TABLE OF CONTENTS tes Genera Phys and Nesta | pial Guat and Making Measrement gp and ACEI nn pores and Newton's LW Turing fet of Fores. 1sMomentom ta Energy Work aid Power nn 1 Boer RESOUES 18 Pressure nts Thermal Ps ou States of Mater and Temperature... {a nrownian Motion and Gas Bebviu. $13 Thermal Expansion and Heat Capacity Sepecaan omnes 2 rant Ee units Waves. 3 = Genera Wave Popes — ‘3.2Sound Waves. < sar 13.3 Bleetomagnetie Spectrum 154 Refetion and Reaction of Light. 1-90 5 Lens eos val Becca Magnet. s 03 ‘41 Elctrial Quantities. : 104 442 Hlectee Circus. eons) 43 Blea Safety. 125 44 Magnetism. 3 129, 45 Motor fect and DC Motor. a 136 (46 Electromagnetic Int nner a ag Unit; Nuclear Physics wn 150 Sa Atoms and Isotopes... a5 52 Radioactive Deay. a 2 es 153 Half, Isotope Applications and Safety Precautions Es aa Unit 6 Space Physies, : 166 6 Planet Hart — 167 {6.2 TheSolar System, am 69 The Universe 175Extra Sections extra Section 1 Basic Math Skills for Physics Extra Section 2: Paper 6 Guide. Extra Section 3: List of Equations and Constants... [Page left intentionally blank for reasons unknown.)uniT 1 GENERAL PHYSICS AND MECHANICS[UNIT GENERAL PHYSICS AND MECHANICS. 4.4 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND MAKING MEASUREMENTS ) [CHAPTER SUMMARY physic uaniteshave magne and dreton rengths can be measured sing rulers and measuring tapes, Very small lengths measured using | micrometer. re thicknossof sever sheets of paper then divide by their number to find thethicnes | AE Measure tl fone sheet of paper. ‘Mass the amount of matter in an object. Mass s measured using a balance. | sas ofa quis measured by geting the mass ofthe full and empty containers then getthe difference. ‘Timo is measured usinga stopwatch, clocks and digital timers. | Measure the time of 10 oscillations then divide by 10, to find the period of an oscillation ‘Volume isthe space occupied by an object. “The volume of aliquid is measured using a measuring cylinder. ‘Volume ofa regular shape is ealeulated using V = x w x ht. ‘Volume of an irregular solid shape is using the displacement method. Density isthe mass per unit volume of an object. Pa} av) Zero error is when the device, scale, or measurement does not start from zero. Parallax errors line of sight errors, happen when you do not look perpendicular to the seale. Can be ‘xed by looking perpendicular to the scale. Meniscus error is caused by the curvature of water. Volume measurements are made from the bottom of the meniscus. Scalars have magnitude. Distance, time, mass, speed, energy and temperature are scalars. ‘Vectors have magnitude and direetion. Force, weight, velocity, acceleration, momentum, | displacement and field strength are vectors. Cambridge 1GCSE Physics Nase ins‘UNIT GENERAL Ptvsics AND MECHANICS PHYSICAL QUANTITIES Aphysical quantity is something that we measur ‘and calculations), Any quantity must have twe a example, if measure the length in physics (we're going to doa lot of measuring things, a magnitude and a unit of measurement. For oe ptt mage and auto 15cm gis the magnitude ofthe length (the value) while em isthe unit (which is centimeters by the way). LENGTH THis the distance between two points, Wecan ao us termslke wih eight, rads, ameter and soon, The unit of measurement of lneth im centimeter (co milimeter om) and Klometer ny, Sal meter mba also centimeter ‘There are three measuring instruments we us o measure length, 1, For lengths up toa meter we use the meter rule. 2 or vey Jong distances (overa meter) we ue a measuring tape (also called tape measure 3 For tiny lengths (thickness of coin or wire) we can use a mierometer serew gauge. Measuring tape Measuring the thickness of a sheet of paper A single paper is too thin to measure alone. To get the thickness of sheet of paper, get alot of sheets (ike 100 or so) and measure the thickness of all of them together, Divide that reading by the number of sheets (that 100 we used before). es rico | sheets ‘Cambridge IGCSE Physics ao 2JENERAL PHYSICS AND MECHANICS Mass Mass is defined as ‘a measure of the quantity of matter in an object at rest relative tothe observer» resbasialy how mach stu in an object. The St unit of mass is kilogram (Kg), but gram (hx also used often. Mass is measured using a balance. Measuring the mass of a liquid ‘Tofind the mas a igld measure the mas ofthe empty contain fist (m0) ‘the mass of the container and liquid together (m2). ‘Then measure (2m). Finally caleulate te diferenceto get the mass ofthe liquid alone 0 “0 0 ‘mbdge 0C8e Pe a Monared A‘UNIT: GENERAL PIYSICS AND MECHANICS VOLUME isis the Spaee Occupied by ai Object, 1 js,how much space it takes up, Basically, its arocubie meter (m) and eubie centimeter (em speed to measure the volume of aliquid. basically how large o small an object ize. The units of measurement of volume m) Ameasuring ey Measuring the volume of a regular solid ‘To get the volume of a regular solid you only need a ruler. After measuring the dimensions of the Ont youean culate itusngsinplegeometieslagation ne cross setonl leas ‘height = ‘ict ~Tength } Fora rectangular box just use: volume = length x width x height However, the general equation forthe volume of any shape is: 5 volume = area of base x hetght Volume of an irregular solic ‘You can't measure the volume ofa stone or your keys using any equation. So, we use a method called the displacement method to find the volume ofan irregularly shaped objec. Follow these steps: 1. pour some water into a measuring cylinder and record the volume (V1) ‘2. gently putthe stone (object) into the water using a thread to avoid splashing '3, record the new volume level from the eylinder (V2) 44. the volume of the stone is the difference between the two readings (V2-V1) volume of stone= 125-75 =50.0* [the object floats (like a piece of cork or wood), attach a metal sinker of known volume to the object. Subtract the volume of the sinker from the final measurement, Cambedge10CSE Physes Mobammed aUNIT: GENERAL PHYSICS AND MECHANICS TIME Rae antity i life. Its basi You know what time is. Itis probably the most important quantity ally bo hates and events last, There is no specific definition for time that we need to know but be tneand ty to Goole it The units of measurement of ime are seconds, minutes, ous, dys, ee months, and years Itis vital to know how to convert units of time. ‘hour ~ 60min aiid tmin > 60seconds Sy ‘Times measored using stopwateh, Incase you don't know how to read a stopwatch, the diagray below should help you understand how: gmin 43sec O75se ‘The time in the diagram is 3 minutes 43.75 seconds. Period of oscillation of a pendulum An oscillation is another way of saying a eyele or vibration. A pendulum is a common physics tool (and ean hypnotize you! Maybe.) that takes a fixed amount of time to go back and forth (one ceillation). 4. To find the time of one osilaton just measure the time of several eyeles in one go (lke 20, oscillations). 12, Thon divide the reading by the numberof oscillations (the 20 from before). ‘3+ Ropeat the reading and take an average ‘Also don’ forget to eset your stopwatch to zero hefore making measurements amide 6c Pyses Mohammed A —unr 'NERALPIIYSICS AND MECHANICS DENSITY vic is heavier? A kilogram of tel ora ilo i same! ygram of cotton?” The answer is: “They are both the kilogram bag of feathers “Kilogram steel dumbbell Density s defined as ‘the mass per unit volume ofa substance ‘The uit of measurement of density is either kg/m or g/em’. risealeulated using: mass m teste) = Sotume OT Objects with alarge density have a large mass in a small volume, Whereas objects with a small density have a small mass and a large volume. Density of a regular solid 4. Measure the mass ofthe object using a balance 2, Measure the length, width and height and calculate the volume of the object 4g, Calculate density using mass/volume Density of a liquid 1, Measure the mass of an empty measuring eylinder 2. Pout the liquid into the elinder and measure the new mass 3. The difference is the mass ofthe liquid ‘4. Record the volume ofthe liquid from the measuring eylinder scale 5. Calculate density using mass/volume Density of an irregular solid 4. Measure the mass of the object using a balanee | Pour some water into a measuring eylinder and measure the inital volume Gently put the object into the measuring cylinder and record the new volume Calculate the difference to find the volume of the object CCaleulate density using mass/volume 4 Floating or Sinking Deity alg affects whether an object will loat or sink. Ifan object has a greater density than water, it will sink. Ifan object has a density less than water, it will float. Cambridge IGCSE Pies Mobamed At[UNIT GENERAL PHYSICS AND MECHANICS the DENSITY OF A SUBSTAN( Ttis particularly important to understand that th CE CHANGES, aes te material ofthe substance does change. Meaning Heaney . ‘wood in haf, the density of each pice is still the same. “The only thing that affects the density ofa substance is temperature but that's a discussion for Tater date, ‘The block shown has a mass of 500 grams. Caleulate the density ofthe block ‘ince the shape is that ofa box, you can easly ealeulae the volume using length x wide ‘SOURCES OF ERROR Any measurement you make will have some kind of eror. The easiest way to reduce the effect of, ‘these random errors isto repeat your readings and take an average. Additionally, larger measurements result in smaller errors, orto be more precise, they reduce the effect of errors on your reading. ‘Thinkabout it. Measuring the mass ofa feather will definitely have more uncertainty than ‘measuring the mass of an elephant (not tat you'd want to measure the mass ofan elephant) However, there are some erors that can be avoided just by being careful Zoro Error This happens when the zor of the sea is not used properly ori broken or when you forget to rest a stopwatch. Avuiditby subtracting or adding the extra amount Cambridge 1603 Physics Mohammed AUNITsa1 *ENERAL PHYSICS AND MECHANICS parallax Error isis MOT okay “p> thisis okay socalled line-of-sight error, this happens when you don't look perpendicular to the seal when measuring a value. Solve itjust by looking perpendicular to the ceale, Meniscus Error Pouring aliquid in @ container doesnt give you a fat surface, i's atually a litle curved. To avoid it Jook to the bottom of the curve when measuring water (orto the top of the curve when measuring mercury). SCALARS AND VECTORS: Some physical quantities don't just havea quantity, these need to be also deceribed with adrecton Sealars are quantities that have only magnitude. The following quantities are scalars: distance, speed, time, mass, energy and temperature. Veetors are quantities that have both magnitude AND direction. The following quantities are vectors force, weight, velocity, aeecleration, momentum, eletre field strength and gravitational field strength. Vectors can be added or subtracted by calculation and graphically. Combridge IGCSE Pies Mohammed AliINTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS (SI) nn ores at ev ded nein wih tn A ferent oes tesand = Cows used diferent easing sia = Palate pone arena crop twats nan oe ivfaesm stent Peet pr seem eety, \ MY eta sar nt hat wes ’ eo es -etocity 1 speed in a ven ire naa Soe erasing peserantteek PREFIXES ‘Aprefixisa word we place before aun ‘hat the length of «rubbers o.050m oF and lots of zeree are very inconvenient. ‘Wd ike centi and mil are considered prefixes that make aunt smaller Whereas Kilo is 2 prefix that makes a unit larger. ito make tanger or smaller. Thats because its silly to ay tthe distance between two cites is 230000m, Decimals 108 Of) 1000 000 Talo) 21000 xe ‘SPEED cent () 100 x10 " wali (n) 1000 1 wee ier) = 1000 09 xi sii speetit ‘he AS Cambridge IGCSE Physis Mohammed ACHAPTER SUMMARY. speed isthe distance travelled per nittime, a emt ‘Velocity is speed in a given direction, total distance travelled zed, = a avelled erarage ee total time taken Inereasing speed is called acceleration, decreasing speed is deceleration, Acceleration isthe rate of change in velocity, Deceleration is negative acceleration, Gradient ofa distance-time graph is speed. ‘Area under a speed-time graph is aeceleration, Gradient ofa speed-time graph is acceleration, ‘SPEED Whenever we talk about motion, the first thing that comes to mind is speed. Whether it’s running, swimming, driving or skydiving, its ll about how fast you're moving, Itis defined as: ‘The units of measurement are usually m/s or km/h. [Aspeed of 20 m/s means you are moving a distance of 20 meters every 1 second. ombeidge16CSE Phys Moanin AJENERAL PHYSICS AND MECHANICS During any kind of motion, the speed of an object isnt constant al the time. So, what woe the average speed ofthe object: lea, “Kear travels 100 km. The highest speed of the car is 90 km/h, and the lowest sp jis 30 km/h. The journey takes two hours. ‘What is the average speed for the journey? (in km/h) | Don't let the highest and lowest speeds confuse you. Just use the distance and time given: otal distance travelled _ 100 average speed = rar sime taken 2 ~ S04/ VELocITY ‘Velocity isthe vector version of speed. Itis defined as ACCELERATION ‘When I press on my car's gas pedal, my speed doesn’t suddenly jump to 50 km/h, itactually takes ‘time. When I press on the brakes, my ear's speed gradually decreases to 0. These actions are called acceleration and deceleration. ‘When the speed of a moving object inereases, we call this acceleration. An object moving with an acceleration of +10m/s* means that its speed inereases by som/s every 1 second. trop tats t22e ta3 om) 30m/s _om/s_ 30m/s aeeeleration= Hors However, when the speed ofa moving object decreases, we eall this deceleration (or negative acceleration). An objeet moving with an acceleration of ~1om/s? means that its speed will decrease by 20m/s every 1 second. feo: feds ted teas nom/_, 20m/s, 10nvs, Onis deceeration= TOMI Cambridge SOCSE.Physes Mohammed AiONT GENERAL nics ax sncnanics _cccleration is defined as: een tis caleulated using: ‘The unt of measurement of acceleration is mse. ‘Aballis dropped from tall building. It takes 3.2 seconds foreach the ground and oe th an acceleration of 10 m/s. Caleulate the speed that the ball hits the ground with. ‘This requires you to rearrange the pecan ‘equation slightly to find the final velocity. a= therefore dv =axt Av=axt=10%32=32m/s 0, the ball hits the ground ata speed of gam, Acceleration and changing direction ‘When the direction ofa moving object changes, itis also considered to be accelerating (even ifthe speed is constant!) That is because acceleration is defined asthe change in velocity per unit time (whichis vector). EBB 20}m pe Mobamaned Al Comldge GCSE PyeDIsTANCE-TIME GRAPHS enact ointment ig den wera Cents a fut wordeand mbes re gphwer isdn raph eee ot sian on they ain ‘Te ot une ah oka wa the diferent ines ess: 8h molngatcoant € ‘| ti sneed red et isons) lon yn t ° + (a) Deseribe the motion of each section of the graph and (b) calculate the average speed of the whole journey. (@) AB: constant speed BC: at rest (b) When using the average speed equation forthe whole journey, we have to inchude the time that Ads Cambridge IGCSE Physics ry sabe calculated by getting the slope ofthe d-t graph, because the slope af “axgraph for noncanitonm sy tobe sbleto engine youn =e Yon Mont Reeser a the essa soe eyed ‘gpeED-TIme G tte ead! eer oe cal Th s | ‘oharnmed AiUNG NIT#SGENERAL Pivsics ND MECHANICS g-tgraphs for non-uniform speed youneed tobe able to recognize graph ins that, constant, Remember that the slope of line shag cord (hich means that speed isnot 'e shows you the speed. ‘ increasing ; el i t : So, when the slope is getting higher, we say Tower, we say itis decreasing. : ‘SPEED-TIME GRAPHS 4 itis increasing, and when the slope is becoming ‘Thisis the second type of graph (and the most popular one) th is q ae one) that we use to show motion. The y-axis ssthe speed ofthe vehicle while the -ars isthe time, Let's se what the lines on this typeof graph mean: s 4 be ‘moving at constant (stationary) speed t t s ‘moving at constant se acceleration (sve ‘moving at constant acceleration) deceleration (ve acceleration) t aad Calculating acceleration from s-t graphs ‘The acceleration (or deceleration) ofthe object can be calculated by getting the slope of thes-t graph, because the slope of the line shows you the acceleration. slope = 22 orjustuse a= igh acceleration negative acceleration since ~ low acceleration the slope is negative ear) » t t Cenividge1OC8E Pisin % Mohammed AlJENERAL PHYSICS AND MECHANICS unit: Calculating distance from a s-t graph ‘her isaso one morething you con caeuate from at graph distance, By ealeutating the, Trthe shape under the graph line, you can get the distance moved by the object. So pec, just say that: distance moved = area under the graph ay “The shapes that you ean ealeulate are quite simple, they can either be triangles or rectangles: ay reange=bnh *} gine =3xb% Exam tip: Try not to use d = sx ifyoure given as-t graph because the values of speed might not be constant. Just stick to using the area under graph, See ‘The graph represents the motion of body. eee Oem) ie cameeleel distance travelled by the body in 5 seconds. (2) Just substitute the values of speed and time inthe equation: ai an ta tam? (b)Calelate the area of the triangle under the line: 1 1 distance =F bx h=5XSX10= 25m ‘st graphs for non-uniform acceleration ‘You need to be able to recognize grap ines that are curved (which means that acceleration is not constant. Remember thatthe slope of a line shows you the acecleration, {ge ea t Increasing * ecreasing t increasing ecreasi coeets ern deceleration deceleration Wrath lp pig spt we yt ecb tl vn topes Besoraog we say it is deereasing, . ee eee ‘ambrige IGCSE Phys 16 Dobaenmed AlUNIT: Ge ‘GENERAL Pusics aNp mecuawics 1.3 FORCES AND NEWTON'S LAWS GRAPTER SUMMARY. Forces ean change the size and shape ofan object Forescan change the speed and direction of motion oan objet Forces cannot change the mass of an object Weights the gravitational foree onan objec that has mass (pul of gravity) w=mg g-9.8m/s* Frictions the foree between two surfaces that may impede motion and produce heating Friction, or dra, acts on an objet moving through a liquid ora gas (air resistance) -Airresstance increases a the speed and area ofthe moving object increases Extension of aspring = total length- original length ‘The extension ofa spring is direetly Proportional tothe load aeting on the spring up tothe limit of proportionality (elastic limit) igon the spring up Spring constant is the foree per unit extension Resultant force is the vector sum of two or more forees An object will remain at rest of continue ina straight line at constant speed unless acted on by a resultant foree resultant foree may change the velocity ofan object by changing i direction of motion or speed Force = mass x acceleration F= Acceleration of freefall g near the surface of the Earth is constant 9,8 m/s* (no air resistance) Objects falling in air experience air resistance and eventually reach terminal velocity Combsdge 16¢SE Physi SeeEFFECTS OF FORCES force isa push or pull You don't see frees, ut you do see ther effects, Fores an size and shape of an object. They an also change the speed and direetion of wn abject, Forees are split into contact and non-contact fores, There are also electric and forces that we will cover later. Here isa bref description of different mechanical fores, Weight, downward pull of gravity Contact Force, force between two solid surfaces touching WEIGHT UNIT 1: GENERAL PHYSICS AND MECHANICS Sa Air resistance, friction on an object moving through air Friction, resisting force between two solid surfaces Upthrust, upward Tension, pull ofa push of water on a stretched rope, submerged object spring or band change et mp i ‘There isa very common misconception when itcomes to weight and mass, People often confuse the ‘bro orthink they are the same thing. They are NOT (Slams desk, my phone falls of the desk and I fail toeath it instantly regrets this), ‘Weights the gravitational force on an object that has mass, Itis the action where Earth's _xavty pulls objects towards it. Mass is how much stuffs INSIDE the object while Weight isthe PULL ofthe Earth on that object. Weights calulated using: =mg Where mis mass, and gia constant called the acceleration of freefall and g = 9.8W/kg on arth but is different on other planets, Dotan A __—sUNIT GENERAL PHYSICS AND MECHANICS GRAVITATIONAL FIELDS AND GRAVITATIONAL FIELD STRENGTH ifyoute near Barts surfce yon wil experience the fore of gravity dh e to Earth's mass. This force iswhat we call weight AS an object moves further away from the surface ofthe planet, the weight of ue object decreases, unt it drops to zero when the object i faraway enough from the planet. The region where Earth apples its gravitational fore is eae a gravitational eld. no force ee outside the gravitational field travitational field ‘The gravitational fied strength is defined as the force per unit mass acting on an object. Every plonet has different ficld strengths, with more massive planets having a stronger field and planets ‘with less mass have a weaker field. Gravitational field strength (g) is ealeulated w ‘The value of gon earth is 9.6/kg which i also numerically equal tothe acceleration of frefall of that planet 9.8 m/s?, FRICTION ‘This is a resisting force that acts on an object sliding on the ground (or any surf matter) Friction always acts opposite tothe direction of motion and releases energy as heat. [fan object is not moving (or doesn't tend to move) there will eno friction, Frietion also acts on an object going, ‘through a liquid, we call this drag. for that Friction with the airs called air resistance. It happens when an object is moving through the ‘The magnitude of air resistance depends on two things: 4. Speed (as speod inereases, air resistance inereases) 2, Area (as area increases, air resistance increases) Cambeldge GCSE Physi Mohammed aliJENERAL PHYSICS AND MECHANICS unre — — =" = Large speed small speed salar resistance Large air resistance — = a= small area Large area Smal air resistance Large ar resistance FORCES AND DEFORMATION crease i length is ealled the ‘When aJoad (force) is applied to a spring, its length increases. This in extension, Extension is easly calculated using: extension = stretched length = original length “The thing about springs is that ifyou stretch them then remove the load, they go back to their original length. As the load you apply increases, the extension increases, and as the load decreases the extension decreases. The load and extension are directly proportional. This is called Hooke’s Law. orignal length stretched length extension oad Hooke's Law states: ‘The extension of a spring is directly proportional to the Toad on it, as long as the limit ‘of proportionality (elastic limit) is not exceeded. ‘The limit of proportionality also known asthe elastic limits the maximum foree that th inhunl andl tos ona lng when th loads removed thet seceded, the spring does not go back tits original shape and sizeand is permanently deformed (it gets all squiggly and stuff). Cambidge 1OCSE Physics Mohammed Alai ever thee Bh ln beau the oa and exten Gara Hevear eer he hai aH ene tho iad and moar eran rae, they are no longer proponona nS tHe ine curves, andthe values increase at =o {isons i EE limit of proportionality ° wo eC Extension/em spring Constant ‘ome springs are easy to stretch, while others need a large fore to stretch even alte bit, The spring constant s the property that represents how siffa spring is. The higher the spring constant, the more free is needed to stretch that spring. Itis defined a ‘The unit of measurement of kis often N/em or N/mm. ‘Aconstant of 50 N/em means you need 50 Newtons of force to stretch a spring by 1 em. A weaker ‘pring could have a constant of 5 N/em, so 5 Newtons of force forthe same 1 em. Cambridge GCSE Piyses ceca a —GENERAL PHYSICS AND MECHANICS unr: ss Tow thet a spring changes To hace thet ee seeilate (a) the original Iength of the spring (b) the extension of constant of the spring the spring at 20N (©) the spring 14: 12: length/em 10) 2 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 load/N (itis important to notice thatthe y-axis is not extension, its the total length of the spring) (a) Get the original length of the spring by recording the length of the spring at 0 N from the raph, F=0N +L=Som (b) Take the value ofthe length atthe 20N point and subtract the original length from it P= 20> low = Bem = bnew — (©) Caleulate the spring constant using Hooke’s Law umbels ICSE Plies " Mohammed Al