Note:

The following is a summary of the IMPORTANT points ONLY, and is BY NO MEANS a complete
summary of the whole M2 syllabus.

Last Update: 7 March, 2024

Mathematical Induction
 Sequence / series type
n 2 (n  1) 2
 e.g. Prove that 13  2 3  33  ...  n 3  .
4
 e.g. Given that a1 = 1 and an+1 = an + 4n – 3. Prove that an = 2n2 – 5n + 4.
 Application in other topics
 Trigonometry
 Differentiation
 Integration
 Matrix
 etc.

Binomial Expansion
n
( a  b) n   n C r a r b n  r
r 0
 General term = nCr ar bn–r

Trigonometry
 Radian measure of angle

 e. g. π = 180°,  90  , etc.
2
 sec θ, cosec θ, cot θ
 Compound angle formulae (CAF)
 sin( A  B )  sin A cos B  cos A sin B
 cos( A  B )  cos A cos B  sin A sin B
tan A  tan B
 tan( A  B ) 
1  tan A tan B
 Double angle formulae (DAF)
 Comes from compound angle formulae
 sin(2 A)  2 sin A cos A
 cos(2 A)  cos 2 A  sin 2 A  2 cos 2 A  1  1  2 sin 2 A [remember all three forms!]
2 tan A
 tan(2 A) 
1  tan 2 A
 Reverse form (for reducing power)
1
 sin 2 A  [1  cos(2 A)]
2
1
 cos A  [1  cos(2 A)]
2

2
 Sum-to-product (S2P), product-to-sum (P2S) formulae
 VERY VERY useful (especially in limit and integration)
 Given on the first page of the exam (therefore not listed here. Refer to textbook if needed!)

Summary on M2 by Mr. Leung Chun Yee Page 1 of 12

 3 major question types
 Simplify
 Solve
 Prove
 Practical problems
1
 absin C , Heron formula, sine formula, cosine formula, etc
2

Euler constant e
n
 1
 Definition: e  lim1  
n 
 n
 Properties:

1 1 1 1
 e  1  1     ...  
2! 3! 4! r  0 r!
x
 1
 e  lim 1   (Here x→∞ means either x→+∞ and x→–∞)
x 
 x
1

 e  lim(1  y ) y
y 0
n
 x
 e  lim1  
x
n 
 n

x 2 x3 x 4 xr
 ex  1 x     ...  
2! 3! 4! r  0 r!
 Natural logarithm (ln)
 log with base e

Summary on M2 by Mr. Leung Chun Yee Page 2 of 12

Limits
 Well-known limits:
 If f(x) in continuous at a, lim f ( x)  f ( a ) .
xa

1 1
 lim  0 and lim x  0 , where a > 1
x  x x   a
y3  y 1
 Application to finding limit at infinity of rational function. e. g. lim .
y  2 y  3 y 3  7

 Practical problem (keyword: “after a very long time”)

sin x
 lim  1 , where x MUST BE in radian (the only limit formula for trigo. function)
x 0 x
ex 1
 lim 1
x 0 x
 First principles:
sin x
 Trigo. functions (Use lim  1 , also S2P can usually be useful!)
x 0 x
 Polynomials (Nothing special)
 Surds (Multiply conjugate)
ex 1
 Power of e (Use lim 1)
x 0 x
n
 x
 Involving ln (Use e  lim1   )
x
n 
 n
 combination of above (Improvise!)
 Note:
When finding limit, do ALL the “substitution” at the same time at the last step.
Wrong Correct
sin( x  1)
2
sin( x 2  1)
lim lim
x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1
sin( x  1) x  1
2 2
sin( x 2  1) x 2  1
= lim  = lim 
x 1 x2 1 x 1 x 1 x2 1 x 1
( x  1)( x  1) sin( x 2
 1) ( x  1)( x  1)
= lim1  [「代住先」！] = lim
x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1
2
x 1
= lim( x  1) sin( x  1)
2
x 1
= lim ( x  1)
= 1+1 x 1 x2 1
= 2 = 1∙(1 + 1)
= 2

Summary on M2 by Mr. Leung Chun Yee Page 3 of 12

Differentiation
 f(x) = constant. f '(x) = 0.
 [f(x) + g(x)] ' = f '(x) + g '(x)
 Product rule: [f(x) g(x)] ' = f '(x) g(x) + f(x) g '(x)
f ( x) f ' ( x)g ( x)  g ' ( x)f ( x)
 Quotient rule (can be replaced by product rule): [ ] '
g( x) [g ( x)]2
df (g ( x)) df (u ) dg ( x)
 Chain rule (VERY VERY VERY useful):  
dx du dx
dx 1
 Inverse function diff.: 
dy d y
dx
 Implicit diff. (“Diff. both sides w. r. t. x”, be careful, esp. RHS!)
 Log. diff. for huge (≥ 3) product / division / surd. Be careful about negative!
 Second derivative
d2 y d2
 Notation: , f ( x) , f ''(x), y'', etc
dx 2 dx 2
d 2 y d dy
 Diff. one more time:  ( ).
dx 2 dx dx
d2 x 1
 Careful! 2
 2
dy d y
dx 2
d x
 x  x x (ln x  1) , and etc
dx
 Example:
Let f(x) be a function. Given that
f ''(x) + 7f '(x) – 18x = 0 …… (#) for all real values of x.
(a) Show that f(x) = Ae–9x + Be2x satisfies (#), where A and B are real constants.
(b) Find a function g(x) satisfying (#) such that g(0) = 6 and g'(0) = 1.

Application of Differentiation
 Equation of tangent / normal
 Given point on the curve
 Given slope
 Given point NOT on the curve (harder!)
 Increasing (decreasing) function
 f '(x) ≥ 0 (≤ 0)
 Convex (concave) function
 f ''(x) ≥ 0 (≤ 0)

Summary on M2 by Mr. Leung Chun Yee Page 4 of 12

 Finding local maximum / minimum of function / local extreme points
 General steps:
(1) Diff. to find f '(x)
(2) Set f '(x) = 0 (to find all the stationary points)
(3) Solve for x where f '(x) = 0
 First derivative test
(4a) Draw a table with the cutting points from (3) and determine the signs of f '(x) by testing
points in each interval
(5a) Determine local maximum / minimum from the signs in (4a)
 Local minimum: “–  +”
 Local maximum: “+  –”
 Not maximum nor minimum: “+  +” or “–  –”
 Second derivative test（最好不用，First derivative test 皇道）
(4b) Diff. again to find f ''(x)
(5b) Find the values of f ''(x) at the points found in (3), and determine local maximum /
minimum from the signs of f ''(x):
 Local minimum: f ''(x) > 0 (convex)
 Local maximum: f ''(x) < 0 (concave)
 Not sure: f ''(x) = 0
Therefore, the first derivative test usually trumps over second derivative test.
 Curve sketching steps (in M2 syllabus)
(1) Find the asymptotes
(a) Set denominator to 0 for vertical asymptote.
(b) Use long division to find non-vertical asymptote. (quotient)
(2) Find the local extreme points (refer to the above)
(3) Check the range for concave (down) and convex (up), and determine points of inflexion
(4) Find the x- and y-intercepts if necessary.
(5) Sketch!
 Finding global maximum / minimum of function
(1) Find local maximum / minimum
(2) Check the boundary values (or lim if there is no boundary)
x  

(3) Compare to find global maximum / minimum

(4) Note:
If a function is continuous, and has only one stationary point which is a local maximum
(minimum) [check from the derivative tests], then it must also be a global maximum
(minimum).
 Practical problems
 Use formulae from trigonometry (sin, cos, tan, …), mensuration (area & volume), primary
school (speed), etc, or deduce a formula from integration (next part)
 Be careful about the boundary (depend on the situation, e. g. t = 0)
 Rate of change (special practical problem)
(1) Write / derive a formula for the described situation
d?
(2) Diff. both sides w. r. t. t (t is the time. is the rate of change of ?, careful about chain rule)
dt
(3) Put in the required time (t). Depending on the form of (2), you may need to find the value of
some other unknowns by yourself

Summary on M2 by Mr. Leung Chun Yee Page 5 of 12

Integration
 “Reverse” of differentiation
 Indefinite: + C
 Integration formulae
x a 1 1
 Index:  x a dx   C for a≠–1, and  x dx  ln x  C .
a 1
ax
  e dx  e  C , and  a dx   C for a > 0 and a≠1
x x x
Exponential:
ln a
  sin x dx   cos x  C ,  cos x dx  sin x  C ,  sec x dx  tan x  C
2
Trigonometric:
(out of syllabus):  sec x tan x dx  sec x  C ,  cosec x cot x dx   cosec x  C ,
 cosec x dx   cot x  C
2

 Substitution
 For composite function, reverse of “chain rule”
 3 steps:
(1) Let u = …. (usually “the inside”)
(2) Then du = … dx.
(Definite: [change range] x = …  u = …)
(3) Replace all old variable with new variable, INCLUDING dx
 Use “make differential” to simplify steps (put into the differential = integrate)
  sec x dx (out of syllabus, using the substitution “u = sec θ + tan θ”)
 Power of trigo. Function
  sin x dx ,  cos x dx , etc. (Use DAF to reduce power)
2 2

  sin
m
x cos n x dx
 If either m or n is odd, put one of the odd power into the differential, and use
sin2 x + cos2 x = 1 to change all to same type
 If both m and n are even, use DAF to reduce both powers, until odd power is found
  sec x tan x dx
m n

 If m is even (> 0), put “sec2 x” into the differential, and then change all to tan x
 (out of syllabus)
If n is odd and m > 0, put “sec x tan x” into the differential, and then change all to sec x
 Trigo. substitution
 a2 – x2 : Let x = a sin θ
 a2 + x2 : Let x = a tan θ
 x2 – a2 : Let x = a sec θ (out of syllabus)
 CHANGE RANGE (principal range) for definite integration

Summary on M2 by Mr. Leung Chun Yee Page 6 of 12

 Integration by parts
  u dv  uv   v du
 For product
 one recurrent (exponential ax, or trigo.), one will vanish (positive integer power xn)

 x cos x dx ,  x e
2 x
 e.g. dx
 put the recurrent part into the differential
 n = number of times to do integration by parts
 both recurrent
 e.g.  e x cos x dx

put the same part into the differential and do integration by parts for 2 times, and then
move the terms to one side
 For logarithm (put every “non-log” things into the differential)
Definite: REMEMBER to evaluate the first term (i. e. uv a )
b


 sec
3
 Special Example: x dx (out of syllabus)
 Put sec2 x into the differential
  sec x dx and  sec x dx .
3
Integration by parts and obtain terms of
 Move the terms, and refer to the above for  sec x dx .
p( x)
 Special Example: Rational function i. e.  q( x) dx , where p(x) and q(x) are polynomials
r( x)
 Do long division to rewrite it as  [Q( x)  q( x) ] dx
 Factorize q(x) into linear (real roots) and quadratic (unreal roots)
 Partial fraction (out of syllabus)
px 2  qx  r A Bx  C
e. g.   2
(ax  b)(cx  dx  e) ax  b cx  dx  e
2

 Linear part can be integrated (by ln)

 Quadratic part
 Make differential by adding suitable constant, then it can be integrated (by ln)
 Do completing the square for denominator for the remaining part (x + h)2 + k, and then use
trigo. substitution (Let x  h  k tan  )
 Special Example: t-formula (Weierstrass substitution, out of syllabus)
x 1 x 2
 Use the substitution t  tan . Then dt  sec 2 dx  dx  dt .
2 2 2 1 t2
2t 1 t2 2t
sin x  , cos x  and tan x 
1 t 2
1 t 2
1 t2
 Change fraction of trigo. into rational function (polynomial over polynomial)
 Definite: Even function: f(–x) = f(x) ∀ x ∈ ℝ
a a
Then a
f ( x ) dx  2  f ( x) dx .
0
 Definite: Odd function: f(–x) = –f(x) ∀ x ∈ ℝ
a
Then a
f ( x ) dx  0 .
 Definite: Periodic function (out of syllabus)

Summary on M2 by Mr. Leung Chun Yee Page 7 of 12

 Proofs involving definite integral (sometimes also involve indefinite integral)
 Look for substitution that will
 fit the function parameter (e.g. f(x) → f(a – x), then try letting u = a – x.)
a 0
 match the new range (e.g.  0

a
, then try either letting u = –x or u = x – a.)
a a
 Dummy variables  f ( x ) dx  
a a
f (u ) d u
 (Add them up!)
IJ
If I = J, then I  .
2
 (Move the terms!)
m
If I = m – nI, then I + nI = m and hence I  .
n 1

Application of Integration
 Find original function from its slope (derivative), REMEMBER to find C.
 Area under curve
b d
 a
y dx (vertical) or c
x dy (horizontal)
 Area between curves
b
 big – small, 
a
[f ( x)  g( x)] dx
 Volume of revolution
 Disc method
b d
 y dx (about x-axis) or  x dy (about y-axis)
2 2

a c
b d
   ( y  k ) dx (about other horizontal) or   ( x  k ) dy (about other vertical)
2 2
a c
b b
   ( y  y ) dx or   ( x  x ) dy (hollow solids)
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
a a
b b
 Shell method: (out of syllabus) 2  xy dx (about y-axis) or 2  xy dy (about x-axis)
a a

 Other volumes

Summary on M2 by Mr. Leung Chun Yee Page 8 of 12

Matrix
 Basic operations
 Addition, Subtraction
 Scalar Multiplication (λA)
 Matrix Multiplication (AB, note the size match)
 Determinant
 Sarrus method (Multiplying diagonals, for 2 × 2 and 3 × 3 only)
 Expansion along row (column) (for any square matrix)
 Properties (out of syllabus)
(1) Interchange 2 rows / columns (Type 1)
 a1 a2 a3   a1 a2 a3 
   
e. g.: det  b1 b2 b3    det  c1 c2 c3 
c c c  b b b 
 1 2 3   1 2 3 

(2) Multiply a row / column by k ∈ ℝ (Type 2)

 a1 a2 a3   a1 a2 a3 
   
e. g.: det  b1 b2 b3   k det  b1 b2 b3 
 kc kc kc  c c c 
 1 2 3  1 2 3

(3) If one row / column is a multiple of another row / column, the determinant is 0.
 a1 a2 a3 
 
e. g.: det  b1 b2 b3   0
 ka ka ka 
 1 2 3

(4) Add a row / column by a multiple of another row / column (Type 3)

 a1 a2 a3   a1  kb1 a2  kb2 a3  kb3 
   
e. g.: det  b1 b2 b3   det  b1 b2 b3 
c c c   c c2 c3 
 1 2 3   1

 Inverse
 ∃ B s. t. AB = BA = I. Then A is non-singular / invertible and define A–1 = B.
1
 A 1  (cof A) T
det( A)
 Refer to “Others” for an efficient way to find inverse.
 Gaussian elimination
 Elementary row operations (ERO)
 (Type 1, refer to Type 1 determinant property) Rm ↔ Rn
 (Type 2, refer to Type 2 determinant property) Rm → kRm, k ∈ ℝ\{0}
 (Type 3, refer to Type 3 determinant property) Rm → Rm + kRn, k ∈ ℝ
 Row echelon form (REF)
 Reduce row echelon form (RREF)

Summary on M2 by Mr. Leung Chun Yee Page 9 of 12

 System of linear equations
 Theory
 General case
 Δ≠0  unique solution
 Δ = 0  no solution / infinite solution
 Homogeneous case
 Δ≠0  unique solution (trivial solution (0, 0, 0))
 Δ = 0  infinite solution (a straight line / plane passing through (0, 0, 0).)
 Solve
 Δ≠0
  
 Cramer’s rule: x  x , y  y , z  z
  
 Inverse matrix: Ax = b  x = A b –1

 Gaussian elimination: (A | b) ERO   RREF (read answer directly)

 Δ= 0
 Inverse matrix does not work
 Cramer’s rule does not work.
 Gaussian elimination: (A | b) ERO   RREF → write down solution set (SS)
 Others
 Finding inverse by Gaussian elimination
(A | I) ERO
 (I | B).
Then B = A–1.
Note: If A is not invertible (singular), A cannot be made into I by ERO.
Instead, there will be a whole row of 0s.
 Eigenvalue / eigenvector
 Finding An by diagonalizing A (i. e. finding diagonal D s. t. D = P–1 A P for some P).
(Refer to notes in the lesson)

Summary on M2 by Mr. Leung Chun Yee Page 10 of 12

Vector
 With magnitude and direction, position does not matter
 Basic operations
 Addition
 Triangle addition (tip-to-tail)
 Parallelogram addition (tail-to-tail)
 Multiplication by scalar (λu)
 Checking
 (Equality)
If a and b are linearly independent (i. e. non-parallel in 2D),
   2
λ1a + μ2b = λ2a + μ2b   1 (Useful in finding unknown ratios)
1   2
 (Parallelism)
a // b  ∃ λ≠0 s. t. a = λb (Parallelism checking! Super useful!)
 Position vector
 Vector beginning at a fixed point (O in coordinate system)
 Coordinates of the end point to represent the vector
 2D coordinate plane vector
 i: unit vector along positive x-axis
 j: unit vector along positive y-axis
 3D coordinate plane vector
 i: unit vector along positive x-axis
 j: unit vector along positive y-axis
 k: unit vector along positive z-axis
na  mb
 Section formula (vector version): p 
mn
 Scalar product (dot product)
 a∙b = |a||b| cos θ, where θ is the angle between a and b
 a∙b is a scalar
 |a|2 = a∙a (useful for finding magnitude, like |3p – 4q|)
 i∙i = 1 and i∙j = 0
 Applications
 a // b  a∙b = ±|a||b| (Parallelism checking! Super useful!)
 a⊥b  a∙b = 0 (Perpendicularity checking! Super useful!)
a b
 Angle θ between two vectors: cos 
ab
ab
 Projection of a on b = b (Super useful!)
bb

Summary on M2 by Mr. Leung Chun Yee Page 11 of 12

 Vector product (cross product)
 a × b = |a||b| sin θ n, where θ is the angle between a and b, and n is a unit vector perpendicular
to both a and b, with direction following the right hand rule.
 a × b is a vector
 only defined for 3D space (i. e. NO cross product for 2D or other higher dimensions, probably
except dimension 7 :P)
 a × b = –(b × a)
 i × j = k , j × k = i and k × i = j
i j k
 ( x1 , y1 , z1 )  ( x 2 , y 2 , z 2 )  x1 y1 z1
x2 y2 z2
 Scalar triple product (out of syllabus)
a1 a2 a3
a = (a1, a2, a3), b = (b1, b2, b3) and c = (c1, c2, c3). Then a  (b  c)  b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3
 Applications
 a // b  a × b = 0 (Parallelism checking! Useful! 3D vectors ONLY!)
 Area of parallelogram generated by a and b = |a × b|
1
 Area of triangle generated by a and b = ab
2
(Out of syllabus)
If a, b and c follow right hand rule, (if not, just take absolute value)
 volume of parallelepiped generated by a, b and c = a∙(b × c)
1
 volume of tetrahedron generated by a, b and c = a  (b  c)
6

(Fix for “Out of syllabus”)

  
Suppose a  OA , b  OB and c  OC generate the C direction of
tetrahedron OABC. a×b
Consider ΔOAB as the base. (Remember the following flow)
1 c B
(1) Base area = ab
2 b
(2) Height = length of projection of c on a×b
c a b
= ab O
abab a
A
c ab
=
ab
1
(3) Volume = (Base area)(Height)
3
1 1 cab
= ( a  b )( )
3 2 ab
1
= cab
6

Summary on M2 by Mr. Leung Chun Yee Page 12 of 12