1

Motion:
The world, and everything in it, moves. Even seemingly stationary things, such
as a roadway, move with Earth’s rotation, the classification of motions (called
kinematics).

Position and Displacement:

To locate an object means to find its position relative to some reference point,
often the origin of an axis such as the x axis in Fig. 1.

Displacement Δx of a particle: is a change from position x1 to position x2 ,

where Δx = x2 - x1

Example 1:
 If the particle moves from x1 = 5 m to x2 = 12 m , then Δx =12 - 5 = 7 m.
The positive result indicates that the motion is in the positive direction.

 If the particle moves from x1 =5 m to x2 =200 m , and from x2 =200 m to x3 =5 m

then Δx = x3 - x1 =5 - 5 = 0 ( the particle backs again to original position).

Signs: A plus sign for a displacement need not be shown, but a minus sign
must always be shown. For example, a displacement of x = -4 m that's mean a
magnitude of 4 m and direction to left.

2
 Average Velocity and Average Speed:
A compact way to describe position is with a graph of position x plotted as a
function of time t a graph of x(t). (The notation x(t) represents a function x of t,
not the product x times t.)

Fig. 2 shows the position function x(t) for a stationary armadillo (which we treat
as a particle) over a 7 s time interval. The animal’s position stays at x=- 2 m.

Figure 3 : the armadillo is apparently first noticed at t = 0 when it is at the

position x= -5 m. It moves toward x = 0, passes through that point at t = 3 s,
and then moves on to increasingly larger positive values of x. Figure 3 also
depicts the straight-line motion of the armadillo (at three times).

Average velocity( vavg) : Which is the ratio of the displacement Δx that occurs
during a particular time interval Δt to that interval: Unit SI of velocity is m/s.

3
 Example 2:

Figure 4 shows how to find vavg for the time interval t=1 s to t=4 s.

Solution:

1. We draw the straight line that connects

the point on the position curve at the
beginning of the interval and the point on
the curve at the end of the interval.
2. vavg = = = 2 m/s

Average speed:

Average speed savg: of a particle during a time interval Δt depends on the total
distance the particle moves in that time interval. Unit SI of speed is m/s.

Example 3:

You drive a beat-up pickup truck along a straight road for 8.4 km at 70 km/h, at
which point the truck runs out of gasoline and stops. Over the next 30 min, you
walk another 2.0 km farther along the road to a gasoline station.

(a) What is your overall displacement from the beginning of your drive to your
arrival at the station?
(b) What is the time interval Δt from the beginning of your drive to your arrival
at the station?
(c) What is your average velocity vavg from the beginning of your drive to your
arrival at the station? Find it both numerically and graphically.
(d) Suppose that to pump the gasoline, pay for it, and walk back to the truck
takes you another 45 min. What is your average speed from the beginning of
your drive to your return to the truck with the gasoline?

4
 Solution:

Given that:

Δxdr = 8.4 km , vdr = 70 km/h , Δtwlk = 30 min = 0.05 h, Δxwlk = 2.0 km

a) x2 = 8.4 km + 2.0 km = 10.4 km.
Δx = x2 - x1 = 10.4 km - 0 = 10.4 km.
b)

c)

= 16.8 km/h 17 km/h

d) The total distance is 8.4 km + 2.0 km + 2.0 km = 12.4 km.

The total time interval is 0.12 h + 0.50 h + 0.75 h = 1.37 h

5
 Example 4:

A car moving along the x-axis starts from the position xi =2m when ti =0 and
stops at xf = −3m when tf =2 s.
(a) Find the displacement, the average velocity, and the average speed during
this interval of time.
(b) If the car goes backward and takes 3 s to reach the starting point, then
repeat part (a) for the whole time interval.

Solution:

(a) The car’s displacement, is given by:

Δx = xf − xi = −3 m − 2 m = −5 m
The average velocity is then given by:

and the average speed is thus:

(b) After the backward movement, the final position and final time of the car
are xf = 2 m and tf = 2 s + 3 s = 5 s, respectively, while the total distance
covered by the car is d = 5 m + 5 m = 10 m. will be:

Δx = xf − xi = 2 m−2 m = 0

Then, the average velocity will be:

The average speed will be:

6
 Instantaneous Velocity and Speed:
Instantaneous Velocity: The velocity at any instant is obtained from the
average velocity by shrinking the time interval Δt closer and closer to 0 .

Vins =

Speed is the magnitude of instantaneous velocity.

From a graph: vins is the slop of the position-time curve at the point
representing that instant.

Acceleration: When a particle’s velocity changes, the particle is said to

accelerate. . Unit SI of acceleration is m/s2.

Average acceleration: is the ratio of a change in velocity Δv to the time interval

Δt in which the change occurs.

aavg = =

If the signs of the velocity and acceleration of a particle are the same, the
speed of the particle increases. If the signs are opposite, the speed decreases.

Instantaneous acceleration: the acceleration of a particle at any instant is the

rate at which its velocity is changing at that instant.

From graph: ains is the slope of the velocity–time curve at the point
representing that instant.

7
 Example 5:

Figure is an x(t) plot for an elevator cab that is initially stationary, then moves
upward, and then stops. Plot v(t) and a(t).

Solution:
 For the interval t1 = 0 to t2 = 1 s : x is constant , v = 0
 For the interval t1 = 1 s to t2 = 3 s : x is changed in a form of curve , v will
change linearity.

For the slop : at point b

 at t1 = 3 s : x1 =4 m
 at t2 = 8 s : x2 = 24 m

V= = = = 4 m/s ( v changes linearity from 0 to 4 m/s)

 For the interval t1 = 3 s to t2 = 8 s : x changes linearity as a function of t ,

v constant = 4 m/s.
 For the interval t1 = 9 to t2 = 10 s : x is constant , v = 0
 For the interval t1 = 8 s to t2 = 9 s : v changes linearity as a function of t from
4 m/s to 0.

8
  For the interval t1 = 0 to t2 = 1 s : V is constant , a= 0
 For the interval t1 = 1 s to t2 = 3 s : V is changed linearity as a function of t ,
a constant, to get the value of a at this interval, you should measure the slop
at t = 2 s.
For the slop : at t = 2 s
 at t1 = 1 s : v1 = 0
 at t2 = 3 s : v2 = 4 m/s

a= = = = 2 m/s2 (a constant = 2 m/s2 )

 For the interval t1 = 8 s to t2 = 9 s : v changed linearity as a function of t, a

constant, to get the value of a at this interval, you should measure the slop at t
= 8.5 s.

For the slop : at t = 8.5 s

 at t1 = 8 s : v1 = 4 m/s
 at t2 = 9 s : v2 = 0

a= = = = - 4 m/s2 (a constant = - 4 m/s2 )

 For the interval t1 = 9 s to t2 = 10 s : V is constant , a=0

9
 Example 6:

A particle’s position on the x axis of figure is given by x = 4 - 27t + t3, with x in

meters and t in seconds.

(a) Find the particle’s velocity function v(t) and acceleration function a(t).
(b) Is there ever a time when v = 0 ?
(c) Describe the particle’s motion for t .

Solution:

a) v(t) = = -27 + 3t2 ( m/s) and a(t) = 6 t (m/s2 )

b) v = 0 , t = ?

0 = -27 + 3t3 27 = 3t2 = t2 9 = t2

t=√ =

c) The motion when t

For t = 0 : v(0) = -27 m/s, therefore the particle is moving in a negative direction
and still t =3 s.

For t = 3 s : v = 0 , therefore the particle is changed its direction.

For t = 4 s : v = + , therefore the particle is moving in positive direction.

Basic equations for constant acceleration:

 Vf = Vi + at
 Vf2 = + 2aX
 X = Vi . t + a t2
Were

 Vi is the initial velocity and Vf is the final velocity.

 x is the displacement, a is the acceleration and t is the time.

Note that: x=

10
 Example 7:

A car accelerates uniformly from rest to a speed of 100 km/h in 18 s.

(a) Find the acceleration of the car.
(b) Find the distance that the car travels.
(c) If the car brakes to a full stop over a distance of 100 m, then find its uniform
deceleration.

Solution:

(a) Given that:

v◦ = 0 , v =100 km/h , t = 18 s = 5×10−3 h , a = ?.

v = v◦ + a t

a= = = 2x104 km/h2 = = 1.54 m/s2

(b) X = ?
x −x◦ = (v◦+ v) t
x = x◦ + (v◦ +v) t = 0 + (0+100)×5×10−3 = 0.25 km = 250 m

(c) We are given v◦ =100 km/h, v = 0 , and x − x◦ = 0.1 , a = ?.

v2 = + 2 a (x − x◦)
a= = = -5x104 km/h2 = -3.86 m/s2

11
 Free Falling
Free-fall acceleration: An important example of straight line motion when you
tossed an object either up or down In the absence of air resistance, you would
find that the object accelerates downward at a certain constant rate. g=9.8 m/s2

The acceleration is the same for all objects.

Note that for free fall:

(1) The motion is along the vertical y-axis.

(2) The free-fall acceleration is negative if the y-axis is chosen to be upward.
(3) The free-fall acceleration is positive if the y-axis is chosen to be downward.

Always in Free Falling equation: a = - g

 Vf = Vi - gt
 Vf2 = – 2gy Because on the y axis.
 X = Vi . t gt 2

Example 8:

In Figure, a pitcher tosses a baseball up along a y axis, with an initial speed of

12 m/s.
(a) How long does the ball take to reach its maximum height?
(b) What is the ball’s maximum height above its release point?
(c) How long does the ball take to reach a point 5.0 m above its release point?

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 Solution:
(a) Vf = 0.

t=

(b) y = vit gt2 since vi = 0

y= gt2

2
y = ( 9.8 )( = 7.3 m.

(c) y = 5.0 m,

y= vit gt2

5 = 12 t (9.8 ) t2

5 = 12 t – 4.9 t2

a = 4.9 , b = -12 and c = 5

√ √
= =

√
t= = 1.9 s ( when the ball is moving down)

√
t= = 0.53 s (when the ball is moving up)

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 Solved problems
1) Compute your average speed in the following two cases:

(a) You walk 73.2 m at a speed of 1.22 m/s and then run 73.2 m at a speed of
3.05 m/s along a straight track.
(b) You walk for 1.00 min at a speed of 1.22 m/s and then run for 1.00 min at
3.05 m/s along a straight track.
(c) Graph x versus t for both cases and indicate how the average velocity is
found on the graph.

Solution:

X1= 73.2 m , v1= 1.22 m/s , x2= 73.2 m , v2= 3.05 m

V= t =
t1 = = = 60 s (For waking),

t2 = = = 24 s (For running ).

a) Motions in same direction: x = 73.2 + 73.2 = 146.4 m

Time interval = t1 + t2 = 60 + 24 = 84 s

Savg = = = = 1.74 m/s

b) t= 1min = 60 s , v1 = 1.22 m/s , v2 = 3.05 m

x1= v1t1 = 1.22 x 60 = 73.2 , x2 = v2 t2 = 3.05 x 60 = 183 m

Motions in same direction: x = 73.2 + 183 = 256.2 m

Time interval = t1 + t2 = 60 + 60 = 120 s

Savg = = = 2.14 m/s

c)

The average velocity can be measured by measuring the slope of the dashed
line in the graphs.

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 2) An automobile travels on a straight road for 40 km at 30 km/h. It then continues
in the same direction for another 40 km at 60 km/h.

(a) What is the average velocity of the car during the full 80 km trip? (Assume
that it moves in the positive x direction.)
(b) What is the average speed?
(c) Graph x versus t and indicate how the average velocity is found on the
graph.

Solution:
a) x = vt t=
t1 = = 1.33 h. ( For the first part of the motion)

t2 = = 1.33 h. ( For the second of the motion)

The total displacement: ΔX = ΔX1 + ΔX2 = 40 + 40 = 80 km

The total time interval: Δt = Δt1 + Δt2 = 1.33 + 0.67 = 2 h

= km/h

b) Savg = km/h

Since the motion is in one direction, thus average speed has the same
magnitude as the the average velocity: Savg = 40 km/h.

c) Graphs

15
 3) The position of a particle moving along an x axis is given by x = 12t2 - 2t3,
where x is in meters and t is in seconds. Determine

(a) The position at t = 3 s.

(b) The velocity at this time.
(c) the acceleration of the particle.
(d) Determine the average velocity of the particle between t= 0 and t =3 s.

Solution:

(a) x(t) = 12t2 – 2t3

x(3) = 12(3)2 – 2(3)3 = 54 m.

(b) v(t) = 24t – 6t2

v(3) = 24(3) – 6(3)2 = 18 m/s

(c) For t = 3,
a(t) = 24 – 12t
a(3) = 24 -12(3) = -12 m/s2

(d) x1(0) = 0 , and x2(3) = 54 m

Vavg = = = 18 m/s

4) An electron with an initial velocity vi = 1.50x105 m/s enters a region of length

L = 1.00 cm where it is electrically accelerated in fig. It emerges with
Vf= 5.70 x106 m/s. What is its acceleration, assumed constant?

Solution:

Given that:

Vi = 1.5 ×105 m/s , x = L = 1 cm = 0.01 m

Vf = 5.7 ×106 m/s

Vf2 = + 2aX vf2 = 2ax

a= = = 1.62 ×1015 m/s2

16
 Problems
1) A car moves uphill at 40 km/h and then back downhill at 60 km/h. What is
the average speed for the round trip?

ANS: Savg = 48 km/h

2) Two trains, each having a speed of 30 km/h, are headed at each other on
the same straight track. A bird that can fly 60 km/h flies off the front of one
train when they are 60 km apart and heads directly for the other train. On
reaching the other train, the (crazy) bird flies directly back to the first train,
and so forth. What is the total distance the bird travels before the trains
collide?

ANS: For the Bird distance = 60 km

3) An electron has a constant acceleration of +3.2 m/s2. At a certain instant its

velocity is +9.6 m/s. What is its velocity (a) 2.5 s earlier and (b) 2.5 s later?

ANS: a) v = 1.6 m/s , b) v = 18 m/s

4) At a certain time a particle had a speed of 18 m/s in the positive x direction,

and 2.4 s later its speed was 30 m/s in the opposite direction. What is the
average acceleration of the particle during this 2.4 s interval?

ANS: aavg = - 20 m/s2

5) The position of a particle moving along the x axis is given in centimeters by

x = 9.75 + 1.50 t3 ,where t is in seconds. Calculate
(a) The average velocity during the time interval t = 2.00 s to t = 3.00 s.
(b) The instantaneous velocity at t = 2.00 s.
(c) The instantaneous velocity at t = 3.00 s.
(d) The instantaneous velocity at t = 2.50 s.
(e) The instantaneous velocity when the particle is midway between its
positions at t = 2.00 s and t = 3.00 s.
(f) Graph x versus t and indicate your answers graphically.

5) A ball is dropped from a tall building, as shown in Fig. Choose the positive y
to be downward with its origin at the top of the building. Find the following
for the ball’s motion:
(a) its acceleration.
(b) the distance it falls in 2 s.
(c) its velocity after falling 15 m.
(d) the time it takes to fall 25 m.
(e) the time it takes to reach a velocity of 29.4 m/s.

17
 Uniform circular motion: It is a particle travels around a circle or a circular arc
at constant speed.

Properties of uniform circular motion

1. When the particle has a little velocity there is accelerating because the velocity
changes in direction.
2. Both velocity and acceleration have constant magnitude, but their directions
change.
3. The velocity is always directed tangent to the circle in the direction of motion.

Centripetal acceleration: The acceleration is always directed radially inward.

Because of this, the acceleration direct to the center.

a= , T=

where r is the radius of the circle, v is the speed of the particle, T is the period
time, and (2πr) is circumference of the circle.

18
 Example 1:

A satellite is circulating the Earth at an altitude h =150 km above its surface,

where the free fall acceleration g is 9.4m/s2. The Earth’s radius is 6.4×106 m.
What is the orbital Speed and period of the satellite?

Solution:
Given that:
h =150 km = 150x103 m , R = 6.4×106 m , g = 9.4m/s2
r=R+h

ar = =
The satellite’s centripetal acceleration is then equal to the free fall acceleration
g at this altitude.

ar = g = 9.4m/s2
g=

√ √ = 7847 m/s

With this high speed, the satellite would take T = = 1.46 h to make one
complete revolution around the Earth.

Oscillations: It is a particles move back and forth repeatedly.

Simple Harmonic Motion(SHM)

Simple Harmonic Motion(SHM): Any motion that repeats at regular intervals
is called harmonic motion.

Figure: A particle repeatedly oscillates left and right along an x axis, between identical
amounts xm and -xm.
 Period time “T”: Is the time interval required for two identical points.
T=
 Frequency ”f” : A number of trembling per second .or the inverse of the period.
f= =
 Angular velocity"ω":Is defined as the rate of change of angular displacement
with time. ω = 2πf =

19
 Displacement x(t) = xmax cos (ωt + ϕ )

Velocity

v(t) = -ωxmax sin (ωt + ϕ )

acceleration

a(t) = -ω2 xmax cos (ωt + ϕ )

a(t) = - ω2 x(t)

 The magnitude of the maximum velocity: vmax = ω xmax

 The magnitude of the maximum acceleration: amax = ω2 xmax

Were xmax is the Amplitude of the displacement, ϕ is the phase of the motion.

The minus sign indicates to that, the particle's acceleration is opposite to its
displacement.

The Force Law for Simple Harmonic Motion

…………………….(1)

Hooke’s law: the force is a restoring force in the sense that it fights against
the displacement, attempting to restore the particle to the center point at X = 0

There we wrote Hooke’s law,

F= -kx ……………………………………………. (2)
From (1) and (2) ….
-x ( ω2 m ) = - k x
k = m ω2

When k is spring constant.

angular frequency

period

20
 Example 1:
A block whose mass m = 680 g is fastened to a spring whose spring constant
k is 65 N/m. The block is pulled a distance x= 11 cm from its equilibrium
position at x=0 on a frictionless surface and released from rest at t = 0 .

(a) What are the angular frequency, the frequency, and the period of the
resulting motion?
(b) What is the amplitude of the oscillation?
(c) What is the maximum speed vm of the oscillating block, and where is the
block when it has this speed?
(d) What is the magnitude am of the maximum acceleration of the block?
(e) What is the phase constant ϕ for the motion?
(f) What is the displacement function x(t) for the spring–block system?

Solution:

m = 680x10-3 kg , k = 65 N/m , X = 11x10-2 m

a) ω = √ = √ = 9.78 9.8 rad/m

f= = = 1.56 Hz.

T= = = 0.64 s.

b) xm = 11x10-2 m.

c) Vm = ω xm = ( 9.78 ) ( 0.11 ) = 1.1 m/s

The speed is a maximum whenever X = 0

d) am = ω2 xm = (9.78 rad/s)2 (0.11 m) = 11 m/s2

e) t = 0
cos ϕ = 1 cos-1 ( 1) = 0
ϕ=0

f) x(t) = xmax cos (ωt + ϕ ) = 0.11 cos ( 9.8 t + 0)

= 0.11 cos ( 9.8 t)

21
 Example 2:
A 0.12 kg body undergoes simple harmonic motion of amplitude 8.5 cm and
period 0.20 s.
(a) What is the magnitude of the maximum force acting on it ?
(b) If the oscillations are produced by a spring, what is the spring constant ?
Solution:

m= 0.12 kg , xm = 8.5 cm = 8.5x10-2 m , T= 0.20 s

a) F= m a F = m ( ω2 Xm )

ω = 2πf = = = 31.4 rad/s

F = 0.12 ( 31.4)2 ( 8.5x10-2 ) = 10.1 N

b) k = m ω2

k = (0.12) ( 31.4)2 = 120 N/m

22
 Problems

Q1) What is the maximum acceleration of a platform that oscillates at

amplitude 2.20 cm and frequency 6.60 Hz?

Q2) In an electric shaver, the blade moves back and forth over a distance of
2.0 mm in simple harmonic motion, with frequency 120 Hz. Find
(a) The amplitude.
(b) The maximum blade speed.
(c) The magnitude of the maximum blade acceleration.

Q3) A block of mass m=400 g is attached to a light spring of force constant

kH =10 N/m, see Fig.a. The block is pushed against the spring from x = 0 to
xi= −10 cm, see Fig.b, and then released to oscillate on a horizontal frictionless
surface.

(a) Find the angular frequency and the period of the block-spring system.
(b) Find the maximum speed and maximum acceleration of the block.
(c) Find the position, speed, and acceleration of the block at any time.
(d) Repeat the above parts when the block is projected with initial velocity
vi= −0.5 m/s from another initial position xi = +10 cm.

23
 Introduction:

If you take a can of cola from the refrigerator and leave it on the kitchen table,
its temperature will rise-rapidly at first but then more slowly-until the
temperature of the cola equals that of the room (the two are then in thermal
equilibrium). In the same way, the temperature of a cup of hot coffee, left sitting
on the table, will fall until it also reaches room temperature.

Heat: is the energy transferred between a system and its environment because
of a temperature difference that exists between them.

Temperature: is the measure of hotness or coldness of a substance.

Thermometers
It is measured with a thermometer, which contains a working substance with a
measurable property, such as length or pressure, that changes in a regular
way as the substance becomes hotter or colder.

The Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin Temperature Scales:

So far, we have discussed only the Kelvin scale, used in basic scientific work.
In nearly all countries of the world, the Celsius scale (or centigrade scale) is the
scale of choice for popular and commercial use and much scientific use.
Celsius temperatures are measured in degrees, and the Celsius degree has
the same size as the kelvin. However, the zero of the Celsius scale is shifted to
a more convenient value than absolute zero. If TC represents a Celsius
temperature and TK a Kelvin temperature.

24
 To find a relationship between changes in temperature on the Celsius,
Kelvin, and Fahrenheit scales:

Example: To find a relationship between changes in temperature on the

Celsius and Kelvin.

= 100 ( = 100 (

Therefore all the relationship.

Example 1:

On a day when the temperature reaches 50 °F, what is the temperature in

degrees Celsius and in kelvins?

Solution:

TF = 50 Fo

1) The temperature in degrees Celsius is:

= 180 ( = 100 (

= 10 oC

2) The temperature in kelvins is:

= 180 ( = 100 (

Where
o
C
Tk = Tc + 273 = 10 oC + 273 = 283 K

25
 Example 2:

A pan of water is heated from 25°C to 80°C. What is the change in its
temperature on the Kelvin scale and on the Fahrenheit scale?

Solution:

ΔTc = 80 oC – 25 oC = 55 K

ΔTF = ΔTc = (55 oC ) = 99 oF

Thermal equilibrium is a situation in which two objects would not exchange

energy by heat or electromagnetic radiation if they were placed in thermal
contact.

Thermal Expansion:

1) Linear Expansion

If the temperature of a metal rod of length L is raised by an amount ΔT, its

length is found to increase by an amount

ΔL = 𝜶 Li ΔT
Where:
𝜶 : the coefficient of linear expansion and depends on the material.

2) Volume Expansion

If all dimensions of a solid expand with temperature, the volume of that solid
must also expand. If the temperature of a solid or liquid whose volume is V is
increased by an amount ΔT, the increase in volume is found to be

ΔV = 𝜷 Vi ΔT

where 𝛽 : average coefficient of volume expansion.

For a solid, the average coefficient of volume expansion is three times the
average linear expansion coefficient:
𝜷 = 3𝜶

26
 Example 3:

A segment of steel railroad track has a length of 30.000 m when the

temperature is 0.0°C.

(A) What is its length when the temperature is 40.0°C?

(B) Suppose that the ends of the rail are rigidly clamped at 0.0°C.
Since 𝜶 for steel = 11x10-6 (oC)-1

Solution:

ΔL = 𝜶 Li ΔT = [ 11x10-6 ] ( 30.000 ) ( 40.0 ) = 0.013 m

30.000 + 0.013 = 30.013 m

Example 4:

On a hot day in Las Vegas, an oil trucker loaded 37000 L of diesel fuel. He
encountered cold weather on the way to Payson, Utah, where the temperature
was 23.0 K lower than in Las Vegas, and where he delivered his entire load.
How many liters did he deliver? The coefficient of volume expansion for diesel
fuel is 9.50x10-4/oC.

Solution:

Given that: Vi = 37000 L , ΔT = -23.0 K , 𝜷 = 9.50x10-4 /oC

ΔV = 𝜷 Vi ΔT
ΔV = (37000 L) (9.50x10-4) (- 23.0 K) = - 808 L.
Vdel = V + ΔV = 37 000 L - 808 L = 36190 L.

Heat capacity: Is the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of

that sample by 1 oC.

The heat capacity C of an object is the proportionality constant between the

heat Q that the object absorbs or loses and the resulting temperature change
Δ𝑇 of the object; that is,

𝑸 = 𝑪 Δ𝑻 = 𝑪(𝑻 − 𝑻𝒊)
In which Ti and Tf are the initial and final temperatures of the object.

27
 Specific heat: C
That refers not to an object but to a unit mass of the material of which the
object is made.

𝑄 = 𝑐 𝑚 Δ𝑇 = 𝑐 𝑚 (𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖 )
C=

The calorie is now defined to be 4.1868 J (exactly),

1 cal = 4.1868 J.

From the way the calorie were initially defined, the specific heat of water is
C = I cal/g oC = 4190 J/kg oC.
Conservation of Energy: Calorimetry
Calorimetry: Is one technique for measuring specific heat involves heating a
sample to some known temperature Tx , placing it in a vessel containing water
of known mass and temperature Tw < Tx , and measuring the temperature of
the water after equilibrium has been reached.
The devices in which this energy transfer occurs are called calorimeters.

If the system of the sample and the water is isolated, the law of the
conservation of energy requires that the amount of energy that leaves the
sample equal the amount of energy that enters the water. Conservation of
energy given that:
Qcold = −Qhot

mwcw ( Tf – Tw ) = - mxcx ( Tf – Tx)

Solving for cx gives

Cx =

Where:
 mx : is the mass of a sample of some substance whose specific heat we
wish to determine.
 Cx : specific heat for that sample of substance.
 Tx : initial temperature for that substance.
 mw , cw , and Tw represent corresponding values for the water.
 Tf is the final equilibrium temperature after everything is mixed.

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 Example 6:
A 0.0500 kg ingot of metal is heated to 200.0°C and then dropped into a
beaker containing 0.400 kg of water initially at 20.0°C. If the final equilibrium
temperature of the mixed system is 22.4°C, find the specific heat of the metal.

Solution:

Given that: mw = 0.400 kg , cw = 4186 J/kg.oC , Tf = 22.4oC , Tw = 20.0oC ,

mx = 0.0500 kg , Tx = 200.0oC , cx = ?

mwcw ( Tf – Tw ) = - mxcx ( Tf – Tx)

Cx = = 453 J/kg.oC

Example 7:
A copper slug whose mass mc is 75 g is heated in a laboratory oven to a
temperature T of 3I2oC. The slug is then dropped into a glass beaker
containing a mass mw = 220 g of water. The heat capacity Cb of the beaker is
45 cal/K. The initial temperature Ti of. The water and the beaker is 12oC.
Assuming that the slug, beaker, and water are an isolated system and the
water does not vaporize, find the final temperature T f of the system at thermal
equilibrium.
Since cc = 0.0923 cal/g.oC , Cw = 1.00 cal/g.K

Solution:
Given that:

mc = 75 g , Tc = 3I2oC , cc = 0.0923 cal/g.oC

mw = 220 g , Cw = 1.00 cal/g.K , Ti = 12 oC
Cb = 45 cal/K , Ti = 12oC

For the water: Qw = cwmw ( Tf – Ti )

For the beaker: Qb = Cb ( Tf – Ti )

For the copper: Qc = ccmc ( Tf – T )

Because the total energy of the system cannot change, the sum of these three
energy transfers is zero:
Qw + Q b + Q c = 0

cwmw ( Tf – Ti ) + Cb ( Tf – Ti ) + ccmc ( Tf – T ) = 0

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 cwmw Tf – cwmw Ti + Cb Tf – Cb Ti + ccmc Tf – ccmc T = 0

cwmw Tf + Cb Tf + ccmc Tf = cwmw Ti + Cb Ti + ccmc T

Tf ( cwmw + Cb + ccmc ) = cwmw Ti + Cb Ti + ccmc T

Tf =

Tf = = = 19.6oC

Problems
Q1) (a) In 1964, the temperature in the Siberian village of Oymyakon reached
-7I oC. What temperature is this on the Fahrenheit scale? (b) The highest
officially recorded temperature in the continental United States was 134 oF in
Death Valley, California. What is this temperature on the Celsius scale?

(Ans: TF = –96°F. Tc ≈ 56.7 oC.)

Q2) At what temperature is the Fahrenheit scale reading equal to

(a) twice that of the Celsius scale.
(b) half that of the Celsius scale?

(Ans: TF = 320°F. TF = –12.3°F).

Q3) An aluminum flagpole is 33 m high. By how much does its length increase
as the temperature increases by 15 oC?

(Ans: ΔL = 0.011 m)

Q4) Find the change in volume of an aluminum sphere with an initial radius of
10 cm when the sphere is heated from 0.0 oC to 100 oC.

(Ans: ΔV = 29 cm3).

Q5) A steel rod is 3.000 cm in diameter at 25.00 oC. A brass ring has an
interior diameter of 2.992 cm at 25.00 oC. At what common temperature will the
ring just slide onto the rod?

(Ans: T = (25.00°C + 335.0 °C) = 360.0°C

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