CIE Physics IGCSE

Topic 1: General Physics

Summary Notes

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Length and time

● A ruler (rule) is used to measure the length of an object between 1mm and 1m.
● The volume of an object of irregular shape can be measured by placing it into a measuring
cylinder full of water. This causes the water level to rise, and this rise is equal to the volume
of the object.
● A micrometer screw gauge is used to measure very small distances that a rule
cannot measure.
● Analogue and digital clocks and devices are used to measure time intervals.
● An average value for a small distance and for a short time interval can be found by
measuring multiples (including the period of a pendulum).

Motion

● Speed is defined as the distance traveled per unit time. If the speed of something is
changing, it is accelerating. The acceleration of free fall near to the Earth is constant.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑
● 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑣=
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡
● Distance is measured in mm, cm, m or km and time measured in ms, s, minutes or hours.
Remember to convert units to make sure everything is equivalent! For example if distance
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
is in 𝑘𝑚 and time is in ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠, then calculate 1000
and 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 × (60 × 60)to get everything
in metres and seconds.
● Velocity is the speed in a given direction.
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
● Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity: 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝒂=
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
𝒗−𝒖
𝒕

In a distance-time graph:

● The gradient is velocity

○ Negative gradient is returning back to the
starting point
● A horizontal line means it is stationary
● If the distance is zero, it is back at the starting point
● A curved line means that the velocity is changing
and it is accelerating.

In a speed-time graph:

● The gradient is acceleration

○ Negative gradient (i.e. negative
acceleration) is deceleration
● If the speed is zero, it is at rest
● A horizontal line means constant speed
● The area under the line is the distance travelled
● A curved line means that the acceleration is
changing.

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Mass and weight

Mass:
● Mass is a measure of how much matter is in an object.
● It is a property that resists change in motion.

Weight:
● Weight is a gravitational force (the effect of a gravitational field on a mass) measured in
Newtons: 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑚𝑔
● The gravitational field strength on Earth is 10Nkg -1.
● Weights (and hence masses) can be compared using a balance.

Same object on two different planets:

● The mass is the same
● The gravitational field strength g on the two planets will be different (i.e. not 10 for both) so
the weight is different.

Acceleration in free fall is due to gravity, and is the same as g, i.e. 10𝑚𝑠 −2

Density
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚
● The density is defined as the mass per unit volume: 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝜌=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉
● The density ρ is in kilograms per metre cubed, kg/m 3, the mass m is in kilograms, kg, and
the volume V is in metres cubed, m 3.

To find the density of a liquid:

● Find the mass of the measuring cylinder by placing it on a balance, then fill it with the liquid
and measure the new mass. The difference in masses is the mass of the liquid.
● The volume can be read from the cylinder and the density calculated using the equation.

To find the density of solid:

● Measure the mass of the solid by placing it on a balance.
● If the solid is regularly shaped, measure its dimensions using a ruler or other measuring
tool and then use a mathematical formula to find the volume.
● If the solid is irregularly shaped, immerse it in water and measure the volume of the water
displaced. This is the volume of the solid.
● Find the density using the equation.
The density of water is 1g/cm 3; if the density of an object is greater than this it will sink in water - if
less, it will float.

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Forces

Effects of forces

● Newton’s first law states that an object has a constant velocity unless acted on by a
resultant force.
● Newton’s second law states that 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 × 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
● Newton’s third law states that every action force has an equal and opposite reaction force.
For example, the force of the Earth’s gravity on an object is equal and opposite to the force
of the object’s gravity on the Earth.

For example, motion of a body falling in a uniform gravitational field:

● Initially, there is no air resistance and the only force acting on it is weight
● As it falls, it accelerates which increases its speed and hence air resistance
● This causes the resultant force downwards to decrease
● Therefore the acceleration decreases, so it is not speeding up as quickly
● Eventually they are equal and opposite and balance so there is no resultant force
● So there is no acceleration and the terminal velocity is reached

Friction is a force between two surfaces which impedes motion and results in heating. Air
resistance is a form of friction.

To find the resultant of two or more forces acting along the same line, they should be added
together if in the same direction and subtracted if in the opposite direction.

For an object moving in a circle, with constant speed:

● The speed is constant, but the direction is always changing
● This means the velocity is always changing
● Therefore it is accelerating and there must be a force perpendicular to its velocity
towards the centre of the circle.

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A force may produce a change in size and shape of a body. This is called deformation:

● Elastic deformation:
○ The object returns to its original shape when the load has been removed, an
example being a spring being stretched under normal usage.
● Plastic deformation:
○ The object does not return to its original shape when the load has been removed,
an example being a spring that has been stretched too far.

Hooke’s law states that for a spring, 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥 where F is the force applied to the spring in 𝑁, k
is the spring constant in 𝑁𝑚−1 , and x is the extension in 𝑚.

Linear (straight line) force-extension graph:

● Elastic deformation following Hooke’s law
○ The point it stops being linear is called
the limit of proportionality. From then
on, it does not obey Hooke’s law.
● Gradient is the spring constant, k

Non-linear (curved line) force-extension graph:

● Plastic deformation not following Hooke’s law
● After the plastic region, it will fracture

Turning effect

The moment of a force is a measure of its turning effect: 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ×
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐹𝑑
For example, when riding a bike, pressing your foot down on the pedal causes a moment about the
pivot, turning the pedal arms.

● The pivot point is the point which the object can rotate about.
● If a force is applied in the same line as the pivot (see first example in diagram) the object
will not rotate, and will remain stationary.
● If the force applied is in a different line to the pivot, it will rotate in the direction of the force.
○ If it is perpendicular to the object, then the perpendicular distance is the length of
the object (see second example in diagram).
○ If it is not perpendicular to the object, then the perpendicular distance to the pivot
must be found (see third example in diagram).

Remains stationary Rotates clockwise Also rotates clockwise

Conditions for equilibrium

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An object is in equilibrium when the sum of clockwise moments equals the sum of anticlockwise
moments (the principle of moments) and there is no resultant force.

The principle of moments can be applied to check whether something balances. An experiment
can be performed to show that there is no net moment on a body in equilibrium by pivoting
a uniform ruler at its centre and placing different masses at different distances from the
centre on either side until it balances, and showing that the clockwise and anticlockwise
moments are equal.

Centre of Mass

The centre of mass of a body is the point at which all of its mass can be considered to act. To
calculate the centre of mass of a card:
1. Hang up the card and suspend a plumb line from the same place.
2. Mark the position of the thread.
3. Repeat the above steps with the card suspended from different places.
4. Where these lines intersect is the centre of mass.

If the centre of mass is below the point of suspension of an object, it will be in stable equilibrium
(e.g. a hanging plant pot). If the centre of mass is above the point of suspension of an object, it will
be in unstable equilibrium (e.g. a pencil placed on its sharp end). If the line of action of the object’s
weight moves outside the base, there will be a resultant moment and it will topple.

Scalars and vectors

● A vector has a magnitude and a direction.

● A scalar has just a magnitude.

Examples:

Scalars Vectors

Distance Displacement

Speed Velocity

Time Acceleration

● Vectors can be represented by

arrows. To determine the resultant of
two vectors graphically, they must be
placed head to tail; the line between
the start and finish is the resultant.

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Momentum

● Momentum is the product of mass and velocity: 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 ×

𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒑 = 𝒎𝒗
● Impulse is the product of force and time, equal to the change in momentum:
𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒔𝒆 = 𝑭𝒕 = 𝒎𝒗 − 𝒎𝒖
In a collision, the total momentum before is equal to the total momentum afterwards, known
as the principle of the conservation of momentum.

In elastic collisions, the total kinetic energy before is equal to the total kinetic energy after.

Example:
● A 10kg stationary gun is loaded with a 10g bullet. It is fired, with the bullet travelling
at 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 . What is the recoil speed of the gun?

𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 = 𝟎

𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 = 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅𝒔

𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎𝒗

𝒗 = −𝟎. 𝟏𝒎𝒔−𝟏

So the recoil speed is 𝟎. 𝟏𝒎𝒔−𝟏 (-0.1ms-1 is the velocity which is a vector, so we take the
magnitude of it as we are finding the speed).

Energy, work and power

Energy transfers

Energy can be transferred between different forms including kinetic, gravitational potential,
chemical, elastic potential, nuclear and internal energy as a result of an event or process.

𝟏
● Kinetic energy: 𝑬𝒌 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝟐
● Gravitational potential energy: 𝐸𝑝 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ

Energy can be transferred in various ways including:

● Forces e.g. when gravity accelerates an object downwards and gives it kinetic energy.
● Electrical currents e.g. when a current passes through a lamp and it emits light and heat.
● Heating e.g. when a fire is used to heat up an object.
● Waves e.g. vibrations cause waves to travel through the air as sound.

Work is done when a force moves something through a distance. The work done is equal to the
energy transferred.

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 ● Work done: 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 = 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 × 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑾 = 𝑭𝒅

Power is the rate at which energy is transferred or the rate at which work is done. For example, a
lamp with a greater power will be brighter because it transfers more energy from electrical energy
to light and heat energy in a given time.

𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐸
● Power: 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑃=
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡

Energy is always conserved. The total energy before is equal to the total energy after.

For example, when a ball is dropped, gravitational potential energy becomes kinetic energy
as it accelerates downwards. Upon impact with the floor, this kinetic energy will become
thermal energy and sound energy.

In any event or process energy tends to become more spread out among the objects and
surroundings (dissipated).

● The efficiency is the ratio of the useful work done to the total energy supplied, often
expressed as a percentage.
𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒇𝒖𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒇𝒖𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
○ Efficiency: 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 = 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕

● The efficiency of a system can be increased by:

○ Reducing waste output (lubrication, thermal insulation, etc.)
○ Recycling waste output (e.g. absorbing thermal waste and recycling it as input
energy)

Energy sources

It is important to note that apart from geothermal, nuclear and tidal, the sun is the original
source of all energy on earth, released by nuclear fusion.
● Renewable energy is energy which can be replenished as quickly as it is used. Examples
include:
○ Biofuel
○ Wind
○ Hydro-electricity
○ Geothermal
○ Tidal
○ Solar
○ Water waves
It is often more costly and less reliable than non-renewable energy (e.g. the wind is
intermittent and solar energy relies on good weather).

● Non-renewable energy is used more for large-scale energy supplies due to the large
energy output per kilogram of fuel. Examples include:
○ Fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas)
○ Nuclear fuel
It is usually cheaper than renewable energy but is becoming less popular because one day
it will run out and it is harmful for the environment (e.g. burning fossil fuels releases
greenhouse gases which cause global warming).

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Pressure
Pressure in fluids causes a net force at right angles to any surface and is measured in Pascals.

𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑝=
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴

For example, lying down on a bed of nails compared to a single nail:

● The force applied is the weight of your body
● The total area is either a single pin point or many points spread out over a larger area
○ So on a bed of nails, the pressure is lower as the area is greater.

Measuring pressure:
● A barometer consists of a tube filled with mercury with a vacuum at
the top. Atmospheric pressure pushes down at the sides causing
the mercury to rise. The height of the mercury is measured to find
atmospheric pressure, where 760 mm or 29.92 in of mercury
corresponds to 1 atm.
● A manometer consists of a U-tube filled with mercury and with a
gas at either end. The difference in the height of the mercury on
either side can be measured to find the pressure difference
between the two ends of the tube.

The pressure beneath a liquid surface increases with depth and density.
● It is given by 𝒑 = 𝝆𝒈𝒉

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 Definitions and Concepts for CAIE Physics GCSE

Topic 1: General Physics

Definitions in ​bold ​are for extended students only

1.1 Length and Time

Analogue device​:​ A measuring device that requires the user to read from a scale
to obtain the measurement.

Digital device​:​ A measuring device that displays the measurement on a display,

rather than requiring the user to read from a scale.

Distance: ​A measure of how far an object moves. It doesn’t depend on direction

and is therefore a scalar quantity.

Micrometer screw gauge​:​ ​A measuring implement used to accurately

measure very small distances.

Pendulum​:​ A pendulum is a weight suspended from a pivot so that it can swing

freely.

Volume​:​ T
​ he amount of space that a substance or object occupies.

1.2 Motion

Acceleration​:​ ​The rate of change of velocity. It can be calculated from the

gradient of a velocity-time graph. ​Denoted by non-zero gradient in a speed-time
graph.

Air resistance​: The resistance of an object’s motion through air. It is a form

of friction due to the air particles colliding with the object.

Average speed​: ​The average speed is calculated by dividing the distance

travelled by the time taken.

Deceleration​: Negative acceleration.

Distance–time graph​: ​A plot of how an object’s distance changes over time. ​The
gradient of the graph at any point, equals the object’s speed at that point.

Free fall​: ​Motion under the force of gravity alone.

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Linear motion:​ Motion for which the acceleration is not constant.

Speed​: ​A scalar quantity that is a measure of the rate of change of distance.

Speed–time graph​: ​A plot of how an object’s speed changes over time. ​The
gradient of the graph at any point, equals the object’s acceleration at that
point​. The area under the graph represents the distance travelled.

Terminal velocity​: Steady speed achieved by an object freely falling through

a gas or liquid.

Gravitational field​: A region where a mass will experience a non-contact

gravitational force. All matter produces a gravitational field around it, and
the greater its mass, the stronger the field.

Velocity​: A vector quantity that is a measure of the rate of change of

displacement. It is the speed in a given direction.

1.3 Mass and Weight

Balance​: ​A piece of apparatus that can compare different weights to demonstrate

which is greater. It can also be used to compare masses.

Mass​: ​Mass is a measurement of how much matter is in an object. ​It is also the
resistance that a body offers to a change in its speed or position upon the
application of a force.

Weight​: ​The force acting on an object due to gravity.​ It is equal to the product of
the object’s mass and the gravitational field strength at its location.

1.4 Density

Density​: ​The mass per unit volume of an object.

Displacement​: ​It is the object's overall change in position.​ ​Calculated by the

difference between final and initial readings.

1.5 Forces

1.5.1 Effects of Forces

Air resistance:​ ​The resistance of an object’s motion through air. It is a form of

friction due to the air particles colliding with the object.

Extension–load graphs​: ​A graph that shows how the extension of an object

varies with the load applied. For a spring, this should initially form a straight line
that passes through the origin.

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Friction​: ​A resistive contact force that acts to oppose the relative motion between
two surfaces. Some energy of the object in contact is lost as heat in the process.

Hooke’s law ​: The extension of a spring is directly proportional to the force

applied to it, up to the limit of proportionality. The constant in this
relationship is known as the spring constant.

Limit of proportionality​: The point beyond which the extension of an elastic

object is no longer directly proportional to the force applied to it.

Resultant force​: ​The single force that can replace all the individual forces acting
on an object, and have the same effect.

Spring constant:​ A measure of a spring’s stiffness. The higher the spring

constant, the smaller the extension is for a given force.

1.5.2 Turning Effect

Moment of a force​: ​The turning effect of a force, equal to the product of the
magnitude of the force and the perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of
action of the force.

Principle of moments​:​ For an object in equilibrium, the sum of the clockwise

moments about any point on the object must equal the anticlockwise moments
about that same point.

1.5.3 Conditions for Equilibrium

Equilibrium​: ​An object in equilibrium has a zero resultant force and a zero
resultant moment.

Resultant force​: ​The single force that can replace all the individual forces acting
on an object, and have the same effect.

Turning effect​:​ It is also known as the moment of the force.

1.5.4 Centre of Mass

Centre of mass​: ​The single point through which all the mass of an object can be
said to act.

Plane lamina​:​ A body whose mass is concentrated in a single plane.

Stability​: ​A measure of the likelihood of an object toppling. An object is unstable if

the object’s line of action of weight lies outside of its base.

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1.5.5 Scalars and Vectors

Resultant vector​: ​It is​ ​the sum of two or more vectors which has its own
magnitude and direction

Scalars​:​ ​Quantities that only have a magnitude, not a direction.

Vectors​:​ ​Quantities that have both a magnitude and direction. They are
represented by an arrow, with the length representing the magnitude and the
arrowhead representing the direction.

1.6 Momentum

Conservation of momentum​:​ ​The total momentum of a system before an

event is always equal to the total momentum of the system after the event.

Impulse​: The change of a system’s momentum as a result of a force acting

over a period of time

Momentum​: The product of an object’s mass and velocity.

1.7 Energy, Work and Power

1.7.1 Energy

Chemical energy: ​A store of energy found in things such as batteries, fuels and
food.

Elastic potential (strain) energy:​ The store of energy that stretched or

compressed objects contain.

Electrical current​: ​An electric current is a flow of electric charge in a circuit.

Gravitational potential energy​: ​The store of energy that all raised matter has. ​It
is directly proportional to the mass of the object, the distance that it is
raised, and the gravitational field strength at that point.

Internal energy​: ​It is defined as the energy associated with the random,
disordered motion of molecules.

Kinetic energy: ​The store of energy that all moving matter has. ​It is directly
proportional to the object’s mass and to the square of its velocity.

Nuclear energy​: ​Non-renewable energy that is generated from the energy stored
in the nuclei of radioactive isotopes. It is released in processes known as nuclear
fission and nuclear fusion.

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Principle of conservation of energy​: ​The law that energy can be transferred,
stored or dissipated but never created or destroyed.

1.7.2 Energy Resources

Chemical energy​: ​A store of energy found in things such as batteries, fuels and
food.

Efficiency​: ​The ratio of useful output energy transfer to total energy input. It can
never exceed 1 (or 100%), due to the conservation of energy.

Geothermal energy​: ​Renewable energy generated from the conversion of the

thermal energy found below the Earth’s surface into electrical energy.

Hydroelectric power:​ Renewable energy generated by water stored at a height,

and released through a turbine. The turbine turns a generator which converts the
kinetic energy into electrical energy.

Nuclear fission​: ​It i​ s a process where the nucleus of an atom is split into two or
more smaller nuclei.

Nuclear fusion​: It ​is the process of making a single heavy nucleus (part of an
atom) from two lighter nuclei​.

Renewable energy resource: ​An energy resource that can be replenished whilst
it is being used.

Solar energy​: ​Renewable energy generated by converting the energy of the sun
into electrical energy, usually by using a solar panel.

Tidal energy​: ​Renewable energy generated by trapping water when at high tide,
and then releasing it through a turbine. The turbine turns a generator which
converts the kinetic energy into electrical energy.

Wind energy​: ​Refers to the process of creating electricity using the wind.

1.7.3 Work

Work done​: ​Work is done on an object when a force causes it to move through a
distance. It is equal to the product of the distance travelled and the magnitude of
the force in the direction of motion.

1.7.4 Power

Power​: ​The rate at which energy is transferred, or the rate at which work is done.
It is calculated by dividing the work done by the time taken.

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Work done​: ​Work is done on an object when a force causes it to move through a
distance. It is equal to the product of the distance travelled and the magnitude of
the force in the direction of motion.

1.8 Pressure

Atmosphere: ​The thin layer of air surrounding the Earth, which gets less dense
with increasing altitude. The pressure also decreases with increasing altitude.

Atmospheric pressure​: ​It is the force exerted on a surface by the air above it as
gravity pulls it to Earth

Manometer​: ​A U-shaped tube of liquid that allows the pressure on a column of

liquid to be measured.

Mercury barometer​: ​A measuring device that measures changes in atmospheric

pressure.

Pressure​: ​The force acting perpendicular to a surface, per unit area.

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