OSI stands for Open Systems The packet received from the Network The network layer protocols

network layer protocols determine

Interconnection. It has been developed layer is further divided into frames which route is suitable from source to
by ISO – ‘International Organization for depending on the frame size of destination. This function of the
Standardization‘, in the year 1984. It is NIC(Network Interface Card). DLL also network layer is known as routing.
a 7 layer architecture with each layer encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s Logical Addressing: In order to identify
having specific functionality to perform. MAC address in the header. each device on inter-network uniquely,
All these 7 layers work collaboratively the network layer defines an
to transmit the data from one person The Receiver’s MAC address is addressing scheme. The sender &
to another across the globe. obtained by placing an ARP(Address receiver’s IP addresses are placed in
1. Physical Layer (Layer 1) : Resolution Protocol) request onto the the header by the network layer. Such
The lowest layer of the OSI reference wire asking “Who has that IP address?” an address distinguishes each device
model is the physical layer. It is and the destination host will reply with uniquely and universally.
responsible for the actual physical its MAC address. Segment in Network layer is referred
connection between the devices. The FUNCTION: to as Packet.
physical layer contains information in V. Framing: Framing is a function of It is implemented by networking
the form of bits. It is responsible for the data link layer. It provides a devices such as routers.
transmitting individual bits from one way for a sender to transmit a set
node to the next. When receiving data, of bits that are meaningful to the 4.Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures
this layer will get the signal received receiver. This can be that messages are transmitted in the
and convert it into 0s and 1s and send accomplished by attaching special order in which they are sent and there
them to the Data Link layer, which will bit patterns to the beginning and is no duplication of data.
put the frame back together. end of the frame. The main responsibility of the
FUNCTIONS- VI. Physical addressing: After transport layer is to transfer the data
I. Bit synchronization: The physical creating frames, the Data link completely.
layer provides the layer adds physical addresses It receives the data from the upper
synchronization of the bits by (MAC address) of the sender layer and converts them into smaller
providing a clock. This clock and/or receiver in the header of units known as segments.
controls both sender and receiver each frame. This layer can be termed as an end-to-
thus providing synchronization at VII. Error control: Data link layer end layer as it provides a point-to-
bit level. provides the mechanism of error point connection between source and
II. Bit rate control: The Physical control in which it detects and destination to deliver the data reliably.
layer also defines the retransmits damaged or lost The two protocols used in this layer are:
transmission rate i.e. the number frames. Transmission Control Protocol
of bits sent per second. VIII. Flow Control: The data rate must It is a standard protocol that allows the
III. Physical topologies: Physical be constant on both sides else the systems to communicate over the
layer specifies the way in which data may get corrupted thus, flow internet.
the different, devices/nodes are control coordinates the amount It establishes and maintains a
arranged in a network i.e. bus, of data that can be sent before connection between hosts.
star, or mesh topology. receiving acknowledgement. When data is sent over the TCP
IV. Transmission mode: Physical IX. Access control: When a single connection, then the TCP protocol
layer also defines the way in communication channel is shared divides the data into smaller units
which the data flows between the by multiple devices, the MAC sub- known as segments. Each segment
two connected devices. The layer of the data link layer helps travels over the internet using multiple
various transmission modes to determine which device has routes, and they arrive in different
possible are Simplex, half-duplex control over the channel at a orders at the destination. The
and full-duplex. given time. transmission control protocol reorders
EXAMPLES-Hub, Repeater, Modem, Packet in Data Link layer is referred to the packets in the correct order at the
Cables are Physical Layer devices. as Frame. receiving end.
Data Link layer is handled by the NIC User Datagram Protocol
2. Data Link Layer (DLL) (Layer 2) : (Network Interface Card) and device User Datagram Protocol is a transport
The data link layer is responsible for drivers of host machines. layer protocol.
the node-to-node delivery of the EXAMPLE-Switch & Bridge. It is an unreliable transport protocol as
message. The main function of this in this case receiver does not send any
layer is to make sure data transfer is 3. Network Layer:The network layer acknowledgment when the packet is
error-free from one node to another, works for the transmission of data received, the sender does not wait for
over the physical layer. When a packet from one host to the other located in any acknowledgment. Therefore, this
arrives in a network, it is the different networks. It also takes care of makes a protocol unreliable.
responsibility of DLL to transmit it to packet routing i.e. selection of the
the Host using its MAC address. shortest path to transmit the packet, FUNCTION:
Data Link Layer is divided into two from the number of routes available. Service-point addressing: Computers
sublayers: The sender & receiver’s IP addresses run several programs simultaneously
Logical Link Control (LLC) are placed in the header by the due to this reason, the transmission of
Media Access Control (MAC) network layer. FUNCTION:Routing: data from source to the destination
not only from one computer to transmission of data, then the
another computer but also from one transmission will take place again from
process to another process. The the checkpoint. This process is known
transport layer adds the header that as Synchronization and recovery.
contains the address known as a
service-point address or port address. 6.Presentation Layer: The
The responsibility of the network layer presentation layer is also called the
is to transmit the data from one Translation layer. The data from the
computer to another computer and application layer is extracted here and
the responsibility of the transport layer manipulated as per the required
is to transmit the message to the format to transmit over the network.
correct process. FUNCTION:
Segmentation and reassembly: When Translation: For example, ASCII to
the transport layer receives the EBCDIC.
message from the upper layer, it Encryption/ Decryption: Data
divides the message into multiple encryption translates the data into
segments, and each segment is another form or code. The encrypted
assigned with a sequence number that data is known as the cipher-text and
uniquely identifies each segment. the decrypted data is known as plain
When the message has arrived at the text. A key value is used for encrypting
destination, then the transport layer as well as decrypting data.
reassembles the message based on Compression: Reduces the number of
their sequence numbers. bits that need to be transmitted on the
Connection control: Transport layer network.
provides two services Connection-
oriented service and connectionless 7.Application Layer: At the very top of
service. A connectionless service treats the OSI Reference Model stack of
each segment as an individual packet, layers, we find the Application layer
and they all travel in different routes to which is implemented by the network
reach the destination. A connection- applications. These applications
oriented service makes a connection produce the data, which has to be
with the transport layer at the transferred over the network. This What is Topology?
destination machine before delivering layer also serves as a window for the Topology defines the structure of the
the packets. In connection-oriented application services to access the network of how all the components
service, all the packets travel in the network and for displaying the are interconnected to each other.
single route. received information to the user. There are two types of topology:
Flow control: The transport layer also physical and logical topology.
responsible for flow control but it is FUNCTION: File transfer, access, and Physical topology is the geometric
performed end-to-end rather than management (FTAM): An application representation of all the nodes in a
across a single link. layer allows a user to access the files in network.
Error control: The transport layer is a remote computer, to retrieve the Bus Topology:The bus topology is
also responsible for Error control. Error files from a computer and to manage designed in such a way that all the
control is performed end-to-end rather the files in a remote computer. stations are connected through a
than across the single link. The sender Mail services: An application layer single cable known as a backbone
transport layer ensures that message provides the facility for email cable.
reach at the destination without any forwarding and storage. Each node is either connected to the
error. Directory services: An application backbone cable by drop cable or
provides the distributed database directly connected to the backbone
5.Session Layer: The Session layer is sources and is used to provide that cable.
used to establish, maintain and global information about various When a node wants to send a message
synchronizes the interaction between objects. over the network, it puts a message
communicating devices. over the network. All the stations
Functions Dialog control: Session layer Example: Application – Browsers, available in the network will receive
acts as a dialog controller that creates Skype Messenger, etc. the message whether it has been
a dialog between two processes or we addressed or not.
can say that it allows the The bus topology is mainly used in
communication between two 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4 standard
processes which can be either half- networks.
duplex or full-duplex. The configuration of a bus topology is
Synchronization: Session layer adds quite simpler as compared to other
some checkpoints when transmitting topologies.
the data in a sequence. If some error
occurs in the middle of the
The backbone cable is considered as a Token passing: It is a network access centralized network. Therefore, the
"single lane" through which the method in which token is passed from network administrator has to go to the
message is broadcast to all the stations. one node to another node. single station to troubleshoot the
The most common access method of Token: It is a frame that circulates problem.
the bus topologies is CSMA (Carrier around the network. Network control: Complex network
Sense Multiple Access). control features can be easily
Advantages of Ring topology: implemented in the star topology. Any
Advantages of Bus topology: Network Management: Faulty devices changes made in the star topology are
Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes can be removed from the network automatically accommodated.
are directly connected to the cable without bringing the network down. Limited failure: As each station is
without passing through a hub. Product availability: Many hardware connected to the central hub with its
Therefore, the initial cost of and software tools for network own cable, therefore failure in one
installation is low. operation and monitoring are available. cable will not affect the entire network.
Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or Cost: Twisted pair cabling is Familiar technology: Star topology is a
twisted pair cables are mainly used in inexpensive and easily available. familiar technology as its tools are
bus-based networks that support upto Therefore, the installation cost is very cost-effective.
10 Mbps. low. Easily expandable: It is easily
Familiar technology: Bus topology is a Reliable: It is a more reliable network expandable as new stations can be
familiar technology as the installation because the communication system is added to the open ports on the hub.
and troubleshooting techniques are not dependent on the single host Cost effective: Star topology networks
well known, and hardware computer. are cost-effective as it uses inexpensive
components are easily available. Disadvantages: coaxial cable.
Limited failure: A failure in one node Difficult troubleshooting: It requires High data speeds: It supports a
will not have any effect on other nodes. specialized test equipment to bandwidth of approx 100Mbps.
Disadvantages : determine the cable faults. If any fault Ethernet 100BaseT is one of the most
Extensive cabling: A bus topology is occurs in the cable, then it would popular Star topology networks.
quite simpler, but still it requires a lot disrupt the communication for all the Disadvantages:
of cabling. nodes. A Central point of failure: If the central
Difficult troubleshooting: It requires Failure: The breakdown in one station hub or switch goes down, then all the
specialized test equipment to leads to the failure of the overall connected nodes will not be able to
determine the cable faults. If any fault network. communicate with each other.
occurs in the cable, then it would Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new Cable: Sometimes cable routing
disrupt the communication for all the devices to the network would slow becomes difficult when a significant
nodes. down the network. amount of routing is required.
Signal interference: If two nodes send Delay: Communication delay is directly
the messages simultaneously, then the proportional to the number of nodes. Tree topology:
signals of both the nodes collide with Adding new devices increases the Tree topology combines the
each other. communication delay. characteristics of bus topology and star
Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new topology.
devices to the network would slow Star Topology: A tree topology is a type of structure in
down the network. Star topology is an arrangement of the which all the computers are connected
Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of network in which every node is with each other in hierarchical fashion.
signal leads to communication issues. connected to the central hub, switch or The top-most node in tree topology is
Repeaters are used to regenerate the a central computer. known as a root node, and all other
signal. The central computer is known as a nodes are the descendants of the root
Ring Topology: server, and the peripheral devices node.
Ring topology is like a bus topology, attached to the server are known as There is only one path exists between
but with connected ends. clients. two nodes for the data transmission.
The node that receives the message Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used Thus, it forms a parent-child hierarchy.
from the previous computer will to connect the computers. Advantages of Tree topology
retransmit to the next node. Hubs or Switches are mainly used as Support for broadband transmission:
The data flows in one direction, i.e., it connection devices in a physical star Tree topology is mainly used to
is unidirectional. topology. provide broadband transmission, i.e.,
The data flows in a single loop Star topology is the most popular signals are sent over long distances
continuously known as an endless loop. topology in network implementation. without being attenuated.
It has no terminated ends, i.e., each Advantages of Star topology: Easily expandable: We can add the
node is connected to other node and Efficient troubleshooting: new device to the existing network.
having no termination point. Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a Therefore, we can say that tree
The data in a ring topology flow in a star topology as compared to bus topology is easily expandable.
clockwise direction. topology. In a bus topology, the Easily manageable: In tree topology,
The most common access method of manager has to inspect the kilometers the whole network is divided into
the ring topology is token passing. of cable. In a star topology, all the segments known as star networks
stations are connected to the
which can be easily managed and Reliable: The mesh topology networks to design the architecture of the
maintained. are very reliable as if any link Hybrid network.
Error detection: Error detection and breakdown will not affect the Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the
error correction are very easy in a tree communication between connected Hybrid topology are very expensive as
topology. computers. these hubs are different from usual
Limited failure: The breakdown in one Fast Communication: Communication Hubs used in other topologies.
station does not affect the entire is very fast between the nodes. Costly infrastructure: The
network. Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new infrastructure cost is very high as a
Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to- devices would not disrupt the hybrid network requires a lot of cabling,
point wiring for individual segments. communication between other devices. network devices, etc.
Disadvantages of Tree:
Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault Disadvantages of Mesh topology
occurs in the node, then it becomes Cost: A mesh topology contains a large Network Devices: Network devices,
difficult to troubleshoot the problem. number of connected devices such as a also known as networking hardware,
High cost: Devices required for router and more transmission media are physical devices that allow
broadband transmission are very costly. than other topologies. hardware on a computer network to
Failure: A tree topology mainly relies Management: Mesh topology communicate and interact with one
on main bus cable and failure in main networks are very large and very another. For example Repeater, Hub,
bus cable will damage the overall difficult to maintain and manage. If the Bridge, Switch, Routers, Gateway,
network. network is not monitored carefully, Brouter, and NIC, etc.
Reconfiguration difficult: If new then the communication link failure
devices are added, then it becomes goes undetected. 1. Repeater – A repeater operates at
difficult to reconfigure. Efficiency: In this topology, redundant the physical layer. Its job is to
connections are high that reduces the regenerate the signal over the same
Mesh topology: efficiency of the network. network before the signal becomes too
Mesh technology is an arrangement of weak or corrupted to extend the
the network in which computers are Hybrid Topology: length to which the signal can be
interconnected with each other The combination of various different transmitted over the same network.
through various redundant topologies is known as Hybrid topology. An important point to be noted about
connections. A Hybrid topology is a connection repeaters is that they do not amplify
There are multiple paths from one between different links and nodes to the signal. When the signal becomes
computer to another computer. transfer the data. weak, they copy it bit by bit and
It does not contain the switch, hub or When two or more different topologies regenerate it at its star topology
any central computer which acts as a are combined together is termed as connectors connecting if original
central point of communication. Hybrid topology and if similar strength. It is a 2-port device.
The Internet is an example of the mesh topologies are connected with each
topology. other will not result in Hybrid topology. 2. Hub – A hub is a basically multi-port
Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN For example, if there exist a ring repeater. A hub connects multiple
implementations where topology in one branch of ICICI bank wires coming from different branches,
communication failures are a critical and bus topology in another branch of for example, the connector in star
concern. ICICI bank, connecting these two topology which connects different
Mesh topology is mainly used for topologies will result in Hybrid stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so
wireless networks. topology. data packets are sent to all connected
Mesh topology can be formed by using Advantages of Hybrid Topology devices. In other words, the collision
the formula: Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of domain of all hosts connected through
Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;Where the network will not affect the Hub remains one. Also, they do not
n is the number of nodes that functioning of the rest of the network. have the intelligence to find out the
represents the network. Scalable: Size of the network can be best path for data packets which leads
easily expanded by adding new devices to inefficiencies and wastage.
Mesh topology is divided into two without affecting the functionality of
categories: the existing network. Active Hub:- These are the hubs that
Flexible: This topology is very flexible have their power supply and can clean,
Full Mesh Topology: In a full mesh as it can be designed according to the boost, and relay the signal along with
topology, each computer is connected requirements of the organization. the network. It serves both as a
to all the computers available in the Effective: Hybrid topology is very repeater as well as a wiring center.
network. effective as it can be designed in such a These are used to extend the
Partial Mesh Topology: In a partial way that the strength of the network is maximum distance between nodes.
mesh topology, not all but certain maximized and weakness of the Passive Hub:- These are the hubs that
computers are connected to those network is minimized. collect wiring from nodes and power
computers with which they Disadvantages of Hybrid topology supply from the active hub. These hubs
communicate frequently. Complex design: The major drawback relay signals onto the network without
of the Hybrid topology is the design of cleaning and boosting them and can’t
Advantages of Mesh topology: the Hybrid network. It is very difficult
be used to extend the distance they make decisions on routing the addresses are 48 bits long and these
between nodes. data packets. The router divides the addresses could not be routed
Intelligent Hub:- It works like an active broadcast domains of hosts connected between networks. MAC Address is a
hub and includes remote management through it. 12 digit hexadecimal numeral which is
capabilities. They also provide flexible 6. Gateway – A gateway, as the name most typically expressed with a colon
data rates to network devices. It also suggests, is a passage to connect two or hyphen separating every two digits
enables an administrator to monitor networks that may work upon (an octet), making reading easier. MAC
the traffic passing through the hub and different networking models. They Addresses are used at the Data Link
to configure each port in the hub. work as messenger agents that take Layer.
data from one system, interpret it, and
3. Bridge – A bridge operates at the transfer it to another system.
data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, Gateways are also called protocol Example –
with add on the functionality of converters and can operate at any A MAC address of 2c549188c9e3 is
filtering content by reading the MAC network layer. Gateways are generally represented as 2C:54:91:88:C9:E3 or
addresses of the source and more complex than switches or routers. 2c-54-91-88-c9-e3.
destination. It is also used for A gateway is also called a protocol
interconnecting two LANs working on converter. Reason for IP address called a “logical”
the same protocol. It has a single input INTERNETWORKING address, and the MAC address is
and single output port, thus making it a IP Address : called a “physical” address :
2 port device. An Internet Protocol address is an IP
address. It is a unique address that An IP address is also known as a logical
Types of Bridges identifies the device on the network. address and it can change over time as
Transparent Bridges:- These are the The Internet Service Provider (ISP) well as from one network to another.
bridge in which the stations are assigns IP addresses to all devices on The Internet Service Provider will be in
completely unaware of the bridge’s its network. IP addresses are not charge of assigning it. When a device
existence i.e. whether or not a bridge generated at random. The Internet connects to a different network, it
is added or deleted from the network, Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), a receives a different IP address as a
reconfiguration of the stations is part of the Internet Corporation for result of a change in Internet Service
unnecessary. These bridges make use Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), Provider.
of two processes i.e. bridge forwarding generates and assigns them With the help of Dynamic Host
and bridge learning. mathematically . IP addresses are used Configuration Protocol (DHCP), even in
Source Routing Bridges:- In these at the network layer. IP Addresses are the same network, when a device
bridges, routing operation is routable in nature. wants to connect to the internet, it will
performed by the source station and acquire different addresses from the
the frame specifies which route to IP Version Types : pool. There is no assurance that the
follow. The host can discover the There are 2 different versions of IP as device always has the same IP address.
frame by sending a special frame called follows. The IP address is not directly linked to
the discovery frame, which spreads any devices. As a result, it is referred to
through the entire network using all IPv4 (IP version 4) – as a logical address.
possible paths to the destination. IPv4 employs a 32-bit address. It is However, there is a MAC address
composed of four numbers separated provided by the hardware interface
4. Switch – A switch is a multiport by a ‘dot’ i.e., periods called an octet vendor. It never changes when a
bridge with a buffer and a design that (byte). Each number in the octet can device is attached to any network. As a
can boost its efficiency(a large number range from 0 to 255. result, it is referred to as a physical
of ports imply less traffic) and Example – 172.166.3.28 address.
performance. A switch is a data link IPv6 (IP version 6) – IP address is, for example, like school
layer device. The switch can perform IPv6 is the next generation of Internet register no, university register no and
error checking before forwarding data, Protocol addresses. In comparison to corporate employee id. When a person
which makes it very efficient as it does IPV4, IPv6 has a larger address space. transfers from school to college and
not forward packets that have errors IPv6 has a length of 128 bits and is then to the workplace, he or she is
and forward good packets selectively written in hexadecimal. It is composed assigned a new Identification Number,
to the correct port only. In other of eight fields, each of which contains which is used to uniquely identify the
words, the switch divides the collision two octets. As a result, IPv6 has 16 individual inside that organization. At
domain of hosts, but the broadcast octets in total. different periods, the same individual
domain remains the same. Example – was recognized with a different
3221:1cd7:74b6:6da7:0000:0000:7349: identification number. Similarly, when
5. Routers – A router is a device like a 6472 one machine connects to a different
switch that routes data packets based MAC Address : network, it receives a new IP address
on their IP addresses. The router is A MAC address is a one-of-a-kind each time. Thus it is called a logical
mainly a Network Layer device. identification assigned to a NIC address.
Routers normally connect LANs and (Network Interface Controller/Card). However, that address is unique inside
WANs and have a dynamically The full form of MAC address is Media that network. But MAC address is like
updating routing table based on which Access Control address. MAC an Aadhaar number, it never changes
to any business. It’s like an original
identity.
In the same way, the MAC address will
be the same for the device’s (NIC), for
any network on which the device is
associated. Thus it is called a physical
address. A MAC address is also a
unique address. There won’t be the
same address for two devices.