CHAPTER OUTLINE

1. Introduction

2. Computer Programming

3. Terms used in Programming

4. Source Program

5. Object Code

6. Translators

7. Assembler

8. Interpreter

9. Compiler

10. Levels of Programming Languages

11. Low-Level Languages

12. High-level Languages

13. Advantages and Disadvantages of Low-level and High-level Languages

14. Advantages and Disadvantages of Low Level Languages

15. Advantages and Disadvantages of High Level Languages

16. Program Development

17. Problem Recognition

18. Problem Definition

19. Program Design

20. Program Coding

21. Program Testing and Debugging

22. Implementation and Maintenance

23. Development of Algorithms

24. Pseudocode
 25. Program Flowcharts

26. Program Control Structures

27. Sequence

28. Selection

29. Iteration (Looping)

30. Designing More Complex Algorithms

Introduction

Human beings have evolved from the Stone Age to a highly sophisticated and advanced society by
inventing things like the wheel, fire, transistors and today's ultra modem devices like computers. The
idea of computers started way back in the nineteenth century.

The first generation computers called Electronic Numeric integrator and Calculator (ENIAC 1) were
operated by plugging wires into a control panel that resembles the old telephone switchboards

Computer Programming

A computer works by executing a set of instructions known as a program. The term programming refers
to the process of developing computer instructions (programs) used to solve a particular task. It involves
use of special characters, signs and symbols found in a particular programming language to create
computer instructions. A programming language is a special set of symbols that can be translated into
machine-readable form by the computer when arranged in a particular sequence or order. Each
language has a special sequence or order of writing characters usually referred to as syntax.

It was John von Neumann of Princeton University (USA) who first came up with the proposition to store
programs in the computer memory. Perhaps, this was one of the most dramatic developments in the
computer history. Why? Because not only did the new stored-program way of computing increase-
processing speed but also allowed easy and flexible methods of editing and updating the program.

Description of Terms used in Programming

- Before we go further with programming, it is important to define some common terms used in
computer programming.

Source Program

The term source program refers to the program code that the programmer enters in the program editor
window that is not yet translated into machine-readable form. The source program is usually created
using a particular programming language as discussed later.
Object Code

The term object code refers to the Source program that has been converted to machine-readable form.
A source code that is not in machine-readable form must be translated into object code.The object code
file can be made into a fully executable program by carrying out another process known as linking which
joins the object code to all the other files that are needed for the execution of the program. After the
linking process, an executable file (application file) is generated. This file is stored on a storage media
such as a disk with a name that has a unique extension (.EXE). Examples of executable files are
WINWORD.EXE and PM70.EXE used to start Microsoft Word and Adobe PageMaker 7.0 respectively.

Translators

The term translator is used to refer to language processors such as assemblers, interpreters and
compilers that convert the source program into object code.

Assembler

An assembler translates assembly language into machine language (object code) that the computer can
understand and execute.

Interpreter

An interpreter translates the source program line-by-line, allowing the CPU to execute one line before
translating the next. The translated line is not stored in the computer memory. It means that every time
the program is needed for execution, it has to be translated. This method of translating programs was
very common in early computers that did not have enough memory to store the object code as a file
that can be executed later

Compiler

A compiler translates the entire source program into object code:

The difference between the interpreters and compilers are summarised below:
Interpreters Compilers

1. Translates the source program one statement at a time 1. Translates the entire source code at
once before execution

2. Translates the program each time it is run hence slower than Compiling 2. Compiled program
(object code) can be saved on a storage media and run as required,

hence executes faster than interpreted Programs.

3. Interpreted object code takes less memory compared to compiled program. 3. Compiled programs
require More memory as the object file are larger.

Levels of Programming Languages

- Many programming languages have been developed over the years. These languages are classified into
two major levels namely:

Low-level languages

High-level languages

- These levels are further subdivided into five generations. The first and second generations consist of
low-level languages while the third to the fifth generation consist of high-level languages.

31. Low-Level Languages

Low-level languages are classified as low because the computer can easily understand them directly or
they require little effort to translate into computer understandable form. These languages are hardware
oriented and therefore they are not portable i.e. a program written for one computer cannot be installed
and used on another.

Two types of low level languages are the machine languages and assembly languages.

32. Machine languages (First generation languages)

In machine languages, instructions are written using binary logic. Given that data and instructions are in
binary form, many lines of code are needed to accomplish even a simple task like adding two numbers. A
program written in machine language might look like this:

It is evident from the above code that it is hard for a person to guess what the program is all about
unless they have special knowledge in machine level programming. Furthermore, different CPU's have
different machine codes e.g. those for the Intel Pentium processors may differ from Motorola or Cyrix
processors. Therefore before decoding the meaning, a programmer has to know for which CPU the
program was written. Obviously, such programs are hard to understand from the programmer's point of
view, but very easy to execute from the computer's perspective.

II. Assembly languages (Second generation languages)

Assembly languages were developed in order to overcome the difficulties of understanding and using
machine languages. These languages represented the first successful attempt to make computer
languages readable. The languages allowed programmers to write programs as a set of symbolic
operation codes called mnemonics. Mnemonics are basically shortened two or three letter words.

Programs written in assembly language require an assembler in order to convert them into machine
language that the computer can understand. Just like the machine languages, assembly languages are
also machine dependent and therefore a program written for one computer cannot be used on another.

B. High-level Languages

High-level languages are very close to the human language (English like) and they can be read and
understood even by people who are not experts in programming. There are many types of high-level
languages and each of them was developed to address a particular problem-solving domain while others
came about due to advancement in technology. These languages are machine independent. This means
that a programmer concentrates on problem solving during a programming session rather than how a
machine operates.

High-level languages can be classified into five groups:

33. Third generation languages. (3 GLs)

34. Fourth generation languages. (4 GLs)

35. Fifth generation languages. (5 GLs)

36. Object oriented languages. (OOPs)

37. Web scripting languages.

i. Third generation languages (3 GLs)

Third generation languages (3 GLs) are also called structured or procedural languages. A procedural
language makes it possible to break a program into components called modules each performing a
particular task.

This is referred to as structured programming. The structured programming approach emphasizes the
following:
Large programs can be broken down into smaller sub programs each performing a single task.

Use of a few simple control structures in problem solving. These control structures include sequence,
selection and iteration as covered later in this book.

Structured programming offers many benefits because it is flexible, easier to read and modify.

Examples of third generation programming languages include:

Pascal: Pascal was initially developed as an academic language, to help in the teaching and learning of
structured programming.

FORTRAN: (FORmula TRANslator): This language was developed for mathematicians, scientists and
engineers. It enables writing of programs with mathematical expressions.

COBOL: (Common Business Oriented Language): This language is designed for developing programs that
solve business problems e.g. developing data processing applications such as computer-based inventory
control systems.

BASIC: (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instructional Code): This language was mainly developed to
enable students to easily learn programming. Basic is a simple general-purpose language used for
developing business and educational applications. Because of its simplicity, it is a powerful tool for
students who wish to learn programming. It was the first high-level language that was available for
microcomputer users.

C: This is a programming language mainly used for developing system software such as the operating
system. It is one of the most popular and powerful high-level languages in the business world because of
its ability to provide the programmer with powerful features of low-level languages and at the same time
easily understandable as a high level language.

Ada: This language was named after the first lady programmer, Ada Lovelace. Ada is suitable for
developing military, industrial and real time systems.

A sample program written in Pascal language

- Imagine the task of developing a program that would solve the equation of a straight line given by the
algebraic expression: Y = MX + C.

- To enter the program code below in Pascal, proceed as follows:

From Windows explorer, locate a folder called TP and open it.

From the TP folder select BIN

From BIN window, double click a file named turbo.EXE. Pascal program window is displayed on the
screen.

Enter the program code exactly as it is but ignore the numbering.

1. Program Straight Line (Input, Output);

2. Var

3. y, m, x, c: Integer;

4. Begin

5. Writeln ('Input the value of m');

6. Readln (m);

7. Writeln ('Input the value of x');

8. readln (x);

9. Writeln ('Input the value of c ');

10. Readln (c);

11. Y: = m * x + c;

12. Writeln (The value of y is:’, y);

13. End.

Explanation

Line 1: This is the program header. The word "Program" indicate the beginning of the program whose
name is Straight-Line. The (input, output) statements shows that the program will expect some input
from the keyboard and display the output on the screen.

Line 2: Var is short form for variable. A variable is a location for data in the computer memory. This
statement tells the computer that variables are about to be declared. When a variable is declared, the
computer sets aside some memory space to store a value in the variable.

Line 3: F our variables have been declared of type integer. This means that the memory spaces that will
be set aside can only hold values that are whole numbers.
Line 4: The Begin statement shows that this is the start of the program body. The computer executes
statements in this section. For example, the execution starts by asking the user to input the value of m.

Line 5: The writeln statement displays whatever is in the brackets on the screen. Notice that the
statements in brackets are written between inverted commas. The string will be sent to the screen
exactly the way it appears in the brackets. If you wish to display the value held in a variable on the
screen, then you have to remove the inverted comma's and write the name of the variable in the
brackets e.g. writeln (y) will display the value held in the variable y.

Line 6:The read or readln statement reads a value and stores it in a variable. When the program is
running, a read/readln statement in the code will display a blinking cursor that indicates to the user
where to type the input.

Line 11: Calculates the value of y. Notice the symbol’: ='. In Pascal! This is called the assignment
statement. The values on the righ1 are calculated then stored in the variable y, which is on the left of the
assignment symbol.

Line 12: The writeln displays the value stored in yon the screen. Notice that y is not within the inverted
commas. If you gave the value of m as 10, x as 2 and c as 20 then the following should appeal on your
screen: The value of y is: 40.

- This is because the statements between the inverted comma’ are meant to make the output readable
on the screen. Otherwise: only the value 40 would have been displayed.

Line 13: The 'End.' statement shows the end of a program.

ii. Fourth generation languages (4 GLs)

Fourth generation languages make programming an even easier task that the third generation languages
because they present the programmer with more programming tools. Examples of such tools include
command buttons, forms etc. With the advent of these languages, gone are the days when a person had
to write lines upon lines of code. Instead, the programmer selects graphical objects on the screen called
controls then uses them to create designs on a base form.

The programmer may also use an application generator that works behind the scenes to generate the
necessary code; hence the programmer is freed from the tedious work of writing the code.

Examples of fourth generation languages are: Visual Basic, Delphi Pascal and Visual COBOL.

A sample form designed using Visual basic programming language

- The programmer in this case simply picks a tool from the toolbox and uses it to create objects such as
command buttons, textboxes etc. on the form by dragging the mouse pointer on the form during design.

iii. Fifth generation languages (5 GLs)

Fifth generation languages are designed around the concept of solving problems by enabling the
computer to depict human like intelligence. These programs are designed to make the computer solve
the problem for the programmer rather than the programmer spending a lot of time to come up with
the solution. With such languages, the programmer only worries about what problem needs to be solved
and what conditions need to be met without worrying about how to implement an algorithm to solve
them. Examples of these languages are those used in artificial intelligence like PROLOG, Mercury, LISP
and OCCAM.

iv. Object-oriented programming languages (OOP)

The idea behind object-oriented programming (OOP) was developed in the 1960's but its significance
was not appreciated until lately. The concept behind object oriented programming languages is to look
at a program as having various objects interacting to make up a whole(program). Each object(is
encapsuled ie has data and the functions that operate on the data)has specific data values that are
unique to it (called state) and a set of the things it can accomplish called (functions or behavior). This
process of having data and functions that operate on the data within an object is called encapsulation.
Several objects can then be linked together to form a complete program. Examples of object-oriented
languages include Simula, which was developed in the 1960's. However, C++, Java and SmallTalk are
contemporary languages in this range. Although Java is sometimes associated with development of web
sites it can be used to create whole application programs that do not need a web browser to run. OOP
has contributed greatly to the development of graphical user interface operating systems and application
programs.

v. Web Scripting languages

Web scripting languages are used to develop or add functionalities on web pages. Web pages are
hypertext documents created in a language called Hypertext Markup Language (HTML).

The language simply consists of tags that are interpreted by the web browser software to display text
when the HTML file is opened on the screen by a web browser software. A tag is a special word enclosed
between the less than and greater than (<>) symbols and the browser can interpret it as a command. For
example, to start a HTML page, one must use the <HTML> tag at the very top of the document. Other
languages like Extended HTML (XML) have been derived directly from HTML with the only difference
being that XML allows the user to define their own tags instead of using the standard HTML tags.

Unlike other programming languages, HTML does not have the declaration part and control structures
(to be covered later in the book). Due of this reason, it is not considered as a true programming
language.

Due to its simplicity, HTML has many limitations and cannot be used alone when it comes to developing
functional websites. Some special blocks of code known as scripts may be inserted in HTML pages using
scripting languages like JavaScript, VBScript and Hypertext Preprocessor (PHP) in order to add
functionality to the HTML page.

A script is a small program fragment, written in a different language other than HTML but inserted into
the HTML program.

Most HTML tags have an opening tag and a closing tag. An opening tag is enclosed between < > while a
closing one between </ >.

Text that is to be displayed on the screen is enclosed between an opening and closing tag. For example,
the statement <B> Hello </B> will display the word "Hello" in boldface on the screen.

Table below shows examples of HTML tags and their meanings:

Tag Meaning

1. <HTML></HTML> Marks the beginning and end of a HTML document.

All other tags and text fall between these two tags.

2. <HEAD> </HEAD> Marks the header part of the document.

3. <TITLE> </TITLE> Gives title of the web page.

Text between this tags appears in the title bar when the page is browsed.

4. <BODY></BODY> Marks the body part of the document.

5. <CENTER></CENTER>Centres text and objects on the web page.

6. <B></B> Bolds the text on the web page.

7. <I></I> Italicise the text.

8. <H!></H!> Sets size of text on the web page with H6 displaying the smallest and H1 the largest size.

Creating a script using Javascript

Javascript is a popular scripting language. Before writing your HTML program with a script inserted, make
sure that you have the latest browser software installed on your computer. Older browsers may not have
support for Javascript. If you are using Internet Explorer, it should be version 5.0 and above.

Open Notepad and key in the following program. Do not write the numbers to the left of each line of
code.

1. <HTML>

2. <HEAD>

3. <TITLE> Scripting Example </TITLE>

4. </HEAD>

5. <BODY>

6. <H1> <CENTER> <B> We are the world </B> </CENTER> </H1>

7. <SCRIPT>

8. document.write ('My name is strongman');

9. alert ('congratulations for succeeding to run this script');

10. </SCRIPT>

11. </BODY></HTML>

After typing the entire program, save your file on the desktop as Example.html and then close the
notepad. Notice that the icon to your file on the desktop look like that of the default web browser in
your computer.

To view the web page, double click the icon of the file Example .html on the desktop. The figures below
shows the results after you run the script.

javascript example

After clicking ok the following information is disabled

javascript example 2

Explanations
Line 1: The tag <HTML> marks the beginning of the HTML document.

Line 3: The <TITLE> </TITLE> tags show the title of the web page. The text between this tags will appear
in the title bar of the running HTML document as can be seen in Figure above Notice that the title is
written in the header section i.e. between <HEAD> and </HEAD> tags.

Line 5: It marks the beginning of the body section. Anything between <BODY> and </BODY> will be
executed and displayed when the webpage starts running.

Line 6: This line will display the text "We are the world" on the screen. The text will be large i.e. size H1
and it will be centred on the screen. The text will also be bolded.

Line 7: It marks the start point of the script. Old JavaScript examples may use a type attribute: <script
type="text/javascript">. which tells the browser that the script will be written in JavaScript language. The
type attribute is not required. JavaScript is the default scripting language in HTML.

Line 8: The statement Document. Write tells the browser using JavaScript to write whatever is in the
brackets. Notice that in JavaScript, the end of a statement is marked by a semicolon (;).

Line 9: The word alert displays a message box on the screen with an OK button. Clicking the button
makes the message box to disappear. The text in the brackets appears in the dialog box.

Line 10: Closes the script.

Line 11: Marks the end of the body and the HTML code.

Practical activity

Open a text editor program on your computer like NotePad or WordPad.

Type the following program exactly the way it is in the editor:

<HTML>

<HEAD><TITLE> This is my first webpage</TITLE></HEAD> <BODY bgcolor = "red" >

<H1><CENTER><B>Hello World</B></CENTER></H1>

</BODY> </HTML>

Save your work as webpage i.e with the .html extension on the desktop. Make sure that the Save As Type
box reads "All Files" before clicking the save button in order to avoid saving a text file with two
extensions i.e. webpage.html.txt
Close your text editor. Notice that your file on the desktop has the icon of the default web browser
installed on your computer. Double click it to view the web page! Figure below shows a sample of the
display expected when the file is loaded to the browser. If you have a colour monitor, it should look as
below.

html sample

Check your program and change your background to blue, save then click the refresh button. What
happens?

Advantages and Disadvantages of Low-level and High-level Languages

- Having looked at the various programming languages, it is important to identify the advantages and
disadvantages associated with each level of programming languages.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Low Level Languages

Advantages

38. The CPU understands machine language directly without translation.

39. The processor executes them faster because complex instructions are already broken down into
smaller simpler ones.

40. Low level languages are stable and hardly crash or break down once written.

Disadvantages

41. Low level languages are difficult and cumbersome to use and learn.

42. They require highly trained experts both to develop and maintain programs.

43. Removing errors (debugging) in low level language programs is difficult.

44. Low level programs are machine dependent i.e. they are not transferable from one hardware or
software platform to another. Hence we say they are not portable.

Advantages and Disadvantages of High Level Languages

Advantages
 45. High level languages are portable i.e. they are transferable from one computer to another.

46. High level languages are user friendly and easy to use and learn.

47. High level languages are more flexible; hence they enhance the creativity of the programmer
and increase productivity in the workplace.

48. High level languages are far much easier to correct errors (debug).

Disadvantages

49. Their nature encourages use of many instructions in a word or statement hence the complexity
of these instructions causes slower program processing.

50. They have to be interpreted or compiled to machine readable form before the computer can
execute them.

Program Development

The process of program development is not an easy task. Remember that in our definition of
programming, we said that the program must solve a particular problem or accomplish a task.

Hence, before developing a program, the requirements of the eventual users and its expected functions
should be fully understood.

Program development can be broken into the following stages:

51. Problem recognition.

52. Problem definition.

53. Program design.

54. Program coding.

55. Program testing and debugging.

56. Implementation and maintenance.

The completion of one stage leads to the beginning of the next. At the same time, some stages have to
be continuously reviewed in light of the step just before them to make sure that they meet the
requirements. For example, after coding, the code has to be compared to the design to see whether it
meets the design specification. Therefore, this method becomes very expensive if the correct
requirements are not identified at each stage before the next is initiated.

It is important to note that although some people consider documentation as an independent stage, it is
done at all stages of the program development lifecycle as shown in Figure 3.5.

This is important so that the facts are recorded when they are still fresh and in the required detail by the
programmer.

1. Problem Recognition

Problem recognition refers to the understanding and interpretation of a particular problem. In order to
understand a problem you need to look for the key words such as compute, evaluate, compare etc. You
can then rewrite the problem in a more simplified way using the keywords.

A programmer identifies problems in the environment and seeks to solve them by writing a computer
program that would provide the solution. Many of the privileges of automation that we enjoy today are
as a result of people who wrote computer programs to do the tasks. For example, the intelligent control
of traffic lights, the autopilot in aircraft and the use of robots in industry are good examples where
problems were recognised and the computer was used as a tool to solve them. Think of the person who
after seeing the tedious nature of typing using a manual typewriter decided to develop a word processor
program!

In any given circumstance, the following three situations can cause the programmer to identify a
problem that is worth solving:

· Problems or undesirable situations that prevent an individual or organisations from achieving

their purpose.

· Opportunity to improve the current program. It can be argued that any unexploited opportunity
is a problem.

· A new directive given by the management requiring a change in the status quo.

Sample problem

Consider a mathematical problem such as calculating the area of a circle. In this case, the problem is
finding the area of a circle. As a programmer, it will be your interest to develop a program that can be
used to calculate the area of any circle. The equation for calculating the area of a circle is given by A =
лr2.

2. Problem Definition

In problem definition, also referred to as problem analysis, the programmer tries to determine or define
the likely input, processing activities and the expected output using the keywords outlined at the
problem recognition stage.

At the end of this stage, the boundaries of the expected program will have been established i.e. a clear
view of what the program needs to accomplish must be in place. In case, several methods are identified
that can be used to solve the same problem, then the best alternative should be chosen.

In our problem of calculating the area of a circle, an investigation reveals that the parameters needed to
determine the area of any circle are:

Input:

Pie (л) which is a constant.

The radius of the circle.

Process: The formula of calculating area of a circle which is л x radius x radius.

Output: The area of the circle (A).

The problem definition stage ends with the writing of a requirements report or document for the new
program. It is this document that enables a programmer to come up with a program design that meets
the needs at hand.

3. Program Design

Program design is the actual development of the program's processing or problem solving logic called
the algorithm. An algorithm refers to a limited number of logical steps that a program follows in order to
solve a problem. It is the programmer who will usually come up with the algorithm after carefully
analysing the requirements specification. Many programs are not usually made up of one large block of
code i.e. they are not monolithic. Instead, several units called modules work together to form the whole
program.

In modular programming, each module performs a specific task. This approach makes a program flexible,
easier to read and carry out error correction.

The design phase enables the programmer to come up with models of the expected program. The
models show the flow of events and data throughout the entire program from the time data is input to
the time the program gives out expected information. The development of algorithms is covered later in
the chapter.

4. Program Coding

Program coding is the actual process of converting a design model[algorithm] into its equivalent
program.

This is done by creating the program using a particular programming language. The end result of this
stage is a source program that can be translated into machine readable form for the computer to execute
and solve the target problem. Programs can be written in many different languages but the general trend
in the world today is to use programs that are easy to learn and understand such as, Pascal, C++, Visual
Basic and Java. Below is a comparison of the same program written in Pascal and C++ used to calculate
the area of a circle.

Program in Pascal

Program AreaCircle (input, output);

Const Pi = 3.142;

Var

Radius, Area: real;

Begin

Writeln ('Enter the radius');

Readln (radius);

Area: = Pi *Radius *Radius;

Writeln ('The area is', Area)

End. #include<iostream.h>

Program in c++

main ( )

double radius, area;

const double pi = 3. 142;

cout«"Enter the radius"« "\n";

cin»radius;

area = pi *radius * radius;

cout«"The area is"« area «"\n";

return 0;

}
NB: Use lowercase when coding using C++.

Going through the two programs, you will realise that they are fairly similar, irregardless of the language
that was used to code them. The table below explains the program codes.

Pascal code C++ code Explanation

Program AreaCircle

· (input, output); #include<iostream.h» The header of the programs. The

statements in ( ) and < > shows that the
user inputs data via the keyboard and the
program display information on the screen.

· Const Pi = 3.142; double pi = 3.142; A constant has been declared with a

name pi and value 3.142.

· Var

· radius, area:real double area, radius; Real variables with fractional parts
have been declared.

· Begin { Marks the beginning of the program body

or c++ function

· Writeln ('Enter the radius'); cout< <"Enter radius"; Displays on the screen the
string between inverted
commas

· Readln (Radius) cin> >radius; Displays a blinking cursor that tells the user
that an input is needed before the program
can continue.

· Area: = Pi*Radius *Radius; area = pi*radius * radius; Calculates the area.

Notice the
assigment
statement in Pascal
is : = while in C++ it
is =

· Writeln ('The areais' Area)' cout< <"The area is" area « "\n"; Display the value
stored in the
variable Area.
 · End. return 0; } Marks the end of the
program

NB: “\n" is a C++ syntax of directing the character to a new line. It is equivalent to PASCAL’s

"In" used in writeln and readln.

5. Program Testing and Debugging

After coding, the program has to be tested and the errors detected corrected (debugged).

There are two types of errors (bugs) that can be encountered when testing a program. These are:

57. Syntax errors: These errors emanate from improper use of language rules e.g. grammar
mistakes, punctuation; improper naming of variables and misspelling of user defined and
reserved words. Reserved words are those words that have a special meaning to the
programming language and should not be used by the programmer for anything else. These
errors are detectable by the translator and must be corrected before the program runs.

58. Logical errors: They are not detectable by the translator. The program runs but gives wrong
output or halts during execution. Such errors that occur during program execution are
sometimes called runtime or execution errors.

Methods of error detection

- There are several methods of testing the program for errors. These include:

i. Desk checking (Dry-run)

- It involves going through the program while still on paper before entering it in the program editor. This
helps the programmer to detect the most obvious syntax and logical errors.

ii. Using debugging utilities

- After entering the program in the program editor, you can run the debugging utilities during translation
to detect syntax errors in order to correct them before execution.

iii. Using test data

- The programmer carries out trial runs of the new program. At each run, the programmer enters various
data variations and extremes including data with errors to test whether the system will grind to a halt.
For example, if the input required is of numeric type, the programmer may enter alphabetic characters
to see whether the program will grind to a halt unexpectedly. A good program should not crash due to
incorrect data entry but should inform the user about the anomaly and request for the entry of the
correct data.

6. Implementation and Maintenancee

Implemntation

Implementation refers to the actual delivery and installation of the new program ready for use(to the
user).

New programs will obviously change the way things are done when implemented hence the need for
review and maintenance.

Review and maintenance

Review and maintenance is important because [it will enable debugging] of the errors that may be
encountered after the program has been implemented or exposed to extensive use. A program may also
fail not because of poor development but also due to poor use. Therefore proper training and post
implementation support of users will always reduce the chances of having them entering invalid data
that can crash the program.

7. Program documentation

Program documentation is the writing of support materials explaining how the program can be used by
users, installed by operators or modified by other programmers. All stages of program development
should be documented in order to help during future modification of the program.

Documentation can either be internal or external.

· Internal documentation, is the written nonexcutable lines (comments) in the source program
that help other programmers to understand the code statements.

· External documentation refers to reference materials such as user manuals printed as booklets.
User manuals are common examples of external documentation

There are three target groups for any type of documentation:

59. User oriented documentation. These type enables the user to learn how to use the program as
quickly as possible arid with little help from the program developer.

60. Operator oriented documentation. It is meant for computer operators such as the technical staff.
It helps them to install and maintain the program.

61. Programmer oriented documentation. It is a detailed documentation written for skilled

programmers. This documentation provides necessary technical information to help in future
modification of the program. In this type of documentation, all stages of the program
development should be documented because.
There may come a need to revise or modify the program.

Other programmers may think of ways of improving your program.

Development of Algorithms

As defined earlier an algorithm can be defined as a limited number of logical steps that a program
follows in order to solve a problem. In most cases, algorithms can be depicted using a number of tools
such as decision tables, decision tree's, flowcharts and pseudocodes.

In this notes, we shall mainly discuss program flowcharts and pseudocodes because they are the most
widely used by programmers.

Pseudocode

As mentioned earlier, a pseudocode is a set of statements written in a readable language (usually

English-like phrases) but expressing the processing logic of a program. Some of the words used in a
pseudocode may be drawn directly from a programming language and then mixed with English to form
structured statements that are easily understood by non-programmers and also make a lot of sense to
programmers. However pseudocodes are not executable by a computer.

Guidelines for designing a good pseudocode

The statements must be short, clear and readable

The statements must not have more than one meaning i.e. should be unambiguous

The pseudocode lines should be clearly outlined and indented clearly.

A pseudocode should show clearly the start and stop of executable statements and the control
structures (to be discussed later in the section).

The input, output and processing statements should be clearly stated, using keywords such as PRINT,
READ, INPUT etc. Below are some examples that demonstrate how to write a pseudocode.

Example 1

Write a pseudocode that can be used to prompt the user to enter two numbers, calculate the sum and
average of the two numbers and then display the output on the screen.
Solution

START

PRINT "Enter two numbers"

INPUT X, Y

SUM = X + Y

AVERAGE = SUM/2

PRINT SUM

PRINT AVERAGE

STOP

Example 2

Write a structured algorithm that would prompt the user to enter the length and width of a rectangle,
calculate the area and perimeter then display the result.

Solution

First draw the rectangle of length (L) and width (W)

Write down the pseudocode

START

PRINT "Enter length and width":

READ L, W

AREA = L * W

PERIMETER = 2(L + W)

PRINT AREA
PRINT PERIMETER

STOP

Example 3

Write a pseudocode for a program that can be used to classify people according to age. If a person is
more than 20 years; output "Adult" else output "Young person"

Solution

START

PRINT "Enter the age" INPUT AGE

IF AGE> 20 THEN

PRINT "Adult"

ELSE

PRINT "Young person"

Program Flowcharts

A Flowchart is constructed using a set of special shapes (or symbols) that have specific meaning.

Symbols are used to represent operations, or data flow on a flowchart.

Each symbol contains information (short text) that describes what must be done at that point.

The symbols are joined by arrows to obtain a complete Flowchart. The arrows show the order in which
the instruction must be executed.

Symbols Used in Program Flowcharts.

- Below is a standard set of symbols used to draw program flowcharts as created by American National
Standard Institute (ANSI)
Terminal symbol.

ellipseEllipse (Oval in shape)

It is used to indicate the point at which a flowchart, a process or an algorithm begins & ends.

All Flowcharts must have a START & STOP symbol. The START/BEGIN symbol is the first symbol of a
flowchart, & identifies the point at which the analysis of the flowchart should begin. The STOP/END
symbol is the last symbol of a flowchart, & indicates the end of the flowchart.

The words Begin & End (or Start & Stop) should be inserted in the Terminal symbol.

Input or Output symbol.

input output symbol

It is used to identify/specify an input operation or output operation.

For example;

Input operation Output operation

Note. The words mostly associated with I/O operations are READ & PRINT. READ describes the entry of
computer data, while PRINT relates to the printed output of information.

Process symbol.

process symbol

Process symbol is used to indicate that a processing or data transformation is taking place.

The information placed within the process symbol may be an algebraic formula or a sentence to describe
processing.

Processing defined as a Formula Processing defined as a Sentence

Decision symbol.

Decision symbol

It is used to indicate/ specify a condition or to show the decision to be made.

There are 2 main components of a Decision symbol:

A question asked within the Decision symbol, that indicates the comparison/logical operation.

The results of the comparison (which are given in terms of YES or NO). The arrows labeled YES or NO
lead to the required action corresponding to the answer to the question.
Flow lines.

flow lines

Flow lines with arrowheads are used to indicate the direction of processing of the program logic, i.e.,
they show the order in which the instructions are to be executed.

The normal flow of a flowchart is from Top to Bottom, and Left to Right.

Note. Flow lines should never cross each other.

Connector symbol.

connector symbol

Sometimes, a flowchart becomes too long to fit in a single page, such that the flow lines start
crisscrossing at many places causing confusion & also making the flowchart difficult to understand.

The Connector symbol is used as a connecting point for arrows coming from different directions.

A Connector symbol is represented by a Circle, and a letter or digit is placed within the circle to indicate
the link.

Note. Connectors do not represent any operation. They are used to connect two parts of a flowchart,
indicating that the flow of data is not broken.

General guidelines for drawing a program flowchart.

A flowchart should have only one entry/starting point and one exit point (i.e., ensure that the flowchart
has a logical start and finish).

The flowchart should be clear, neat and easy to follow.

Use the correct symbol at each stage in the flowchart.

The flowchart should not be open to more than one interpretation.

Avoid overlapping the lines used to show the flow of logic as this can create confusion in the flowchart

Make comparison instructions simple, i.e., capable of YES/NO answers.

The logical flow should be clearly shown using arrows.

Note. A flowchart should flow from the Top to Bottom of a page, and from the Left to the Right.

Where necessary, use Connectors to reduce the number of flow lines. Connectors are helpful when a
flowchart is several pages long, and where several loops are needed in the logic of the flowchart.

Check to ensure that the flowchart is logically correct & complete.

Example 1:

Draw a flowchart for a program that can be used to prompt the user to enter two numbers, find the sum
and average of the two numbers and then display the output on the screen.

flowcharts example 1

Example 2:

Draw a flowchart for a program that would prompt the user to enter the Length and Width of a
rectangle, calculate the Area and Perimeter, then display the result.

flowcharts example 2

Example 3:

Draw a flowchart for a program that can be used to calculate the Diameter, Circumference and Area of a
circle and then display the output on the screen.

flowcharts example 3

Example 4:

Design a flowchart for a program that can be used to classify people according to age. If a person is more
than 20 years; output “Adult” else output “Young person”.

flowcharts example 4

Example 5:

Draw a flowchart for a program that would be used to classify animals according to sex. If a letter M is
input, the program should display ‘Male’ otherwise it should display “Female”.

flowcharts example 5

Example 6:

Write a program using a flowchart to convert temperature from 0C to 0F.

Fahrenheit =32 + (9o x C/5).

flowcharts example 6

Notes.

A flowchart must have a Start and an end.

A flowchart is useful when the algorithm is short & the flowchart can fit conveniently on a single page. If
the flowchart is too large, it is recommended to use Pseudocodes for long & complicated programs.

Advantages of using Flowcharts.

The following are the benefits of Flowcharts:

Quicker understanding of relationships.

- They assist programmers to understand procedures more quickly.

- A programmer can represent a lengthy procedure more easily with the help of a flowchart than
describing it by means of written notes.

Effective synthesis.

- Flowcharts may be used as working models in the design of new programs and systems.

Proper program documentation.

- Program flowcharts serve as good program documentation, which is needed for the following reasons:

If programs are modified in future, the flowcharts will direct the programmer on what was originally
done.
When staff changes occur, the flowcharts may help new employees understand the existing programs.

Flowcharts assist in program conversion when new hardware/software are acquired.

Effective coding.

- Program flowcharts act as a guide during the program preparation stage. Instructions coded in a
programming language may be checked against the flowchart to ensure that no steps are omitted.

Orderly debugging and testing of programs.

- Flowcharts help in detecting, locating and removing mistakes.

- The programmer can refer to the flowchart as he/she re-checks the coding steps, & the logic of the
written instructions.

Efficient program maintenance.

- Flowcharts facilitate the maintenance of operating programs. They help the programmer to
concentrate on the part of the information flow which is to be modified.

Limitations of using Flowcharts.

Flowcharts are complex, clumsy & become unclear, especially when the program logic is complex.

If changes are to be made, the flowchart may require complete re-drawing.

Reproduction of flowcharts is usually a problem, since the flowchart symbols cannot be typed.

No uniform practice is followed for drawing flowcharts as it is used as an aid to the program.

Sometimes, it becomes difficult to establish the link between various conditions, and the actions to be
taken upon a particular condition.

Program Control Structures

Program control structures are blocks of statements that determine how statements are to be executed.
In structured programming languages, there are three control structures namely; sequence, selection
and iteration (looping).

Sequence

In sequence control structure, the computer reads instructions from a program file starting from the first
top line and proceeding downwards one-by-one to the end. This is called sequential program execution.
sequential program execution

Therefore, sequential program execution enables the computer to perform tasks that are arranged
consecutively one after another in the code. However, most programs that solve real world problems
need to enable the computer either to repeat tasks or to make decisions when certain conditions are
true or false hence the need for selection and iteration.

Selection

In selection control, execution of statements depends on a condition that returns true or false.

The condition must be a boolean expression. One example of a boolean expression is x > = 20.

In such a case the condition is true if x is equal to or greater than 20. Any other value that is less than 20
is therefore false.

Generally, the four types of selection controls used in most high-level programming languages are:

IF... THEN.

IF ... THEN ... ELSE.

Nested IF.

CASE selection.

In this notes, we shall demonstrate how to implement these controls by using both pseudocodes and
flowcharts.

IF ... THEN

IF ... THEN selection is used if only one option is available. In this case, all other options are ignored.

The general format of the IF-THEN structure is:

IF < Condition > THEN

Program statement to be executed if condition is true;

ENDIF

The diagrammatic expression of the IF-THEN structure is:

if then flowchart

For example, in a school environment, the administration may decide to reward only those students who
attain a mean mark of 80% and above. Therefore, if a students attains 80% and above, he or she is
rewarded while the rest are ignored. The following pseudocode and flowchart illustrate this condition:

Pseudocode

IF Mark > 80 THEN

Print “ Give reward”

ENDIF

Flowchart

if then condition example 1

IF ... THEN... ELSE

IF ... THEN... ELSE selection is suitable when there are two available options. .

The general format of the IF-THEN-ELSE structure is:

IF < Condition > THEN

Statement 1; (called the THEN part)

ELSE

Statement 2; (called the ELSE part)

ENDIF (indicates the end of the control structure)

The diagrammatic expression of the IF-THEN-ELSE structure is:

if then else flowchart

Example
In a football match, if a player does a mistake which is considered serious by the rules of the game,
he/she is given a red card. Otherwise, he/she is given a yellow card. The algorithms below illustrates this
situation using the IF ... THEN... ELSE selection

Pseudocode

IF Fault = Serious THEN

Print “ Give red card”

ELSE

Print “ Give Yellow card”

ENDIF

Flowchart

if then else example

Nested IF selection

Nested IF selection is used where two or more options have to be considered to make a selection.

The general format of the Nested IF structure is:

IF < Condition 1 > THEN

Statement 1

ELSE

IF < Condition 2 > THEN

Statement 2

ELSE
IF < Condition 3 > THEN

Statement 3

ELSE

Statement 4;

ENDIF

ENDIF

ENDIF

Example

In an Olympics track event, medals are awarded only to the first three athletes as follows:

Position 1.Gold medal

Position 2: Silver medal

Position 3: Bronze medal

Pseudocode

IF position = 1 THEN

medal = "Gold"

ELSE

IF position = 2 THEN

medal = "silver"

ELSE

IF position = 3 THEN

medal = "bronze'

ELSE
medal = "nil"

END IF

ENDIF

ENDIF

Flowchart extract

nested if example

CASE Selection

CASE selection is an alternative to the Nested IF especially where there are several options to choose
from.

This selection is preferred to the Nested IF in order to reduce the many lines of code.

However, it is important to note that the boolean expression for the case selection can only be expressed
using integers and alphabetic characters only.

Generally the boolean expression should be CASE integer OF or CASE Char OF as illustrated in the
example below. In this case, average must be an integer.

Pseudocode

CASE average OF

80..100: Grade = 'A'

70.. 79: Grade = 'B'

60.. 69: Grade = 'C'

50.. 59: Grade = 'D'

40 .. 49: Grade = 'E'

ELSE

Grade = 'F'

ENDCASE

Flowchart extract

case selection flowchart

General format of case

CASE x OF

Label: statement

Label 2: statement 2

Label 3: statement 3

Label n: statement n -1

ELSE

statement

ENDCASE

Note that the flowchart is not different from that of the Nested IF construct

Iteration (Looping)

Iteration, also referred to a looping or repetition is designed to execute the same block of code again and
again until a certain condition is fulfilled. Iteration is important in situations where the same operation
has to be carried out on a set of data many times. For example, assume that you are writing a program
that will use the same formula to calculate the average marks of three subjects for each student in a
class and that the student records are stored in a computer file.

To calculate the average score for each student in a class, the program should repeatedly read record by
record from the file, and then use the formula after each read operation to calculate the average.

Generally, the three main looping controls are:

The WHILE loop

The REPEAT. .. UNTIL loop

The FOR loop

Types of loops

Conditional loop: - This is where the required number of repetitions is not known inadvance.

- Conditional execution is a situation that requires that a logical test be carried out, and then a particular
action be taken depending on the outcome of that test.

Unconditional loop: - This is where the execution of the instructions is repeated some specified number
of times.

Continuous (infinite/unending) loop: - This is where the computer repeats a process again and again,
without ending.

The WHILE loop

The 'WHILE' loop is used if a condition has to be met before the statements within the loop are
executed. Therefore, this type of loop allows the statements to be executed zero or many times.

For example in banking, to withdraw money using an automated teller machine (ATM) a customer must
have a balance in his/her account.

This scenario can be represented as follows using an algorithm

Pseudocode segment

WHILE balance > 0 Do

Withdraw cash

Flowchart extract

Update account

END WHILE
Withdraw cash Update account

Flowchart

while loop example

In our case above,

The condition balance> 0 is first tested.

If it is true, the account holder is allowed to withdraw cash.

The program exits the loop once the balance falls to zero.

In general, the WHILE loop can be represented using a pseudocode and a flowchart extract as shown
below.

Pseudocode segment

WHILE < condition> DO

statements

ENDWHILE

Flowchart extract

while loop flowchart

The REPEAT ... UNTIL loop

Unlike the 'WHILE' loop, REPEAT... UNTIL allows the statements within it to be executed at least once
since the condition is tested at the end of the loop. For example, consider the ATM cash withdrawal case
discussed under the 'WHILE' loop. If the REPEAT ... UNTIL is used, then the client will be able to withdraw
the cash at least once since availability of balance is tested at the end of the loop as shown below.

Pseudocode

REPEAT

Withdraw cash

Update account

UNTIL balance > 0;

Flowchart

repeat until example

The general format of the REPEAT. .. UNTIL loop is;

Pseudocode

REPEAT

Page 46 of 117

statements

UNTIL < condition>

Flowchart

repeat until flowchart

The FOR loop

The FOR loop is used in circumstances where execution of the choosen statements has to be repeated a
predetermined number of times.

For example, consider a program that can be used to calculate the sum of ten numbers provided by the
user.

The 'FOR' loop can be used to prompt the user to enter the 10 numbers at most ten times.

Once the numbers have been entered, the program calculates and displays the accumulated sum. The
loop is predetermined because it has to be repeated 10 times as shown by the algorithms below.

Pseudocode

FOR count = 1 to 10 DO

PRINT "Enter a number (N)"

INPUT N

Sum=Sum+N

END FOR

Display SUM

Flowchart

for loop example

Explanation

- The FOR loop in the problem above functions as follows:

The loop variable (count) is first initialised to the lower limit, in this case a value of 1.
The lower limit is then tested against the upper limit whose value is set at 10.

If the lower limit is less than or equal to 10, the program prompts the user to enter a number N,
otherwise the computer exits the loop.

After the last statement in the loop has been executed, the loop variable count is incremented by a 1 and
stored in the lower limit i.e. lower limit = count + 1.

The lower limit is then stored in count and step (2) is repeated

- The FOR loop can also be used to count downwards from the upper limit to the lower limit. For
example, in the above problem, the upper limit 10 can be tested against the lower limit 1 as follows.

FOR count = 10 DOWN TO 1 DO

- Therefore the general format of the FOR loop can be represented using two sets of algorithms.

Pseudocode for 'FOR' loop that counts from the lower limit

FOR loop variable = lower limit To upper limit DO.

statements

ENDFOR

for loop lower limit

Pseudocode for a 'FOR' loop that counts from the upper limit down to the lower limit

FOR loop variable = Upper limit DOWN TO Lower limit DO

statements;

ENDFOR.

for loop flowchart

Designing More Complex Algorithms

The following examples demonstrates how to design more complex algorithms based on what has been
covered previously. This is aimed at helping a beginner programmer understand how control structures
are used to design logically correct algorithms.
Example 1

With aid of a pseudocode and a flowchart, design an algorithm that:

Prompt the user to enter two numbers X and Y.

Divide X by Y. However, if the value of Y is 0, the program should display an error message

"Error: Division by zero".

Solution

Using a pseudocode

START

PRINT "Enter 2 numbers X and Y"

INPUT X, Y

IF Y = 0 THEN

PRINT "Error: Division by zero"

ELSE

Quotient = X/Y

PRINT X, Y, Quotient

ENDIF

STOP

Using a flowchart

complex algorithms example 1

Example 2

Tusaidiane Savings Society (TSS) pays 5% interest on shares exceeding 100 000 shillings and 3% on shares
that do not meet this target. However no interest is paid on deposits in the member's TSS bank account.
Design an algorithm for a program that would:

Prompt the user for shares and deposit of a particular member.

Calculate the interest and total savings.

Display the interest and total savings on the screen for a particular member of the society.

Solution

Using a pseudocode

START

PRINT "Enter member name, share and deposit"

INPUT Name, Shares, Deposit

If shares> 100 000 THEN

Interest = 0.05 x shares

ELSE

Interest = 0.03 x shares

ENDIF

Total savings = Deposit + shares + Interest PRINT Name, Total Saving, Interest

STOP

Flowchart
Draw the flowchart as your exercise

Example 3

In an athletics competition, an athlete is rewarded as follows:

1 st position: Gold

2nd position: Silver

3rd position: Bronze

Write a pseudocode and draw a flowchart for a program that would be used to determine the type of
medal to be rewarded to each athlete.

Pseudocode

START

PRINT “Enter athlete Name and Position”

INPUT Name, Position

IF Position = 1 THEN

Medal = “Gold”

ELSE

IF Position = 2 THEN

Medal = “Silver”

ELSE

IF Position = 3 THEN

Medal = “Bronze”

ELSE
Medal = “None”

ENDIF

ENDIF

ENDIF

Flowchart

complex algorithms example 3

Example 4

The class teacher of Form 3W in a secondary school requested a programmer to design for her a simple
program that would help her do the following:

Enter the names of students and marks obtained in 8 subjects - Mathematics, English, Kiswahili, Biology,
Chemistry, Business studies, Computer studies and History.

After entering each subject mark, the program should calculate the total and average marks for each
student.

Depending on the average mark obtained, the program should assign grade as follows:

Between 80 and 1 00 - A

Between 70 and 79 - B

Between 60 and 69 - C

Between 50 and 59 - D

Below 50 - E

The program should then display each student's name, total marks and the average grade.

Using both a flowchart and a pseudocode, write an algorithm that shows the design of the program.
Solution

Using pseudocode

START

REPEAT

PRINT "Enter name and subject marks"

INPUT Name, Mathematics, English, Kiswahili, Biology, Chemistry, Business, Computer,

History

SUM = Mathematics + English + Kiswahili + Biology + Chemistry +Business + Computer +

History

AVG = SUM/8

IF (AVG <80) AND (AVG<100) THEN

Grade = 'A'

ELSE

IF (AVG >70) AND (AVG > 79) THEN

Grade = 'B'

ELSE

IF (AVG >60) AND (AVG >69) THEN

Grade = 'c'

ELSE

IF (AVG >50) AND (AVG >59) THEN

Grade = 'D'

ELSE

Grade = 'E'
ENDIF

ENDIF

ENDIF

ENDIF

PRINT Name, Sum, AVG, Grade UNTIL Count = Number of students

STOP.

Flowchart

complex algorithms example 4

Example 5

The gross salary of employees in KARU BOOKS ENTERPRISE is based on basic salary and additional
benefits as follows:

Employees who have worked for the company for more than 10 years receive an additional pay of 10%
to their basic salary.

Monthly salary bonus based on monthly sales of books as follows:

Monthly sales Bonus Rate (%)

Above 500 000 15

Between 250 000 and 500 000 10

Below 250 000 5

Draw a flowchart for a program that would be used to calculate the gross salary then output each
employee’s basic salary, gross salary and all benefits.