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About the Authors
Stan Gibilisco , a full-time writer, is an electronics
hobbyist and engineer. He has been a ham radio
operator since 1966. Stan has authored several titles
for the McGraw-Hill Demystified and Know-It-All series,
along with numerous other technical books and dozens
of magazine articles. His Encyclopedia of Electronics
(TAB Books, 1985) was cited by the American Library
Association as one of the “best references of the
1980s.” Stan maintains a website at
www.sciencewriter.net .

Dr. Simon Monk has a degree in Cybernetics and

Computer Science and a PhD in Software Engineering.
Dr. Monk spent several years as an academic before he
returned to industry, co-founding the mobile software
company Momote Ltd. He has been an active
electronics hobbyist since his early teens and is a full-
time writer on hobby electronics and open source
hardware. Dr. Monk is the author of numerous
electronics books, including Programming Arduino,
Hacking Electronics , and Programming the Raspberry
Pi .
Copyright © 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved.
Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976,
no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any
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without the prior written permission of the publisher.
ISBN: 978-1-25-958554-8
MHID: 1-25-958554-9
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than put a trademark symbol after every occurrence of a
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In Memory of Jack
 Contents

Preface

Part 1 Direct Current

1 Background Physics
Atoms
Protons, Neutrons, and Atomic Numbers
Isotopes and Atomic Weights
Electrons
Ions
Compounds
Molecules
Conductors
Insulators
Resistors
Semiconductors
Current
Static Electricity
Electromotive Force
Non-Electrical Energy
Quiz

2 Electrical Units
The Volt
 Current Flow
The Ampere
Resistance and the Ohm
Conductance and the Siemens
Power and the Watt
A Word about Notation
Energy and the Watt-Hour
Other Energy Units
Alternating Current and the Hertz
Rectification and Pulsating Direct Current
Stay Safe!
Magnetism
Magnetic Units
Quiz

3 Measuring Devices
Electromagnetic Deflection
Electrostatic Deflection
Thermal Heating
Ammeters
Voltmeters
Ohmmeters
Multimeters
FET Voltmeters
Wattmeters
Watt-Hour Meters
Digital Readout Meters
Frequency Counters
Other Meter Types
Quiz
4 Direct-Current Circuit Basics
Schematic Symbols
Schematic and Wiring Diagrams
Circuit Simplification
Ohm’s Law
Current Calculations
Voltage Calculations
The Rule of Significant Figures
Resistance Calculations
Power Calculations
Resistances in Series
Resistances in Parallel
Division of Power
Resistances in Series-Parallel
Quiz

5 Direct-Current Circuit Analysis

Current through Series Resistances
Voltages across Series Resistances
Voltage across Parallel Resistances
Currents through Parallel Resistances
Power Distribution in Series Circuits
Power Distribution in Parallel Circuits
Kirchhoff’s First Law
Kirchhoff’s Second Law
Voltage Division
Quiz

6 Resistors
Purpose of the Resistor
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 Fixed Resistors
The Potentiometer
The Decibel
Resistor Specifications
Quiz

7 Cells and Batteries

Electrochemical Energy
“Grocery Store” Cells and Batteries
Miniature Cells and Batteries
Lead-Acid Batteries
Nickel-Based Cells and Batteries
Photovoltaic Cells and Batteries
Fuel Cells
Quiz

8 Magnetism
Geomagnetism
Magnetic Force
Magnetic Field Strength
Electromagnets
Magnetic Materials
Magnetic Machines
Quiz

Test: Part 1

Part 2 Alternating Current

9 Alternating-Current Basics
 Definition of AC
Period and Frequency
The Sine Wave
Square Waves
Sawtooth Waves
Complex Waveforms
Frequency Spectrum
Fractions of a Cycle
Expressions of Amplitude
The Generator
Why AC and Not DC?
Quiz

10 Inductance
The Property of Inductance
The Unit of Inductance
Inductors in Series
Inductors in Parallel
Interaction among Inductors
Air-Core Coils
Ferromagnetic Cores
Transmission-Line Inductors
Quiz

11 Capacitance
The Property of Capacitance
Simple Capacitors
The Unit of Capacitance
Capacitors in Series
Capacitors in Parallel
 Fixed Capacitors
Variable Capacitors
Capacitor Specifications
Interelectrode Capacitance
Quiz

12 Phase
Instantaneous Values
Rate of Change
Circles and Vectors
Expressions of Phase Difference
Vector Diagrams of Relative Phase
Quiz

13 Inductive Reactance
Inductors and Direct Current
Inductors and Alternating Current
Reactance and Frequency
The RXL Quarter-Plane
Current Lags Voltage
How Much Lag?
Quiz

14 Capacitive Reactance
Capacitors and Direct Current
Capacitors and Alternating Current
Capacitive Reactance and Frequency
The RXC Quarter-Plane
Current Leads Voltage
How Much Lead?
 Quiz

15 Impedance and Admittance

Imaginary Numbers Revisited
Complex Numbers Revisited (in Detail)
The RX Half-Plane
Characteristic Impedance
Conductance
Susceptance
Admittance
The GB Half-Plane
Quiz

16 Alternating-Current Circuit Analysis

Complex Impedances in Series
Series RLC Circuits
Complex Admittances in Parallel
Parallel RLC Circuits
Putting It All Together
Reducing Complicated RLC Circuits
Ohm’s Law for Alternating Current
Quiz

17 Alternating-Current Power and

Resonance
Forms of Power
Power Parameters
Power Transmission
Resonance
Resonant Devices
 Quiz

18 Transformers and Impedance Matching

Principle of the Transformer
Transformer Geometry
Power Transformers
Isolation and Impedance Matching
Radio-Frequency Transformers
Quiz

Test: Part 2

Part 3 Basic Electronics

19 Introduction to Semiconductors
The Semiconductor Revolution
Semiconductor Materials
Doping and Charge Carriers
The P-N Junction
Quiz

20 Diode Applications
Rectification
Detection
Frequency Multiplication
Signal Mixing
Switching
Voltage Regulation
Amplitude Limiting
Frequency Control
 Oscillation and Amplification
Energy Emission
Photosensitive Diodes
Quiz

21 Bipolar Transistors
NPN versus PNP
Biasing
Amplification
Gain versus Frequency
Common-Emitter Configuration
Common-Base Configuration
Common-Collector Configuration
Quiz

22 Field-Effect Transistors
Principle of the JFET
Amplification
The MOSFET
Common-Source Configuration
Common-Gate Configuration
Common-Drain Configuration
Quiz

23 Integrated Circuits
Advantages of IC Technology
Limitations of IC Technology
Linear ICs
Digital ICs
Component Density
 IC Memory
Quiz

24 Electron Tubes
The Main Advantage
Vacuum versus Gas-Filled
Electrode Configurations
Circuit Arrangements
Cathode-Ray Tubes
Tubes above 300 MHz
Quiz

25 Power Supplies
Power Transformers
Rectifier Diodes
Half-Wave Circuit
Full-Wave Center-Tap Circuit
Full-Wave Bridge Circuit
Voltage-Doubler Circuit
Power-Supply Filtering
Voltage Regulation
Voltage Regulator ICs
Switched-Mode Power Supplies (SMPS)
Equipment Protection
Quiz

26 Amplifiers and Oscillators

The Decibel Revisited
Basic Bipolar-Transistor Amplifier
Basic FET Amplifier
 Amplifier Classes
Efficiency in Power Amplifiers
Drive and Overdrive
Audio Amplification
Radio-Frequency Amplification
How Oscillators Work
Common Oscillator Circuits
Oscillator Stability
Audio Oscillators
Quiz

27 Wireless Transmitters and Receivers

Modulation
Image Transmission
The Electromagnetic Field
Wave Propagation
Transmission Media
Receiver Fundamentals
Predetector Stages
Detectors
Postdetector Stages
Specialized Wireless Modes
Quiz

28 Digital Basics
Numeration Systems
Digital Logic
Binary Communications
Quiz

Test: Part 3
Part 4 Specialized Devices and Systems

29 Microcontrollers
Benefits
All Shapes and Sizes
General-Purpose Input/Output (GPIO) Pins
Digital Outputs
Digital Inputs
PWM Outputs
Analog Inputs
Dedicated Serial Hardware
An Example—the ATtiny44
Programming Languages
Programming a Microcontroller
Quiz

30 Arduino
The Arduino Uno/Genuino
Setting up the Arduino IDE
Programming “Blink”
Programming Fundamentals
Setup and Loop
Variables and Constants
The Serial Monitor
Ifs
Iteration
Functions
Data Types
Interfacing with GPIO Pins
The Arduino C Library
 Libraries
Special Purpose Arduinos
Shields
Quiz

31 Transducers, Sensors, Location, and

Navigation
Wave Transducers
Displacement Transducers
Detection and Measurement
Location Systems
Navigational Methods
Quiz

32 Acoustics and Audio

Acoustics
Loudness and Phase
Technical Considerations
Components
Specialized Systems
Hard Recording Media
Electromagnetic Interference
Quiz

33 Lasers
How a Laser Works
The Cavity Laser
Semiconductor Lasers
Solid-State Lasers
Other Noteworthy Lasers
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 Quiz

34 Advanced Communications Systems

Cellular Communications
Satellites and Networks
Amateur and Shortwave Radio
Security and Privacy
Modulated Light
Fiber Optics
Quiz

35 Antennas for RF Communications

Radiation Resistance
Half-Wave Antennas
Quarter-Wave Verticals
Loops
Ground Systems
Gain and Directivity
Phased Arrays
Parasitic Arrays
Antennas for Ultrahigh and Microwave Frequencies
Safety
Quiz

Test: Part 4

Final Exam

Appendix A Answers to Quizzes, Tests,

and Final Exam
Appendix B Schematic Symbols

Suggested Additional Reading

Index
 Preface

This book will help you learn the fundamentals of electricity and
electronics without taking a formal course. It can serve as a do-it-
yourself study guide or as a classroom text. This sixth edition
contains new material about switching power supplies, class-D
amplifiers, lithium-polymer batteries, microcontrollers, and Arduino.
You’ll find a multiple-choice quiz at the end of every chapter. The
quizzes are “open-book,” meaning that you may (and should) refer
to the chapter text as you work out the answers. When you have
finished a chapter, take the quiz, write down your answers, and then
give your list of answers to a friend. Have the friend tell you your
score, but not which questions you got wrong. That way, you can
take the test again without bias.
When you reach the end of each section, you’ll encounter a
multiple-choice test. A final exam concludes this course. The
questions are a bit easier than the ones in the chapter-ending
quizzes, but the tests are “closed-book.” Don’t refer back to the text
as you take the part-ending tests or the final exam. For all 35
chapter-ending quizzes, all four tests, and the final exam, a
satisfactory score is at least three-quarters of the answers correct.
The answer key is in Appendix A .
If you need a mathematics or physics refresher, you can select
from several of Stan Gibilisco’s McGraw-Hill books dedicated to those
topics. If you want to bolster your mathematics knowledge base
before you start this course, study Algebra Know-It-All and Pre-
Calculus Know-It-All . On the practical side, check out Electricity
Experiments You Can Do at Home .
If you get bitten by the microcontroller bug, then you’ll find Simon
Monk’s Programming Arduino: Getting Started with Sketches and
Programming Arduino Next Steps: Going Further with Sketches
useful companions to this book.
The authors welcome ideas and suggestions for future editions.
Stan Gibilisco
and
Simon Monk
1
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 Kovakuoriaisten paksu kitini-iho suojelee niitä hyvin ja tekee ne
haavoittumattomiksi. Skorpionin miekkailu on sattuman varassa, siksi
sen pistot eivät osu kovakuoriaisten ruumiinrenkaiden ohutihoisiin
nivelvakoihin. Voidakseen taas lävistää kitinipanssarin pitäisi sen
porata kauan aikaa, mutta sitä eivät ankarasti puolustautuvat
kovakuoriaiset salli, ja porausmenetelmäkin on sitäpaitsi skorpionille
vieras, se käyttää vain äkillisiä pistoja taistelutapoinaan.

Skorpionin pistin voisi tunkeutua vain yhteen ainoaan osaan

kovakuoriaisen ruumista, nimittäin takaruumiin selkäpuolelle
peitinsiipien alle. Paljastan sen kääntämällä peitinsiivet ulospäin tai,
vielä paremmin, leikkaamalla ne kokonaan pois. Peitinsiipien
poistaminen ei ole hyönteiselle ollenkaan vaarallista, eikä lyhennä
sen ikää. Vien skorpionin häkkiin isoja siivettömiä kovakuoriaisia,
maakiitäjiä, sittiäisiä, kultakuoriaisia, toukohärkiä ja
hapsenkakkiaisia. Kaikki kuolevat myrkkyyn, vaikka kuolintaistelu
kestää milloin kauemmin, milloin lyhyemmän aikaa.

Mainitsen vain jonkun esimerkin. Muinaisten egyptiläisten pyhä

pillerinpyörittäjä (Ateuchus sacer L.) venyttää ruumistaan piston
saatuaan kouristuksen tapaan, nousee pystyyn, nostelee jalkojaan
paikoillaan ja horjuu, sillä liikuntokoneisto on joutunut
epäjärjestykseen. Sitten se kaatuu eikä enää nouse, potkii kiivaasti,
herpoutuu — se on kuollut. Hapsenkakkiaiset (Cerambyx cerdo L. ja
C. scopolii Füssl.) saavat jonkinlaisen kangistuskohtauksen, useat
kuolevat vasta seuraavana päivänä, toiset jo kolmen, neljän tunnin
kuluttua. Samoin vaikuttaa pisto myöskin kultakuoriaisiin,
saksanturilaaseen (Melolontha vulgaris L.) ja mäntyturilaaseen
(Polyphylla fullo L.).
 Sarvikuoriainen (Oryctes narsicornis L.), suuri, kolme, neljä
senttimetriä pitkä, komea ja vahva kovakuoriainen ottaa iskun
vastaan stoalaisen kylmäverisesti. Sille ei pisto aluksi näytä
tuottaneen mitään pahoja vammoja, arvokkaana ja tasapainonsa
säilyttäen se kävelee tiehensä. Yht'äkkiä alkaa voimakas myrkky
kuitenkin vaikuttaa. Jalat eivät tottele hyönteistä, se horjuu,
kellahtaa selälleen nousematta enää ylös. Kolme, neljä päivää se
vielä värähtelee henkitoreissa ja nukkuu sitten rauhallisesti
kuolonuneen.

Olin jo ennen kokeita varma, että myrkky vaikuttaa hentoihin

perhosiin hyvin pian, kuitenkin tarkkana havainnontekijänä tahdoin
niilläkin kokeilla. Ritariperhonen (Papillo machaon L.), amirali
(Vanessa atalanta L.) ja kärsäkiitäjä (Deilephila euphorbiae L.)
sortuvat heti, kun pisto niihin sattuu. Suuri riikinkukkokehrääjä
(Saturnia pyri Schiff.) näyttää kuitenkin kummakseni olevan
voittamaton. Ainakin on skorpionin hankala iskeä tähän turpeaan ja
leveäsiipiseen kehrääjään, piikki liukuu pois suunnastaan pehmeässä
villakarvassa, josta joka piston jälkeen pölähtää tukko ilmaan.
Toistuneista iskuista huolimatta en ole varma, onko pistimen kärki
voinut tunkeutua perhosen ruumiiseen. Sentähden nypin karvat sen
takaruumiista ja näen nyt selvästi, että ase lävistää paljaan ihon.
Siirrän kehrääjän rautalankahäkkiin, se tarttuu verkkoon kiinni ja on
siinä koko päivän liikkumatonna — neljäntenä päivänä se kuolee.

Otaksuisi tietysti mielellään, että tämän perhosjättiläisen

vastustuskyky aiheutuu sen vahvasta rakenteesta, mutta kokeet
paljon pienemmällä, tavallisella silkkiperhosella (Bombyx mori L.)
osoittivat, että syy on haettava toisaalta. Tämä heikko kääpiö näet
kestää piston seurauksia yhtä kauan kuin riikinkukkokehrääjäkin.
Nämä molemmat kehrääjät ovat epätäydellisesti kehittyneitä olioita,
aivan erilaisia kuin toiset perhoset, erilaisia kuin kiitäjät, jotka
hämärissä niin innokkaasti tutkivat kukkien teriöitä, erilaisia kuin
ritariperho ja amirali, nämä kukkakappeliin kulkevat väsymättömät
pyhiinvaeltajat. Edellisillä ei nimittäin ole suuosia, ne eivät ota
ollenkaan ravintoa koko elämänsä ajalla. Kun niiltä puuttuu syömisen
kiihote, elävät ne vain muutaman päivän, siksi kun munat ovat
hedelmöitetyt. Tällä lyhyellä elämänajalla pitää olla
vastaavaisuutensa elimistökoneistossa, niin että se on vahvempi ja
siitä johtuen myös kestävämpi ja vastustuskykyisempi.

Astukaamme askel alemmaksi ja tuokaamme tuhatjalkaiset

kokeilukentälle. Ne ovat skorpionille varmaan tuttuja, sillä
ulkoilmasiirtolassani tapasin usein skorpionin saaliina
kivituhatjalkaisia (Lithobius forficatus L.) Ne ovat skorpionille
vaarattomia suupaloja ja liian heikkoja puolustautuakseen. Mutta
tuonpa sille seuraksi meikäläisten tuhatjalkaisten jättiläisen,
juoksujalkaisen (Scolopendra morsitans L.). Tämäkään
kaksikymmenkaksijalkaparinen lohikäärme ei ole skorpionille vieras,
olen niitä usein tavannut yhdessä saman kiven alla. Tämä öinen
vaeltaja oli hakenut skorpionin kodista piilopaikan. Molemmat sietivät
silloin hyvin toisiaan, mutta onkohan asia aina niin?

Panen molemmat hirviöt leveään lasiastiaan, jossa on pohjalla

hiukan hiekkaa. Tuhatjalkainen kiertää seinävieriä näyttämön ympäri.
Se on kuin sormenlevyinen, 12 cm pitkä, viheltävä, koukeroinen
nauha. Pitkät tuntosarvet väristen tunnustelevat esineitä, ja kun ne
sattuvat koskemaan skorpioniin, kääntyy tuhatjalkainen äkisti
takaisin. Mutta päinvastaiseen suuntaan tehty kierros tuo sen
uudestaan skorpionin luo, taas kosketus ja pako jälleen. Nyt on
skorpioni varuillaan, häntäkaari jännitettynä ja pihdit avattuina. Kun
scolopendra tulee vielä kerran ratansa vaaranpaikkaan, tarttuu
skorpioni siihen saksillaan juuri pään taakse. Turhaan kiemurtelee ja
koukertelee pitkä, taipuisa ruumis, vastustaja puristaa vain sitä
lujemmin, eivät tempomiset eivätkä käyristelemiset sitä enää voi
vapauttaa.

Nyt tulee piikin vuoro toimia, se uppoaa kolme, neljä kertaa

perätysten tuhatjalkaisen kylkeen. Tuhatjalkainenkin, jonka
ensimäinen jalkapari on muodostunut myrkkykoukuiksi, avaa
myrkkypihtinsä, mutta turhaan se niillä koettaa purra, sillä skorpionin
sakset puristavat vahvasti sitä niskasta ja pitävät sen kaukana.
Takaruumis vain voi vastustella, kiertyä, kääriytyä kokoon ja oieta.
Olen nähnyt jo monien pikku eläimien kamppailut, mutta en tiedä
mitään julmempaa kuin näiden vastenmielisten eläinten pöyristyttävä
kaksintaistelu.

Lyhyen aselevon aikana saan tappelijat eroamaan. Tuhatjalkainen

nuolee vuotavia haavojaan ja on jonkin tunnin kuluttua taas
voimissaan, skorpioni ei näytä saaneen mitään vaurioita. Seuraavana
päivänä on uusi näytäntö. Tuhatjalkainen saa kolme pistoa
peräkkäin. Silloin vetäytyy skorpioni pois kuin vastaiskuja peläten.
Mutta haavoitettu ei tee hyökkäystä, vaan koettaa paeta kiertäen
ympyrässä. Tämä riittää jo täksi päiväksi. Peitän lasiastian
pahvikotelolla, että molemmat taistelijat rauhoittuisivat pimeässä.

Mitä sitten tapahtui, erittäinkin yön kuluessa, en tiedä. Ehkä

kamppailu alkoi taas, ja uusia iskuja jaettiin. Ainakin oli
tuhatjalkainen kolmantena päivänä hyvin raukea ja neljäntenä aivan
henkitoreissa. Skorpioni vartioi sitä, mutta ei uskalla vielä iskeytyä
kiinni. Vasta kun se lepää aivan hiljaa, tarttuu skorpioni siihen, syö
ensin pään, sitten molemmat ensimäiset ruumiinrenkaat. Saalis on
kuitenkin liian suuri, loppu mätänee, sillä skorpioni pitää tuoreesta
ruuasta eikä koske enää raatoon.

Seitsemän, ehkä useampiakin pistoja saanut tuhatjalkainen kuolee

vasta neljäntenä päivänä, mutta vahva taranteli heittää henkensä
heti ensimäisen iskun jälkeen. Yhtä pian päättyvät rukoilijasirkan,
pillerinpyörittäjän, maamyyräsirkan ja muidenkin suurien hyönteisten
päivät. Kaikista vastustuskykyisimmätkään eivät kestä kuin
seuraavaan päivään, mutta hyvin monta kertaa haavoitettu
juoksujalkainen elää neljä vuorokautta, ja ehkä sen kuolemaan on
yhtä paljon syynä verenvuoto kuin myrkkykin.

Mistä johtuu tämmöinen eroavaisuus? Nähtävästi se aiheutuu

erilaisesta ruumiinrakenteesta. Paremmin kehittyneet kuolevat
pikemmin kuin heikompilahjaiset. Onkohan asia todella niin?
Maamyyräsirkan kohtalo saa epäilemään. Sehän alkuperäisestä
rakenteestaan huolimatta kuolee yhtä nopeasti kuin perhoset ja
rukoilijasirkka, jotka kuitenkin ovat paljon tunnokkaampia. Ei, me
emme ole vielä skorpionin myrkkyrauhasen salaisuuden perillä.
Ehkäpä uudet kokeet luovat valaistusta tähän hämäryyteen.
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MUISTELMIA
HYÖNTEISMAAILMASTA: KUVAUKSIA HYÖNTEISTEN TAVOISTA JA
VAISTOSTA ***

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