lehmann
observed weak arrivals of the compression waves in the gap between 110 and
143 degrees and interpreted it as evidence for a solid inner core. An anom-
alous layer, 150–200 km thick and termed the D layer, was identified just
above the core-mantle boundary. In this layer the body wave gradients
are very small and may even be negative. During 1940–42 Bullen developed
a model, consisting of concentric shells, of the internal structure of the Earth.
Later a parameterized model PREM (Preliminary Reference Earth Model)
based upon the inversion of body waves, surface waves and free-oscillation
data was prepared (Dziewonski and Anderson, 1981). This is the current
standard model of the Earth’s internal structure.
Mohorovic^ic^ obtained first results of the crustal velocities in the year
1909. He identified a boundary at 30–35 km depth within the continents,
where the seismic wave velocities in the Earth’s interior showed a sudden
increase, and termed this the crust-mantle boundary. This discontinuity,
since then known as the Moho, is generally represented by either a large
velocity jump or a steep velocity gradient (transition zone) in the lowermost
part of the crust and indicates a change from mafic to ultramafic rocks. In
seismology the crust is defined by a P-wave velocity (Vp) of less than
7.8 km s1 or S-wave velocity (Vs) of less than 4.3 km s1, overlying an
upper mantle with a P-wave velocity of about 8.1 km s1. The earthquake
studies identified three main P-wave phases in the crust: the Pg, PmP and Pn.
The Pg wave follows the top of granitic crystalline basement below the
sediments, the PmP wave appears as a critical or postcritical reflection from
the Moho and the Pn wave is supposed to run along the top of mantle. In
addition to these, other P-wave phases were also identified from various layers
within the crust.
Earlier, the detection of Moho and its nature were determined by the
explosion seismic and travel time observations from earthquake data. How-
ever, since the 1980s, converted wave techniques in passive source seismol-
ogy have become robust tools to map the crust-mantle discontinuities and
thereafter an enormous amount of work has been published about the mea-
surements and nature of the Moho. Nevertheless, its genesis has remained a
subject of controversy. Based on seismic wave propagation, the Moho has
been defined as the change in P-wave velocity (Vp > 7.6 km s1) and density
(Oliver, 1982; Prodehl et al., 2013; Rabbel et al., 2013; Jarchow and
Thompson, 1989; Steinhart, 1967; Hammer and Clowes, 1997). Sometimes
changes in anisotropic direction ( Jones et al., 1996) and also the scale lengths
of heterogeneity may occur across this boundary (Enderle et al., 1997). In
seismic sections, the depth of the Moho typically coincides with the bound-
ary between the reflector-rich crust and the reflector-poor uppermost man-
tle (Cook, 2002; Cook et al., 2010; Mooney and Brocher, 1987; Carbonell
et al., 2013). It is unquestionably a geophysical boundary where a change in
elastic properties takes place, and this leads to the conversion of
seismic waves.
The Moho can thus be characterized as noted here:
(1) It is an interface that separates the Earth’s crust from the underlying
mantle.
(2) It is a first-order discontinuity based on velocity and composition.
(3) Compressional-wave velocity increases to 7.6 km s1 at the Moho.
(4) Petrologically, the Moho is the boundary between homogeneous layers
of mafic (above) and ultramafic (below) rocks.
(5) The Moho subsists worldwide with laterally variable depth on broad
wavelengths.
(6) Its sharpness and reflectivity vary from region to region. Here, by sharp-
ness we mean that the crust-mantle transition occurs over a vertical dis-
tance of less than 2 km ( James et al., 2003).
Although the Moho is a seismic definition, petrologically it is a transition
from spinel lherzolite to garnet lherzolite (Griffin and O’Reilly, 1987;
O’Reilly and Griffin, 1985), where a marked increase in seismic velocity
exists in the lower crust. The seismic Moho is a phase change within the
upper mantle (Griffin et al., 1987; Griffin and O’Reilly, 1986; O’Reilly,
1989; O’Reilly and Griffin, 1991) and is related to the pressure and temper-
ature histories. Therefore, it is associated with a boundary, which separates
the mafic lower crust (gabbros for the oceanic crust and mafic granulites for
the continental crust) from the ultramafic upper mantle (e.g., Christensen,
1996; Christensen and Mooney, 1995; Gao et al., 1998; Mengel and Kern,
1992; Rudnick and Fountain, 1995; Jarchow and Thompson, 1989). An
electrical Moho has also been defined as the bottom of the relatively con-
ductive continental lower crust (104–101 S m1) and is often not coinci-
dent with the seismic Moho (Wang et al., 2013; Mengel and Kern, 1992).
The seismic and petrological Moho are generally noncoincident, as the
temperature regime plays an important role in determining the depth of the
petrological Moho. Griffin and O’Reilly (1987) argue that the Moho in a
lithologic column is determined by the temperature regime, as the tectonics
and the temperature regime modify the lower crust and/or the upper man-
tle. These processes act on the rocks overprinting a series of additional factors
that affect the seismic signature: for example, rock fabrics and anisotropy. In
this sense, the seismic and the petrological Moho can be placed at different
levels. However, Brown et al. (2009) suggest that the petrological Moho is
somewhat deeper than the seismic Moho. In the petrological Moho, the
transition from granulites to ultramafic rock (considered to be mantle lithol-
ogies) would be located slightly deeper in the column. The seismic Moho
has been considered to correspond to the lithological contact between
gabbros and rocks with ultramafic compositions (harzburgites), and the pet-
rological Moho has been correlated with the deeper structures/fabrics and
lithological contrasts within the ultramafics (e.g., peridotites, dunites, etc.).
1.3 CONTROLLED SOURCE SEISMIC STUDY

The controlled source seismic study [also known as the deep seismic
sounding (DSS) study] is a definitive geophysical technique for exploring the
structure of the Earth’s crust and uppermost mantle. It is a highly sophisti-
cated technique involving use of controlled explosions, of known energy
release, to generate elastic waves in the Earth’s crust. This method uses
the technique of transmitting into the Earth the seismic waves that are gen-
erated by exploding charges and recording them back on the surface. The
large success achieved by the seismic studies in hydrocarbon exploration
has prompted their use in studying the Earth’s crust. Through these studies
the continental crust has been characterized by three broad parameters: its
velocity, reflectivity and thickness. These parameters are also related to the
heat flow, temperature and viscosity at various depths in the crust. The con-
trolled source seismic study (5–30 Hz) effectively bridges the gap (Fig. 1.4)
between the high-frequency conventional exploration for hydrocarbon
(30–100 Hz) and low-frequency passive source seismological studies
(0.1–5 Hz). For finding out the crustal structure it can be divided into two
broad groups: (1) the refraction/postcritical (wide-angle) reflection also
known as refraction seismology, and (2) the deep continental reflection study.
The most reliable information on velocity variation in the continental
crust comes from the seismic refraction profiles. Though the variation of
seismic velocity with depth can be fitted into five broad ranges (Meissner
10–3
Earthquake
seismology
10–5
Displacement (cm)
10–7
Deep seismic
sounding
10–9
Exploration
seismology
0.1 1 10 100
Frequency (Hz)
Fig.1.4 Schematic diagram showing the frequency range used in different seismic
techniques.
Table 1.1 Velocity Ranges in the Crust

Part of the Crust Velocity (Vp) Range (km s21)
Sediments or near-surface rocks <5.7
Upper crust 5.7–6.4
Lower crust 6.4–7.1
Lowermost crust (in rifts, shields and platforms) 7.1–7.8
Uppermost mantle >7.8
After Meissner, R., Weaver T.H., 1989. Continental crustal structure. In: James, D.E. (Ed.), The
Encyclopaedia of Solid Earth Geophysics. Vam Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York, pp. 75–89.
and Weaver, 1989), it differs according to the geology and tectonic config-
uration of a region (Table 1.1). Studies of the continental crust and subcrustal
lithosphere using seismic refraction/postcritical reflection measurements are
of first-order importance for determining reliable models of the seismic
velocity structure and physical properties of the lithosphere. The Eastern
block of the European countries, led by the erstwhile USSR, made major
contributions to our understanding of the chemical and physical properties
of the Moho through large-scale refraction/postcritical reflection studies.
The crust-mantle boundary (referred to as the Moho in forthcoming text)
is regarded as the most important velocity boundary in crustal seismic obser-
vations. The general model of the continental Moho is a variable thickness
transition zone, composed of layers progressing from mafic to ultramafic
rocks with increasing depth ( Jarchow and Thompson, 1989).
The deep reflections (near-vertical incidence) from the Moho boundary
were reported as early as the late 1950s but it took almost two decades to
substantiate them through deep continental reflection studies. The
COCORP (Consortium for Continental Reflection Profiling, United
States) studies paved the way in recognizing the velocity layers as reflecting
horizons and hence identifying the reflectivity patterns that determine struc-
tural variations in the crust of different geological terranes. Major deep seis-
mic reflection study groups and consortia, e.g., BIRPS (United Kingdom),
DEKORP (Germany), ECORS (France) and LITHOPROBE (Canada),
followed it. High-resolution seismic reflection and refraction programs were
also launched over the subduction zones (ANCORP Working Group,
1999), the arc-continent collisions along the continental margins
(Lundberg et al., 1997), the convergent plate boundaries (Davey and
Stern, 1990), and the orogenic belts (Snyder et al., 1997).
The seismic studies are capable of resolving shallow as well as deep struc-
tures in the crust by acquiring suitable refraction and postcritical reflection
Visit https://textbookfull.com
now to explore a rich
collection of eBooks, textbook
and enjoy exciting offers!
data sets and also near-vertical reflections. Advances over the past 20 years,
both in the areas of seismic data acquisition as well as processing and model-
ing techniques, offer wide-ranging possibilities for exploring complex sub-
surface structures that may be heterogeneous and anisotropic. At present it is
believed that combined refraction and deep reflection experiments (also
known as coincident reflection studies) supported by the other geophysical,
geological and geochronological studies on selected geo-transects provide
the most reliable seismic images of the continental crust and uppermost man-
tle. The two seismic techniques are complementary to each other and, when
used together, are capable of resolving the structural and physical property
variations in the Earth. The refraction/postcritical reflection data sets pro-
vide viable models of the velocity distribution required to infer the petro-
logic composition, grade of metamorphism and material properties such as
brittle/ductile regimes. These lead to consistent interpretation of the reflec-
tivity patterns obtained through deep continental reflection studies and pro-
vide necessary clues for understanding the complex geodynamic processes
that might be operative during the evolution of various geological prov-
inces. In the tectonically active regions accurate mapping of the intracrustal
boundaries, including the Moho, and delineation of the deep penetrating
steep/low-angle faults reveal various blocks in the crust that may have been
relatively displaced due to movements along these faults.
1.4 CONTROLLED SOURCE SEISMIC STUDIES OVER

THE INDIAN PLATE
India has a geologically unique position, as rocks ranging from 3800
million years (Archean) to the present (Quaternary) are exposed here. Geol-
ogists are of the opinion that several episodes of continental collision and
extension have taken place during this time. However, the history of the
earlier episodes (from Archean to Triassic) is not well documented. Geolog-
ical history from the Triassic to the Quaternary time is much better under-
stood. During the Triassic (about 210 Ma), a major rifting episode split the
then existing Gondwanaland into two parts: East and West Gondwanaland.
The Indian continent was in East Gondwanaland together with Antarctica
and Australia. East and West Gondwanaland and the oceanic crust between
them were together till the Jurassic time (about 160–155 Ma). The Indian
subcontinent then broke off from Antarctica and Australia in the early Cre-
taceous (about 130–125 Ma) and the Indian Ocean opened up. During the
upper Cretaceous time (about 84 Ma) the Indian plate started its very rapid
northward drift at an average speed of 16 cm year1, covering a distance of

about 6000 km and a rotation of 33 degrees in an anticlockwise direction,
until the northwestern part of the Indian passive margin collided with Eur-
asia in the Early Eocene (about 50 Ma). The Indian plate is still continuing its
northward drift at a slower but still surprisingly fast rate of about 5 cm year–1.
The tectonic map of India (Fig. 1.5) shows that the mobile belts separate
various cratons from each other in its shield region (Vijaya Rao and
Reddy, 2002).
Prior to availability of the results from crustal seismic studies, very little
was known about the character of the Indian continental crust though a
few studies based on earthquakes provided velocity-depth models for
the crust and upper mantle of the Indian plate, particularly the Himalaya,
western part of the Indian shield and north eastern and central Indian
region. These models based on the P- and S-wave structure, and also
surface wave dispersion studies, have proved very useful in determining
the earthquake parameters and seismicity pattern of the Indian subconti-
nent. In recent times teleseismic and tomographic studies have revealed
the crustal and lithospheric thickness in various parts of the Indian plate
(Rai et al., 2003, 2005).
Though the seismological studies provide a gross picture of the crust,
they are unable to detect the layering and also the velocity structure within
it because of their low frequency range. Controlled source seismic studies
were started in India in the year 1972 for a better understanding of the geo-
logical history of the Indian plate through the velocity and structural con-
figuration of the continental crust. The National Geophysical Research
Institute (NGRI), Hyderabad, India, has recorded a number of seismic pro-
files in different geological and tectonic provinces within the country.
Between 1972 and 1985 all the crustal seismic data in India were acquired
through analog seismic equipment. A major improvement in data acquisi-
tion took place when digital units replaced the analog equipment in the
year 1985.
Between 1972 and 1991 only seismic refraction/postcritical (also known
as wide-angle) reflection studies were carried out to understand the velocity
models of the Indian crust. During this period, major progress was made in
processing of crustal seismic data sets due to their availability in digital form,
leading to better data interpretation in other parts of the world. Therefore,
another program of digitizing the earlier acquired data sets and reinterpreting
them through the newer software packages was initiated. Acquisition of
deep reflection data was initiated in the year 1992. Another milestone in data
36°
32°
Delhi
in r
rra a
28°
Te arw
M
ar
ew
d
M
VB
VB
han
AFB B
NSL
24° elk VB
DF
KB n d
Bu BB
CB
SC Kolkata
NSL SMB ChB
20°
ara
M
CIS
and
B
GB
Mumbai Bh
MB
EG
Hyderabad
16° Himalayas
Ar
B
r
wa
M
ab
Granitoids
EG
ar
CuB Bay
ian
Dh
of Deccan Traps
Se
CG
Bengal
a
Chennai Pan African

12°
Events (550 Ma)
Alkali Plutons
(750–550 Ma)
8°
72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92°

Fig. 1.5 Tectonic Map of India. KB, Kutch basin; CB, Cambay basin; CuB, Cuddapah basin;
ChB, Chattisgarh basin; DFB, Delhi fold belt; AFB, Aravalli fold belt; VB, Vindhyan
basin; NSL, Narmada-Son lineament; SMB, Satpura Mobile belt; CIS, central Indian suture;
BB, Bengal basin; MB, Mahanadi basin; GB, Godavari basin; EGMB, Eastern ghat Mobile
belt; BPMB, Bhavani-Palghat Mobile belt; CG, Closepet Granite. (Map source Vijaya
Rao, V., Reddy P.R., 2002. A mesoproterozoic supercontinent: evidence from the Indian
shield. In: Rogers, J.J.W., Santosh, M. (Eds.), Special Volume on Mesoproterozoic Supercon-
tinent. Gondwana Res. 5, 63–74.)
acquisition was achieved when wireless telemetry systems replaced the dig-
ital units in the year 1998. This made acquisition of crustal seismic data pos-
sible even in areas with difficult topography (e.g., the Himalayan region).
Since the data acquisition process for all types of seismic data is more or less
similar and can be found in several textbooks, it is not discussed here.
Under the program to study the continental crust of India, seismic refrac-
tion and postcritical reflection data sets were acquired along various profiles
in different geological and tectonic provinces in the Indian shield (peninsular
shield, Southern Granulite Terrane, Aravalli-Delhi fold belt in the
northwest), Narmada-Son Lineament in central India, Deccan Trap covered
regions in the west, the sedimentary basins (Cambay, West Bengal,
Mahanadi, Godavari) and the Himalaya (Fig. 1.6). In some of the terranes
5
9 5 5 9
9
15 93
97 9
5 3
9 3
2 7 5 9 3 5
5
7 3
32° 9
China
2 5
7
an 6
k ist 2 3
Pa 1 Delhi 2 Tibet 7
Ne 2 7
3 6 pal
8 1
1 2
3 6
9 8
6 1 1 9 2
9 1 8 1 8 97
6
9 7 1 9
6 6 7 Bangladesh
24° 1 6 8 8 2
10 7 8 4 4
3 1 7 6 4 1
6 8
3 10 8 7 Kolkata
10 8 10 6 4 4 7
8
1 8 7 6 7 9 1
7
1 8 7 8 8
10 11 1
10 9
8 8 78 1
Mumbai
4 6
8 8 8
6
10 7 1 Quaternary
6Hyderabad
16° 1 8 2 Tertiary
6 6
8 7
7 6 3 Mesozoic
8 4 U.Carboniferous–L.Cretaceous
7
7 8 5 Paleozoic
Chennai
8 9 6 Middle–Upper Precambrian
9
7 Lower–Middle Precambrian
2
1 8 Lower Precambrian
8 1
9 Precambrian
8° 10 Cretaceous–Deccan Traps
11 Basic intrusives and effusives
seismic profiles
72° 80° 88° 96°

Fig. 1.6 Seismic profiles recorded to study the crust in the Indian subcontinent
plotted on Geological Map of India. (Basic Map source: Geological Map of India, Scale
1:5,000,000, 1993.)
(Aravalli-Delhi fold belt, central India, Southern Granulite Terrane, Hima-

layan foothills) deep seismic reflection data were also acquired. Interpreta-
tion of these data has brought out the crustal velocity configuration and
structure down to the Moho boundary, and occasionally in the uppermost
mantle, leading to better understanding of the evolutionary processes
involved in the formation of various terranes. Since acquisition of the crustal
seismic data in India was started with support of the then USSR, it is natural
that most of the earlier results were inspired by them and consist of only the
velocity models, while the data acquired at later stages consist of the struc-
tural patterns as well as velocity models. Most of the earlier models have,
however, been revised by digitizing them to the extent possible.
Before the availability of crustal seismic results, it was difficult for earth
scientists to understand the evolution and history of various Indian geolog-
ical terranes, particularly the peninsular shield region. Availability of the seis-
mic velocity models, and in some cases structure, made better understanding
of these regions possible. The results from these data have been widely used
by earth scientists to provide new insight into understanding various ele-
ments of geologic structure, explanation of gravity and other anomalies,
new velocity models to determine earthquake parameters, modeling of
hydrocarbon basins, etc. Due to the impact of these studies, various earth
science institutions in the country came forward to support these studies.
Outside the Indian plate seismic studies for understanding the continen-
tal crust have not been undertaken in Southeast Asia, except in Tibet and the
High Himalaya. Some of these have been included in this book. In the fol-
lowing chapters, the results of various controlled source seismic studies car-
ried out in India and its neighborhood are described. Results from the other
geophysical studies (e.g., passive source seismology, gravity and magnetic,
magnetotelluric, heat flow, etc.) have been described in brief wherever
necessary.
The aim of this book is to make all these studies available in one place to
enable earth scientists in India and abroad to be aware of them and their con-
tribution in understanding the tectonic development of various geologic ter-
ranes in India and surrounding regions.
Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
small salt-water lake, about a league in circumference, generally from three
to six feet deep, and reposing on a volcanic, black, and muddy bottom.
This is the old Acheron of Virgil, the present Fusaro. Over its whole extent
are spread from space to space great heaps of stones, that have been
originally stocked with oysters brought from Tarentum. Round each of
these artificial mounds stakes are driven into the ground, tolerably near
each other, and projecting from the water, so as to be pulled up easily.
Other stakes stand in long rows several feet apart, and are united by
ropes, from which bundles of brushwood hang down into the water. All
these arrangements are intended to fix the oyster-dust, that annually
escapes from the parental shells, and to afford it a vast number of points
to which it may attach itself. After two or three years the microscopic larvæ
have grown into edible oysters. Then, at the proper season, the stakes and
brushwood bundles are taken out of the water, and after the ripe berries of
the marine vineyard have been plucked, they are again immersed into the
lake, until a new generation brings a new harvest. Thus the indolent
Neapolitans have for ages given an example which has but recently been
imitated by the men of the North. In 1858 a mason named Beef (a name
which, if not misspelt, would seem to point out an English origin)
inaugurated the modern era of oyster cultivation, at the island of Ré, near
La Rochelle, by laying down a few bushels of growing oysters among a
quantity of large stones on the fore shore. His success encouraged his
neighbours to follow his example, so that now already upwards of 4,000
beds or claires extend along the coast.
Between March and May 1859 a quantity of oysters taken from different
parts of the sea were distributed in ten longitudinal beds in the Bay of St.
Brieux, on the coast of Brittany. The bottom was previously covered with
old oyster-shells and boughs of trees arranged like fascines, which afford a
capital holding-ground for the spat. In 1860 three of the fascines were
taken up indiscriminately from one of the banks, and found to contain
about 20,000 oysters each, of from one inch to two inches in diameter. The
total expense for forming the above bank was 221 francs, and reckoning
the number of oysters on each of the 300 fascines laid down on it at only
10,000, these sold at the low price of 20 francs a thousand would produce
the sum of 60,000 francs, thus yielding a larger profit than any other
known branch of industry.
Encouraged by these successful examples, an English company has
obtained a grant by Act of Parliament of a piece of fore shore lying
between the Whitstable and Faversham Oyster Companies' beds, and thus
admirably situated for receiving a large quantity of floating spawn from
these establishments. There can be no doubt that oyster cultivation will
spread further and further, and that ultimately all the worthless bays and
lagunes along our coasts will be converted into rich oyster-fields, yielding a
good profit to their owners and enjoyment to millions of consumers.
A shell nearly related to the oyster produces the costly pearls of the
East that have ever been as highly esteemed as the diamond itself. The
most renowned pearl-fisheries are carried on at Bahrein, in the Persian
Gulf, and in the Bay of Condatchy, in the island of Ceylon, on banks
situated a few miles from the coast. Before the beginning of the fishery,
the government causes the banks to be explored, and then lets them to
the highest bidder, very wisely allowing only a part of them to be fished
every year. The fishing begins in February, and ceases by the beginning of
April. The boats employed for this purpose assemble in the bay, set off at
night at the firing of a signal-gun, and reach the banks after sunrise, where
fishing goes on till noon, when the sea-breeze which arises about that time
warns them to return to the bay. As soon as they appear within sight,
another gun is fired, to inform the anxious owners of their return. Each
boat carries twenty men and a chief; ten of them row and hoist up the
divers, who are let down by fives,—and thus alternately diving and resting
keep their strength to the end of their day's work. The diver, when he is
about to plunge, compresses his nostrils tightly with a small piece of horn,
which keeps the water out, and stuffs his ears with bees'-wax for the same
purpose. He then seizes with the toes of his right foot a rope to which a
stone is attached, to accelerate the descent, while the other foot grasps a
bag of network. With his right hand he lays hold of another rope, and in
this manner rapidly reaches the bottom. He then hangs the net round his
neck, and with much dexterity and all possible despatch collects as many
oysters as he can while he is able to remain under water, which is usually
about two minutes. He then resumes his former position, makes a signal to
those above by pulling the rope in his right hand, and is immediately by
this means hauled up into the boat, leaving the stone to be pulled up
afterwards by the rope attached to it. Accustomed from infancy to their
work, these divers do not fear descending repeatedly to depths of fifty or
sixty feet. They plunge more than fifty times in a morning, and collect each
time about a hundred shells. Sometimes, however, the exertion is so great
that, upon being brought into the boat, they discharge blood from their
mouth, ears, and nostrils.
While the fishing goes on, a number of
conjurors and priests are assembled on the
coast, busily employed in protecting the divers
by their incantations against the voracity of the
sharks. These are the great terror of the divers,
but they have such confidence in the skill or
power of their conjurors that they neglect
every other means of defence. The divers are
paid in money, or receive a part of the oyster-
Ceylon Pearl-Oyster. shells in payment. Often, indeed, they try to
add to their gains by swallowing here or there
a pearl, but the sly merchant knows how to
find the stolen property. The oysters, when safely landed, are piled up on
mats, in places fenced round for the purpose. As soon as the animals are
dead, the pearls can easily be sought for and extracted from the gaping
shells. After the harvest has been gathered, the largest, thickest, and finest
shells, which furnish mother-of-pearl, are sorted, and the remaining heap is
left to pollute the air. Some poor Indians, however, often remain for weeks
on the spot, stirring the putrid mass in the hopes of gleaning some
forgotten pearls from the heap of rottenness. The pearls are drilled and
stringed in Ceylon, a work which is performed with admirable dexterity and
quickness. For cleaning, rounding, and polishing them, a powder of ground
pearls is made use of.
The Pacific also furnishes these costly ornaments to wealth and beauty,
but the pearls of California and Tahiti are less prized than those of the
Indian Ocean.
Pearl-like excrescences likewise form on the inner surface of our oysters
and mussels, and originate in the same manner as the true pearls. The
formation of the pearl, however, is not yet quite satisfactorily accounted
for. Some naturalists believe that the animal accumulates the pearl-like
substance to give the shell a greater thickness and solidity in the places
where it has been perforated by some annelide or gasteropod; and
according to Mr. Philippi, an intestinal worm stimulates the exudation of the
pearl-like mass, which, on hardening, encloses and renders it harmless.
Brilliancy, size, and perfect regularity of form are the essential qualities
of a beautiful pearl. Their union in a single specimen is rare, but it is of
course still more difficult to find a number of pearls of equal size and
beauty for a costly necklace or a princely tiara.
Nature has given the bivalves the same beauty of colouring and
wonderful variety of elegant or capricious forms as to the sea-snails; so
that they are equally esteemed in the cabinets of wealthy amateurs.
Among the most costly are reckoned the Spondyli, which are found in the
tropical seas, where they grow attached to rocks. They are distinguished
by the brilliancy of their colours, but particularly by the long thorny
excrescences with which their shells are covered. A Parisian professor once
pawned all his silver spoons and forks to make up the sum of six thousand
francs which was asked for a Royal Spondylus; but on returning home was
so warmly received by his lady that, overwhelmed by the hurricane, he
flung himself on a chair, when the terrific cracking of the box containing his
treasure reminded him too late that he had concealed it in his skirt-pocket.
Fortunately but two of the thorns had been broken off, and the damage
was susceptible of being repaired; his despair, however, was so great that
his wife had not the heart to continue her reproaches, and in her turn
began to soothe the unfortunate collector.
The gigantic Tridacna, which is now
to be found in the shop of every dealer
in shells, was formerly an object of such
rarity and value that the Republic of
Venice once made a present of one of
them to Francis I., who gave it to the
Church of St. Sulpice in Paris, where it is
Tridacna gigas.
still made use of as a basin for holy
water. The tridacna attains a diameter
of five feet, and a weight of five
hundred pounds, the flesh alone weighing thirty. The muscular power is
said to be so great as to be able to cut through a thick rope on closing the
shell. It is found in the dead rocks on the coral reefs, where there are no
growing lithophytes except small tufts. Generally only an inch or two in
breadth of the ponderous shell is exposed to view, for the tridacna, like the
pholas, has the power of sinking itself in the rock, by removing the lime
about it. Without some means like this of security, its habitation would
inevitably be destroyed by the roaring breakers. A tuft of byssus, however
strong, would be a very imperfect security against the force of the sea for
shells weighing from one to five hundred pounds. It is found in the Indian
Ocean and the Pacific as far as the coral zone extends. The animal of the
tridacna, and of the nearly related Hippopus, distinguishes itself by the
beauty of its colours. The mantle of the Tridacna safranea, for instance,
has a dark blue edge with emerald-green spots, gradually passing into a
light violet. When a large number of these beautiful creatures expand the
velvet brilliancy of their costly robes in the transparent waters, no flower-
bed on earth can equal them in splendour.
Hippopus maculatus.
Like the Lamellibranchiate Acephala, the Brachiopods are covered with

a bivalve shell, but their internal organisation is very different. Instead of
being disposed in separate gills, their respiratory system is combined with
the ciliated mantle on which the vascular ramifications are distributed, but
their most striking feature is the possession of spiral fringed arms or buccal
appendages which serve to open the shell and occupy the greater part of
its cavity. These curious organs are in some Brachiopods quite free, in
others attached to a complicated cartilaginous or calcareous skeleton. None
of the existing molluscs of this class are capable of changing place, but are
either fixed to extraneous substances by the agglutination of one of their
valves or by a muscular peduncle passing through a perforation of their
shells. There are no more than forty-nine living species, chiefly belonging
to the genera Terebratula and Crania, and generally found at great depths
in the Southern Ocean; but the fossil remains of 1,370 species prove their
importance in the primitive seas, where they rivalled the lamellibranchiates
in numbers and variety. Though now so rare or so local in the British seas
that ordinary collectors are not likely to meet with any, they abound in
many of our oldest rocks. "A visit to the quarries at Dudley," says E.
Forbes, "or an Irish lime-kiln, or an oolitic section on the Dorsetshire coast,
or a green sand ravine in the Isle of Wight, will afford more information
about the Brachiopods than an examination of the finest collection of the
living species. In each of the above excursions a different set of forms
would be collected, for many of the palæozoic genera have altogether
disappeared when we rise among the secondary rocks, and in the latter we
find forms which closely remind us of existing species, but which, though
very near, are yet unquestionably distinct. In formations of all epochs, a
few generic types are common, and the Lingulæ of the earliest
sedimentary formations, presenting traces of organic life, strikingly remind
us of the species of that curious group living in exotic seas at the present
day."
At the lower extremity of the great series of

molluscous animals we find the Polyzoa
(Bryozoa, or Sea-Mosses) and Tunicata. The
former, which comprise the Sea-Mats (Flustræ,
Escharæ), the Sea-Scurfs (Lepraliæ), the
Retepores, the Cellulariæ, and several other
families, were formerly reckoned among the
polyps, whom they greatly resemble in
Leaf-like Sea-Mat. appearance and mode of life, but far surpass by
the complexity of their internal organisation. The
Sea-Mats are among the commonest objects
which the tide casts out upon our shores, for you will hardly ever walk
upon the strand without finding their blanched skeletons among the relics
of the retiring flood. Their flat leaf-like forms might easily cause them to be
mistaken for dried sea-weeds, but a pocket-lens suffices to show that they
are built up of innumerable little oblong cells, placed back to back like
those of a honey-comb, and each crowned by four stout spines, which give
their surface a peculiarly harsh feel when the finger is passed over it from
the apex to the base. "The individual cells," says Mr. Gosse, "are shaped
like a child's cradle, and if you will please to suppose some twenty
thousand cradles stuck side to side in one plane, and then turned over, and
twenty thousand more stuck on to these bottom to bottom, you will have
an idea of the framework of a flustra. And do not think the number
outrageous, for it is but an ordinary average. I count in an area of half an
inch square sixty longitudinal rows, each of which contains about twenty-
eight cells in that space; this gives 6,720 cells per square inch on each
surface. Now a moderate-sized polyzoary contains an area of three square
inches, i. e. six on both surfaces, which will give the high number of
40,320 cells on such a specimen. Many, however, are much larger."
Before the stormy tide detached them from the bottom of the sea, and
left them to perish on the shore, each of the cells contained a living
creature whose mouth was surrounded by a coronet of filiform and ciliated
tentacles, destined to produce a vortex in the water, and thus to provide
the tiny owner with its food. The body was bent on itself somewhat like the
letter V, the one branch (a) being the mouth and throat, the other (b) the
rectum, opening by an anus, and the middle part (c) the stomach. Each of
these tiny members of the flustra colony possessed a considerable number
of muscles; each was furnished with a movable lip or lid to block up the
entrance of his cell when he courted retirement; each had his individual
nerves, and consequently his individual sensations, though feeling and
moving simultaneously with his fellow citizens by the agency of a system of
nerves common to the whole republic, and sending forth a delicate
filament to the inmate of each cell.
Such are the wonders which but for the microscope
would for ever have remained unknown to man.
The Escharæ greatly resemble the Flustræ, for here
also the cells are disposed side by side upon the same
plane, so as to form a broad leaf-like polyzoary, which,
however, is not of a horny or coriaceous texture, as in
the latter genus, but completely calcified, so as to
present something of the massiveness of the stony
corals. The annexed wood-cuts, showing us Eschara
cervicornis, first A, in its natural size; then B, a few cells
magnified twenty diameters, and ultimately C, a single
individual so highly magnified as to reveal some of the
Flustra in its cell.
details of its otherwise invisible structure, give us a
(Highly
good idea of the truly remarkable organisation of the magnified.)
Polyzoa.
In the Escharæ and Flustræ the cellular extension of the common stock
or polyzoary is unbroken, and opening on both surfaces, while in the
Retepores we find the cells opening only on one side, and the leaf-like
expansion pierced like network.
Eschara cervicornis. (Natural

size.)
Portion of a branch of the

polypary of Eschara
cervicornis, magnified
twenty diameters, to
show the form and
arrangement of cells.
In cabinets of natural history, the species commonly called Neptune's
ruffles will rarely be found wanting. It is a native of the Mediterranean, but
individuals of a smaller size are also found in the British seas.
The Lepraliæ, or
Sea-Scurfs, form
thin calcareous
crusts of a white-
yellow or reddish
colour on rocks,
shells, and sea-
weeds. To the naked Retepora cellulosa.
eye they appear as (Neptune's Ruffle.)
rude unsightly
eruptions, so as to
justify their name derived from the hideous
leprosy of the East, but, when magnified,
their cells, generally disposed in regular
An individual of Eschara concentric rows, exhibit a surprising
cervicornis, highly magnified. diversity and elegance of structure. Forty
a. Tentacula
b. First digestive cavity.
species are found in the North Sea alone;
d. Stomach. hence we may judge how great the number
f. Anus. of still unknown forms must be that spread
their microscopic traceries over the algæ
and shells of every zone.
It would lead me too far were I minutely to describe the Cellulariæ with
their cells disposed in alternating rows on narrow bifurcated branches; the
Tubulipores, with their mouths at the termination of tubular cells without
any movable appendage or lip; the Bowerbankias and Lagunculas, with
their creeping stems and separate cells; suffice it to say that a wonderful
exuberance of fancy displays itself in the structure of the numerous
varieties of the Polyzoa.
But a closer inspection reveals still greater miracles to the marine
microscopist, for most genera, and chiefly the Cellulariæ, possess very
remarkable appendages, or processes, presenting the most striking
resemblance to the head of a bird. Each of these processes, or
"aviculariæ," as they have been named, has two "mandibles," of which one
is fixed like the upper jaw of a bird, the other movable like its lower jaw;
the latter is opened and closed
by two sets of muscles, which
are seen in the interior of the
head, and between them is a
peculiar body, furnished with a
pencil of bristles, which is
probably a tactile organ, being
brought forwards when the
mouth is open, so that the
bristles project beyond it, and
being drawn back when the
mandible closes. During the life
of the polyzoon, these tiny
"vulture-heads," which are either
sessile or pedunculated, keep up
a continual motion, and it is most
amusing to see them see-sawing
and snapping and opening their
jaws, and then sometimes in
their incessant activity even
closing upon the beaks of their A. Portion of a Cellularia, magnified.
neighbours. B. A Bird's Head Process, more highly
magnified, and seen in the act of grasping
It is still very doubtful what is another.
their precise function in the
economy of the animal; whether
it is to retain within reach of the ciliary current bodies that may serve as
food, or whether it is like the pedicellariæ of the sea-urchins to remove
extraneous particles that may be in contact with the surface of the
polyzoary. The latter would seem to be the function of the "vibracula,"
which are likewise pretty generally distributed among the polyzoa. Each of
these long bristle-shaped organs, springing at its base out of a sort of cup,
that contains muscles by which it is kept in almost constant motion,
sweeps slowly and carefully over the surface of the polyzoary, and removes
what might be injurious to the delicate inhabitants of the cells, when their
tentacles are protruded. So carefully have these lowly molluscs been
provided for!
The polyzoa can neither hear nor see, at least as far as we are able to
ascertain, but the delicacy of their sense of touch is very great. "When left
undisturbed in a glass of fresh sea-water," says Dr. Johnston,[R] "they push
their tentacula beyond the mouth of the cell by straightening the body, and
then expanding them in the form of a funnel or bell, they will often remain
quiet and apparently immovable for a long time, presenting a very pretty
and most interesting object to an observer of the 'minims of nature.' If,
however, the water is agitated, they withdraw on the instant, probably by
aid of the posterior ligament or muscle; the hinder part of the body is
pushed aside up the cell, the whole is sunk deeper, and by this means the
tentacula, gathered into a close column, are brought within the cell, the
aperture of which is shut by the same series of actions. The polyzoa of the
same polyzoary often protrude their thousand heads at the same time, or
in quick but irregular succession, and retire simultaneously, or nearly so,
but at other times I have often witnessed a few only to venture on the
display of their glories, the rest remaining concealed, and if, when many
are expanded, one is singled out and touched with a sharp instrument, it
alone feels the injury, and retires, without any others being conscious of
the danger, or of the hurt inflicted on their mate. The polyzoa propagate by
gemmation and by ova or eggs, which, germinating on the inner surface,
escape at a later period into the visceral cavity, and are finally discharged
into the wide sea, so to fulfil their mission in creation, and people the
shores of every clime with myriads of busy workers in horn and in lime,
which, with subtle chemistry, they draw from a fluid quarry and build up in
textures of admirable beauty and heaven-ordered designs."
[R] "History of the British Zoophytes," 2nd edit. vol. i. p. 259.
Each polyzoon begins with a single ovum. The original or seminal cell of
a flustra or lepralia has no sooner fixed itself upon some stone, shell, or
alga, than new buds begin to shoot forth, which in their turn produce
others from their unattached margins, so as rapidly to augment the
number of cells to a very large amount. Thus a common specimen of
Flustra carbasea presents more than 18,000 individual polyzoa, and as
each of these has about twenty-two tentacula, which are again furnished
with about a hundred ciliæ a piece, the entire polyzoary presents no less
than 396,000 tentacula and 39,600,000 ciliæ. The Rev. David
Landsborough calculated that a specimen of Flustra membranacea five feet
in length by eight inches in breadth had been the work and the habitation
of above two millions of inmates, so that this single colony on a submarine
island was about equal in number to the population of Scotland. As the
tentacula are numerous in this species, four thousand millions of ciliæ must
have provided for its wants, about four times the number of the inhabitants
of this globe!
The Tunicata
are so called
because their soft
parts are not
enclosed in a
calcified shell such
as invests the
majority of their
class, but in a
more or less
coriaceous
envelope or tunic
which is either
bag-shaped, and
provided with two
apertures, or
tube-shaped, and
open at the ends.
They present a
strong
resemblance to
the Polyzoa, not Ascidia mammillata.
merely in their a. Branchial orifice,
general plan of open. b. Anal orifice,
closed.
conformation, but
also in their
tendency to
produce composite structures by gemmation;
Clavellina producta. Group of they may, however, be at once distinguished
two adult and several young from them by the absence of the ciliated
individuals, magnified about tentacula which form so conspicuous a
five times.
c. Branchial orifice. e.
feature in the external aspect of a flustra or a
Branchiæ. retepore. Their branchiæ, which have
i. Anal orifice. l. Stomach. generally the form of ridges (e), occupy a
o. Heart. u, u′, u″. large sac, forming, as it were, the
Reproductive antechamber of the alimentary canal, which
buds, springing from the is barely distinguishable into gullet, stomach,
abdomen of the adults. and intestine, and always convoluted or
folded once on itself. The Tunicata are
exclusively marine, and widely spread from
the arctic to the tropical seas. All of them are free during the earlier parts
of their existence; some remain permanently so (Pyrosomidæ, Salpæ), but
the generality (Ascidiæ, Botrylli) become fixed to shells and other marine
bodies; some exist as distinct individuals (Ascidiæ, Cynthia), whilst various
degrees of combination are effected by others (Botryllus, Clavellina,
Pyrosoma), and some are simple in one generation and combined in the
next (Salpæ).
Thus the whole family is divisible into two groups, the simple and the
aggregate; both branching out into numerous genera, of which my limits
only allow me to mention some of the most remarkable. The simple
Ascidiæ, or Sea-Squirts, are very common on our shores. "Rarely," says
Forbes, "is the dredge drawn up from any sea-bed at all prolific in
submarine creatures without containing few or many of their irregularly
shaped leathery bodies, fixed to sea-weed, rock, or shell, by one extremity,
or by one side, free at the other, and presenting two more or less
prominent orifices, from which, on the slightest pressure, the sea-water is
ejected with great force. On the sea-shore, when the tide is out, we find
similar bodies attached to the under surface of rough stones. They are
variously, often splendidly, coloured, but otherwise are unattractive or even
repulsive in aspect. Some are of a large size, several inches in length. As
may easily be imagined, they lead a very inactive life, except in the young
state, when by means of a long tail they rapidly swim about, until finally
settling in some convenient spot, they gradually assume the form and
adopt the quiet life of the parent from which they sprang."
To the simple Tunicata belong also the Chelyosomata, whose coriaceous
envelope, consisting of eight somewhat horny angular plates, reminds one
of the carapace of the turtle. Their small and prominent orifices,
perforating the plated surface, are each surrounded by six triangular
valvules.
Some species of simple Ascidians on the coasts of the Channel and the
Mediterranean are valued as articles of food. At Cette sea-squirts are taken
regularly to market, and Cynthia microcosmus, although so repulsive
externally, furnishes a very delicate morsel.
Chelyosoma Macleayanum.
a. Branchial orifice. b. Anal orifice.
c. Coriaceous envelope of the sides.
d. Stone to which the animal is fixed. Botryllus violaceus. Two of the stems
magnified.
a. Common test. b. Some of the
branchial orifices.
c. The common anal orifice of one of
the systems.
Diazona violacea (magnified).
While in the Clavellinidæ the animals are connected by creeping tubular

prolongations of the common tunic through which the blood circulates, the
Botrylli form translucent jelly-like masses of various hues of orange, yellow,
purple, blue, grey, and green; sometimes nearly uniform in tint, sometimes
beautifully variegated, and very frequently pencilled as if with stars of
gorgeous device; now encrusting the surface of the rock, now descending
from it in icicle-like projections. They are also frequently attached to the
broad-leaved fuci, investing the stalks, or clothing with a glairy coat the
expanse of the fronds. "In examining their bodies," says the distinguished
naturalist previously quoted, "we find that it is not a single animal which is
before us, but a commonwealth of beings bound together by common and
vital ties. Each star is a family, each group of stars a community.
Individuals are linked together in systems, systems combined into masses.
Few bodies among the forms of animal life exhibit such exquisite figures as
those which we see displayed in the combinations of these compound
Ascidians."
In the genus Diazona, which has its chief seat in the Mediterranean, the
animals, which are very prominent and arranged in concentric circles, form
a single system expanded into a disc like that of a flower or of an Actinia.
The anal orifices, it will be seen, are situated close to the branchial
apertures at the free end of the single animals,
while in the Botrylli they open into a central
excretory cavity.
In the Pyrosomes we find large colonies of small
individuals aggregated in the form of a cylinder open
at one end. Their mouths or anterior extremities are
situated on the exterior of this hollow body, which
they bristle with large and longish tubercles (a),
whilst the opposite or anal orifices (b) open into the
cavity of the cylinder, whose smooth wall they
perforate with numerous small holes. By a
simultaneous action the central cavity is either
narrowed or enlarged, and by this means the
strange social republic glides slowly through the
waters.
The Pyrosomes inhabit the Mediterranean and
the warmer parts of the ocean. In the former at
times their abundance is a source of great
annoyance to the fishermen, sometimes even
completely clogging their nets, and on the high seas
they are not seldom met with in almost incredible
profusion. Their delicate and transparent forms,
their elegant tints, and their unrivalled
phosphorescence render them objects of admiration
to the voyager, and entitle them to rank amongst
A single individual of
the most resplendent living gems of the ocean. Pyrosoma
giganteum, cut out
of the common test
and magnified.
a. Branchial or
external orifice.
b. Anal or internal
orifice.
d. Stomach. e.
Liver.
f. Branchiæ.
Salpa maxima.
a. Upper lip or posterior orifice.
b. Anterior orifice.
c. Prolongations of the test by which the
animal is adherent to its neighbours. Salpæ, isolated and associated.
A. Salpa runcinata, solitary.
B. Salpa runcinata, associated.
C. Salpa zonaria, aggregated.
While the sessile Ascidiæ remind one of the polyps, the transparent
Salpæ, freely swimming in the sea, bear a great resemblance to the
pellucid jelly-fishes. Each resembles a crystalline tube, through which one
can distinctly see the internal coloured parts. Sometimes these animals,
which abound in the warmer seas, are found solitary, at other times
associated in circular or lengthened groups, termed garlands, ribands, and
chains; but, strange to say, these two forms so different in outward
appearance are only the alternating generations of one and the same
animal. The chained Salpæ produce only solitary ones, and the latter only
chains, or, as Chamisso, to whom we owe the discovery of this interesting
fact, expresses himself, "a salpa mother never resembles her daughter, or
her own mother, but is always like her sister, her grand-daughter, or her
grand-mother." When Chamisso first made known his discovery, he was
laughed at as a fanciful visionary, but all later observations have not only
fully confirmed his statement but also discovered similar or even more
wonderful metamorphoses among the jelly-fish, polyps, crustacea, sea-
urchins, and other marine animals. Thus Chamisso gave the first impulse to
a whole series of highly interesting observations, and his rank is now as
well established among naturalists as it has long been among the most
distinguished poets of Germany. The Salpæ progress by the alternate
contractions and dilatations of their tubular body. In this manner the
chains, as if obeying a common impulse, glide along with a serpentine
movement, and are often regarded by sailors as sea-snakes.
Before quitting the Tunicata, a
few points of interest in their simple
history remain to be noticed.
Despite their humble organisation,
they have a heart which, as may
easily be ascertained in the
transparent species, is subject to
strange alternations of action. For
after having received for a minute
or two the blood from the branchiæ,
and propelled it to the system at
large, it will at once cease to
pulsate for a moment or two, and
then propel the blood to the
branchial sac, receiving it at the
same time from the system
generally. After this reversed course
has continued for some time,
another pause occurs, and the first
course is resumed. It is very
probable that many of the Tunicata
Inner or under side of the superior plated
are able to hear and to see. In surface of Chelyosoma Macleayanum.
Chelyosoma, organs have been a. Branchial orifice. b. Anal orifice.
discovered whose structure seems c. Muscles bordering the carapace-
to indicate that they are destined plates. d. Central hexagonal plate.
for the transmission of sound, and e. Surrounding plates. f. The nerve-
ganglion and nerve-fibres. g, h.
the Ascidiæ have frequently around Auditory apparatus. i. Row of
the extremity of their tubes a row of tentacles, anterior to the œsophagus.
coloured points similar to the j. Stomach. k. Part of the intestine.
imperfect organs of sight present in
the majority of the bivalve
Acephalans. Thus a closer examination of the lower animals is constantly
bringing new faculties to light, and the further we penetrate into the
secrets of their life the more we find occasion to admire the power and
wisdom of their Maker!
CHAP. XVI.
ECHINODERMATA.
STAR-FISHES, SEA-URCHINS, AND SEA-

CUCUMBERS.
The Star-Fishes.—Their Feet or Suckers.—Voracity of the
Asterias.—The Rosy Feather-Star.—Brittle and Sand-Stars.
—The real Sea-Stars of the British Waters.—The Sea-
Urchins.—The Pedicellariæ.—The Shell and the Dental
Apparatus of the Sea-Urchin.—The Sea-Cucumbers.—
Their strange Dismemberments.—Trepang-fishing on the
Coast of North Australia.—In the Feejee Islands.
"As there are stars in the sky, so are there stars in the sea," is the
poetical exordium of Link's treatise on Star-fishes, the first ever published
on the subject; and James Montgomery tells us in rather bombastic style,
that the seas are strewn with the images of the constellations with which
the heavens are thronged.
This is no doubt highly complimentary to the star-fishes, but is far from
being merited by any particularly shining or radiant quality; as they occupy
a very inferior grade among the denizens of the sea, and merely owe their
stellar name to their form, which somewhat resembles the popular notion
of a star.
But if they are of an inferior rank to most marine animals; if even the
stupid oyster boasts of a heart, which they do not possess; yet a closer
inspection of their organisation shows us many wonderful peculiarities, and
proves to us once more that nature has impressed the stamp of perfection
as well upon her lowest and most simple creations, as upon those beings
that rank highest in the scale of life.
Every one knows the common Star-fish, with its lanceolate arms; its
generally orange-coloured back, thickly set with tubercles, and the pale
under-surface, with its rows of feet, feelers, or suckers, which serve both
for locomotion and the seizure of food.
When one of these creatures is placed on its back, in a plate filled with
sea-water, it is exceedingly curious to watch the activity which those
numberless sucking feet display. At first the star-fish is motionless; for,
offended by the rough handling it has undergone, the feet have all shrunk
into the body; but soon they are seen to emerge like so many little worms
from their holes, and to grope backwards and forwards through the water,
evidently seeking the nearest ground to lay hold of. Those that reach it first
immediately affix their suckers, and, by contracting, draw a portion of the
body after them, so as to enable others to attach themselves, until, pulley
being added to pulley, their united power is sufficient to restore the star-
fish to its natural position.
Star-Fish.
The upper tuberculated surface is shown, with some of the spines of

the under surface projecting at the sides of the rays. At one of the angles
between the rays, on the right side, is seen the eccentric calcareous plate,
or madreporic tubercle, which indicates the existence of a bilateral
symmetry.
This act of volition is surely remarkable enough in so simple an animal,
which scarcely possesses the rudiments of a nervous system, but the
simple mechanism by which the suckers are put into motion is still more
wonderful. Each of these little organs is tubular, and connected with a
globular vesicle filled with an aqueous fluid, and contained within the body
of the star-fish immediately beneath the hole from which the sucker issues.
When the animal wishes to protrude its feet, each vesicle forcibly contracts,
and, propelling the fluid into the corresponding sucker, causes its
extension; and, when it desires to withdraw them, a contraction of the
suckers drives back the fluid into the expanding vesicles. The internal walls
of the suckers and their vessels are furnished with vibratory cilia, and by
this simple means a continual circulation of the fluid they contain goes on
within them.
Numerous species of star-fishes are so very
common in our waters, that in many places the sea-
bottom is literally paved with them. They likewise
abounded in the primeval ocean, for deep beds of
carboniferous limestone and vast strata of the triassic
muschelkalk are often formed by the accumulation of
little else than the skeletons of Encrinites and
Pentacrinites, which, unlike the sea-stars which every
Lily-Encrinite.
storm drifts upon our shores, did not move about
freely, but were affixed to a slender flexible stalk,
composed of numerous calcareous joints connected
together by a fleshy coat. The feathered bifurcated arms of the Crinoids
are unprovided with suckers, which would have been perfectly useless to
creatures not destined to pursue their game to any distance, but passively
to receive the nutriment which the current of sea-water set in motion by
their richly-ciliated pinnules conveys to the mouth. These beautiful
creatures were formerly supposed to be nearly extinct, for up to within the
last few years only two living stalked crinoids were known in the ocean of
the present period, but the dredge has latterly brought up new and
remarkably fine species from depths of more than 2000 fathoms, and there
is every reason to believe that these animals still form an important
element in the abyssal fauna.[S]
[S] See page 420.
Of freely-swimming Crinoids but one single

representative is known in the northern seas, the Rosy
Feather-star (Comatula rosacea), whose long and
delicately fringed rays and deep rose colour dotted with
brown may serve to give us an idea of the beauty of the
submarine landscapes where Pentacrinus Wyville-
Thomsoni or Bathycrinus gracilis abound. During the
earlier stage of its existence, the comatula is attached to
a stalk; a discovery for which science is indebted to Mr. T.
V. Thompson, who in 1823 dredged in the Cove of Cork a
singular little pedunculated crinoid animal (Pentacrinus
Portion of the
Pentaorinus europæus), which he found attached to the stems of
Briareus. zoophytes. It measured about three-fourths of an inch in
(Fossil.) height, and resembled a minute comatula mounted on
the stalk of a pentacrinus. When this pygmy
representative of the ancient lily-stars was first dragged
up from its submarine haunts, it created a great sensation among
naturalists, as it was the first recent animal of the encrinite kind which had
ever been seen in the seas of Europe. At first it was supposed to be a
distinct species, but Mr. Thompson, by carefully following it through all the
stages of its growth, succeeded in proving that it was merely the hitherto
unnoticed young of the rosy feather-star.
This elegant crinoid is found all round our coasts, and its range extends
from Norway to the shores of the Mediterranean. In swimming, the
movements of its arms exactly resemble the alternating stroke given by the
medusa to the liquid element, and have the same effect, causing the
animal to raise itself from the bottom and to advance back foremost, even
more rapidly than the medusa. When dying, either in fresh water or in
spirits, it emits a most beautiful purple colour, which tinges the liquid in
which it is killed.
The Ophiuridæ, or snake-stars, are essentially distinguished from the
true star-fishes by the long serpent or worm-like arms, which are
appended to their round, depressed, urchin-like bodies. They have no true
suckers with which to walk, their progression being effected (and with
great facility) by the twisting or wriggling of their arms, which are
moreover in many species furnished with spines on the sides, assisting
locomotion over a flat surface. These arms are very different from those of
the true star-fishes, which are lobes of the animal's body, whereas the
arms of the Ophiuridæ are mere processes attached or superadded to the
body.
These animals are very generally distributed through the seas of our
earth, both of its northern and southern hemispheres, but are found
largest in the tropical ocean. In our own waters they are very abundant,
and are among the most curious and beautiful game pursued by the
dredger.
The British Ophiuridæ belong to two generic
types, that of the Ophiuræ and that of the Euryales.
The former, to which the sand and brittle-stars
belong, have simple arms; the latter, arms ramifying
into many processes.
The rays of the Sand-stars have a whip-like or
lizard-tail appearance, while those of the Brittle-stars
look like so many centipedes or annelides attached
at regular distances round a little sea-urchin. We
have ten native brittle-stars, the most common of
which (Ophiocoma rosula, Forbes) is also one of the
handsomest, presenting every variety of variegation,
and the most splendid displays of vivid hues
arranged in beautiful patterns. Not often are two
specimens found coloured alike. It is the most brittle
of all brittle-stars, separating itself into pieces with
wonderful quickness and ease. Touch it, and it flings
away an arm; hold it, and in a moment not an arm
Sand-star. remains attached to the body. "The common brittle-
star," says Edward Forbes, "often congregates in
great numbers on the edges of scallop-banks, and I
have seen a large dredge come up completely filled with them; a most
curious sight, for when the dredge was emptied, these little creatures,
writhing with the strangest contortions, crept about in all directions, often
flinging their arms in broken pieces around them; and their snake-like and
threatening attitudes were by no means relished by the boatmen, who
anxiously asked permission to shovel them overboard, superstitiously
remarking that the things weren't altogether right."
Fancy the naturalist's vexation, who has no other means of preserving a
brittle-star entire than by quickly plunging it into cold fresh water, which
acts as a poison on the Ophiuræ as well as on most other marine animals,
and kills them so instantaneously that even the most brittle species have
no time to make the contraction necessary to break off their rays.
The Ophiocoma rosula seems to be equally abundant on all parts of the
coast of Britain and Ireland. It is fond of rocky places, and grows in
Shetland to a much larger size than elsewhere. It is said to prey on little
shells and crabs, and is greatly relished by the cod in its turn, great
numbers being often found in the stomach of that voracious fish.
The Scotch or Shetland Argus (Euryale
verrucosum, Lamarck), a very rare animal, of
which the adjoining wood-cut represents a
segment, is the only British Euryale. It
measures a foot or more across, and its
singular aspect has long excited admiration
among naturalists. "So odd a creature as this,"
remarks Bradley in his "Works of Nature," "is
well worth the contemplation of such curious
persons as live near the sea, where every day
they have subjects enow to employ their
curiosity and improve their understanding."
Grew says that "as he swims he spreads and
stretches out all his branches to their full
length, and so soon as he perceives his prey Warted Euryale.
within his reach, he hooks them all in, and so
takes it as it were in a net."
The British species of true star-fishes may be arranged under four
families. The Urasters are distinguished from all others by having four rows
of suckers in each of the avenues which groove the under surface of their
rounded rays. In consequence of the great number of these singular
organs, the under surface of a living cross-fish presents a sight truly
curious and wonderful. Hundreds of worm-like suckers, extending and
contracting, coiling and feeling about, each apparently acting
independently of the others, give the idea rather of an assemblage of
polypi than of essential parts of one animal. They are sensitive in the
extreme, for, if we touch one of those singular tubes when outstretched, all
those in its neighbourhood are thrown into a state of agitation; and when it
shrinks from our touch, changing from a lengthy fibre to a little shrunk
tubercle, some of its neighbours, as if partaking in its fears, contract
themselves in like manner.
The common Cross-fish (Uraster
rubens) abounds on most parts of our
shores, so as in some places to be used for
manure in large quantities. "It is a sworn
enemy to oysters, and as it is frequently
found with one or more of its rays broken
off, the fishermen fancy that it loses them
in consequence of its oyster-hunting
propensities; that it insinuates an arm into
the incautious oyster's gape, with the
intent of whipping out its prey, but that
sometimes the apathetic mollusk proves
Common Cross-fish. more than a match for its radiate enemy,
and closing on him, holds him fast by the
proffered finger; whereupon the cross-fish
preferring amputation and freedom to captivity and dying of an oyster, like
some defeated warrior flings his arms away, glad to purchase the safety of the
remaining whole by the reparable loss of a part, as it has the power of
reproducing the broken rays.
"There is, however, reason to think that the cross-fish destroys his prey in
a very different manner from that just narrated; for star-fishes are not
unfrequently found feeding on shell-fish, enfolding their prey within their
arms, and seeming to suck it out of its shell with their mouths, pouting out
the lobes of the stomach, which they are able to project in the manner of a
proboscis. Possibly the stomach secretes an acrid and poisonous fluid, which,
by paralysing the shell-fish, opens the way to its soft and fleshy parts."—
Forbes's Star Fishes.
The Solasters are "suns in the system of sea-stars," and are entitled to this
distinguished rank among the marine constellations by their many rays and
brilliant hues. The Solaster papposa, or common Sun-star, with rays varying in
number from twelve to fifteen, is one of the commonest, and at the same
time handsomest, of all the British species. Sometimes the whole upper
surface is deep purple, and frequently the disk is red, and the rays white
tipped with red. It grows to a considerable size, having been found eleven
inches broad.
The Goniasters, or Cushion-stars, are distinguished from the allied species
by their pentagonal form. One of the most singular of our native species is the
Birdsfoot Sea-star (Palmipes membranaceus), being the thinnest and flattest
of all its class. When alive it is flexible, like a piece of leather, and a person
who had never seen it before would be apt to mistake it for the torn off dorsal
integument of some gibbous goniaster. The colour is white, with a red centre
and five red rays, proceeding one to each angle. The whole upper surface is
covered with tufts of minute spines arranged in rows.
The Asteriæ, with their stellate body and flat rays, are very different in
aspect from the Goniasters. The Butt-thorn (Asterias aurantiaca) owes its
name to one of those strange superstitions which originate in some
inexplicable manner, and are handed down by one credulous generation to
the next. "The first taken by the fishermen at Scarborough is carefully made a
prisoner, and placed on a seat at the stern of the boat. When they hook a butt
(halibut) they immediately give the poor star-fish its liberty and commit it to
its native element; but if their fishery is unsuccessful it is left to perish, and
may eventually enrich the cabinet of some industrious collector."
To the family of the Asteriæ belongs also the Ling-thorn (Luidia
fragilissima), the largest, and one of the most interesting of our British
species. When full grown, it measures two feet across, and would appear to
exceed that size occasionally, judging from fragments. The rays are from five
to seven in number, quite flat, and generally five times as long as the disk is
broad. The colour is brick-red above, varying in intensity, the under surface
being straw-coloured. The wonderful power which the Luidia possesses, not
merely of casting away its arms entire, but of breaking them voluntarily into
little pieces with great rapidity, approximates it to the brittle-stars, and
renders the preservation of a perfect specimen a very difficult matter.
"The first time I ever took one of these creatures," says Edward Forbes, "I
succeeded in getting it into the boat entire. Never having seen one before,
and quite unconscious of its suicidal powers, I spread it out on a rowing-
bench, the better to admire its form and colours. On attempting to move it for
preservation, to my horror and disappointment I found only an assemblage of
rejected members. My conservative endeavours were all neutralised by its
destructive exertions, and it is now badly represented in my cabinet by an
armless disk and a diskless arm. Next time I went to dredge on the same
spot, determined not to be cheated out of a specimen in such a way a second
time, I brought with me a bucket of cold fresh water, to which article star-
fishes have a great antipathy. As I expected, a luidia came up in the dredge, a
most gorgeous specimen. As it does not generally break up before it is raised
above the surface of the sea, cautiously and anxiously I sunk my bucket to a
level with the dredge's mouth, and proceeded in the most gentle manner to
introduce luidia to the purer element. Whether the cold air was too much for
him, or the sight of the bucket too terrific, I know not, but in a moment he
proceeded to dissolve his corporation, and at every mesh of the dredge his
fragments were seen escaping. In despair I grasped at the largest, and
brought up the extremity of an arm with its terminating eye, the spinous
eyelid of which opened and closed with something exceedingly like a wink of
derision."
The Sea-star might be called a flattened
sea-urchin, with radiated lobes, and the
Sea-urchin, a contracted or condensed sea-
star, so near is their relationship. In both
we find the same radiating construction, in
which the number five is so conspicuous,
and in both also the rows of suckers,
which, starting from a centre, are set into
motion by a similar mechanism, and used
for the same purpose. In all the sea-urchins
finally, and in many of the sea-stars, we
find the surface of the body covered with
numerous exceedingly minute, two- or
Goniaster. three-forked pincers, that perpetually move
from side to side, and open and shut
without intermission. These active little
organs, which have been named Pedicellariæ, were formerly supposed to be
parasites, working on their own account, but they are now almost universally
recognised as organs subservient to the nutrition of the animal, and destined
to seize the food floating by, and to convey it to the mouth, one passing it to
the other. Even in their outward appearance, the sea-urchins are not so very
different from the sea-stars as would be imagined on seeing a Butt-thorn near
a globular urchin, for both orders approach each other by gradations; thus,
the Goniasters, with their cushion-shaped disks and shortened rays,
approximate very much in shape to the sea-urchins; and among the latter we
also find a gradual progression from the flattened to the globular form. Still
there are notable differences between the two classes. Thus in the sea-
urchins the digestive organs form a tube with two openings, while in the true
sea-stars they have but one single orifice. Their mode of life is, however,
identical.
Shell of Echinus, or Sea-Urchin.
On the right side covered with spines, on the left
the spines removed.
The Echinidæ move forward by means of the joint action of their suckers
and spines, using the former in the manner of the true star-fishes, and the
latter as the snake-stars. They also make use of the spines, which move in
sockets, to bury themselves in the fine sand, where they find security against
many enemies.
Some species even entomb themselves pholas-like in stone, inhabiting
cavities or depressions in rocks, corresponding to their size, and evidently
formed by themselves. Bennett describes each cavity of the edible Echinus
lividus as circular, agreeing in form with the urchin within it, and so deep as to
embrace more than two-thirds of the bulk of the inhabitant. It is large enough
to admit of the creature's rising a little, but not of its coming out easily. The
echinus adheres so firmly to this cavity by its suckers, as to be forced from it
with extreme difficulty when alive. On the coasts of the county of Clare
thousands may be seen lodged in the rock, their purple spines and regular
forms presenting a most beautiful appearance on the bottoms of the grey
limestone rock-pools. How the boring is performed has, like many other
secrets, not yet been settled by naturalists. The first perforation is most likely
effected by means of the teeth, and then the rock softened by some secreted
solvent.
Sea-urchins are found in all seas, but as they are extremely difficult to
preserve, and many of them have such long and delicate spines that it is

Structure and Tectonics of The Indian Continental Crust and Its Adjoining Region: Deep Seismic Studies Harish C Tewari All Chapters Instant Download

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Structure and Tectonics of The Indian Continental Crust and Its Adjoining Region: Deep Seismic Studies Harish C Tewari All Chapters Instant Download

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Structure and Tectonics of The Indian Continental Crust and Its Adjoining Region: Deep Seismic Studies Harish C Tewari All Chapters Instant Download

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Download the full version of the textbook now at textbookfull.

Structure and Tectonics of the Indian

Explore and download more textbook at https://textbookfull.com

The Geology of the Belingwe Greenstone Belt, Zimbabwe: A

THE PROBLEM OF THE RUPEE ITS ORIGIN AND ITS SOLUTION

The Hidden Treasure of Black ASL Its History and Structure

The Stolen Sisters psychological thriller 1st Edition

Curriculum Planning with Design Language Building Elegant

Operating Room Leadership and Perioperative Practice

Making amulets Christian. Artefacts, scribes, and contexts

The History of Creation Or the Development of the Earth

For information on all Elsevier publications

Acquisition editor: LaFleur, Marisa (ELS-CMA)

Overview of Crust and

Outer D" layer

1.1 LITHOSPHERE AND ASTHENOSPHERE

The asthenosphere is a rheologically weak, semiviscous layer in the upper

1.1.1 The Crust

1.1.2 The Mechanisms of Crustal Evolution

a stable condition. As a result, the basaltic underplating played an important

Calc–alkaline Oceanic crust

Dehydration melting Subcreted oceanic

1.2 SEISMOLOGICAL STUDIES OF THE EARTH’S CRUST

propagation is called a P-wave and a wave in which the particle motion is

1.3 CONTROLLED SOURCE SEISMIC STUDY

Table 1.1 Velocity Ranges in the Crust

1.4 CONTROLLED SOURCE SEISMIC STUDIES OVER

northward drift at an average speed of 16 cm year1, covering a distance of

Chennai Pan African

72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92°

72° 80° 88° 96°

(Aravalli-Delhi fold belt, central India, Southern Granulite Terrane, Hima-

Like the Lamellibranchiate Acephala, the Brachiopods are covered with

At the lower extremity of the great series of

Eschara cervicornis. (Natural

Portion of a branch of the

While in the Clavellinidæ the animals are connected by creeping tubular

STAR-FISHES, SEA-URCHINS, AND SEA-

The upper tuberculated surface is shown, with some of the spines of

Of freely-swimming Crinoids but one single

You might also like