IGCSE Computer Science coursebook.

Cambridge University Press .

Chapter 1: Data Representation

This chapter explores how computers, which operate using electrical signals, represent various
types of data. It starts with the foundational number systems used in computing: the binary system,
which uses only 0s and 1s to represent all numbers, and the hexadecimal system, which uses
base-16. The chapter then examines how these number systems are used to represent:

Text: Using character sets like ASCII and Unicode, which assign unique binary codes to each
character, allowing computers to store and process text.

Images: Composed of pixels, where each pixel's color is represented using a specific combination
of bits. The number of bits used to represent each color is called color depth, impacting image
quality and file size.

Sound: Through a process called sampling, where the amplitude of a sound wave is measured at
regular intervals and converted into binary values. The sample rate and bit depth used during
sampling determine the fidelity and file size of the sound recording.

The chapter also covers units for measuring data storage (bytes, kilobytes, megabytes, gigabytes)
and data compression techniques, including lossy compression, which permanently removes
some data to reduce file size, and lossless compression, which temporarily alters data to reduce
size without losing information.

Chapter 2: Data Transmission

This chapter examines how data is transmitted between devices, a fundamental process in today's
interconnected world. It begins by explaining how data is broken down into packets, small units
containing a header, payload, and trailer, to facilitate efficient transmission over networks5.

Key concepts covered include:

Packet switching: A method where data packets are routed individually across a network, allowing
for efficient use of bandwidth.

Error detection and correction: Techniques employed to ensure data integrity during
transmission, often using checksums and parity bits.

Types of data transmission: Exploring the differences between serial and parallel transmission
(sending data one bit at a time vs. multiple bits simultaneously) and simplex, half-duplex, and full-
duplex transmission (one-way, two-way alternating, and two-way simultaneous communication).

USB connections: Highlighting the benefits and widespread use of the USB interface for
connecting devices8.
The chapter emphasizes the importance of choosing the appropriate data transmission method
depending on factors like distance, data volume, and required speed.

Chapter 3: Hardware
This chapter provides a detailed overview of the physical components of a computer system,
emphasizing their purpose and how they work together. It delves into the Central Processing Unit
(CPU), the "brain" of the computer responsible for executing instructions, examining:

Components of the CPU: Including the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) for performing calculations, the
control unit for managing the fetch-decode-execute cycle, and registers for temporary data
storage9.

The Fetch-Decode-Execute Cycle: The fundamental process by which the CPU retrieves
instructions from memory, decodes them, and executes them, driving the computer's operations9.

Input and output devices: Discussing how computers interact with the external world through
various devices, like keyboards, mice, monitors, printers, and sensors.

Data storage: Covering different types of primary storage (RAM and ROM) and secondary storage
(magnetic, optical, and solid-state), along with the characteristics of each.

Virtual memory and cloud storage: Exploring ways to extend the computer's memory capacity
beyond physical.

Network hardware: Including components like routers and network interface cards (NICs),
focusing on their role in connecting devices and facilitating data transmission. The importance of IP
addresses, unique identifiers for devices on a network, is also emphasized.

The chapter aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the building blocks of a computer
system.

Chapter 4: Software
This chapter shifts focus from the physical components of a computer to the software that
instructs it. It begins by distinguishing between two main categories of software:

System software: Essential software like operating systems, such as Windows, macOS, and Linux,
responsible for managing the computer's resources, providing a user interface, and running
application software.

Application software: Software designed for specific tasks, such as word processors,
spreadsheets, web browsers, and games.

The chapter further explores:

Programming languages: The tools used to create software, highlighting the differences between
high-level languages (closer to human language) and low-level languages (closer to machine code).
Examples of high-level languages are provided.

Translators: Examining the role of assemblers, compilers, and interpreters in converting high-level
code into machine-executable instructions.

Integrated Development Environments (IDEs): Software applications designed to aid

programmers, providing tools for writing, testing, and debugging code.

The chapter emphasizes the critical role of software in bridging the gap between human users and
the complex hardware of a computer.

Chapter 5: The Internet and Its Uses

This chapter explores the internet, a global network of interconnected computers that has
revolutionized communication and information sharing. It starts by explaining the relationship
between the internet and the World Wide Web (WWW), clarifying that the WWW is a vast collection
of interconnected documents and resources accessed over the internet.

Key concepts discussed include:

URLs (Uniform Resource Locators): How these text-based addresses identify and locate
resources on the WWW.

Web browsers: Their role in requesting, retrieving, and rendering web pages, allowing users to
access and interact with information on the.

Digital currency: Introducing blockchain technology and its application in creating and managing
cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin, highlighting the decentralized and secure nature of these currencies.

Cyber security: Examining threats like data interception, malware, phishing, and denial-of-service
attacks, as well as security solutions such as firewalls, encryption, and user awareness.

The chapter emphasizes the importance of understanding how the internet works and the
measures necessary to ensure safe and responsible online activity.

Chapter 6: Automated and Emerging Technologies

This chapter delves into the exciting world of technologies that are transforming our lives, focusing
on:

Automated systems: Exploring how computers and sensors are used to control and monitor
systems, often replacing human intervention. The roles of sensors, microprocessors, and actuators
in automated systems are highlighted.

Robotics: Examining the design, capabilities, and applications of robots, which can replicate
human actions and movements, across various industries.
Artificial intelligence (AI): Introducing the concept of creating machines that can perform tasks
that typically require human intelligence. The chapter touches upon machine learning, a subset of
AI where systems learn from data, and expert systems, which attempt to replicate the knowledge
and decision-making abilities of human experts.

The chapter aims to inspire students to consider the possibilities and implications of these rapidly
evolving technologies.

Chapter 7: Algorithm Design and Problem Solving

This chapter focuses on the process of developing solutions to problems using algorithms, a
fundamental skill in computer science. It starts with the program development life cycle, which
provides a structured framework for software development, including the stages of analysis,
design, coding, and testing.

Key concepts covered include:

Decomposition: Breaking down complex problems into smaller, more manageable sub-problems,
often represented using structure diagrams.

Algorithm representation: Using flowcharts, which visually represent the steps in an algorithm
using standardized symbols, and pseudocode, which employs code-like statements to outline the
algorithm's logic.

Common algorithms: Examining examples like linear search (searching for a specific value in a
list) and bubble sort (sorting a list into order), walking through their logic and implementation.

Validation and verification: Highlighting the importance of ensuring data accuracy by checking its
reasonableness (validation) and confirming it matches the original source (verification).

Tracing algorithms: Using trace tables to step through the execution of an algorithm, tracking the
values of variables and outputs, to understand its flow and identify errors.

The chapter emphasizes the iterative nature of problem-solving and the importance of carefully
planning and testing algorithms to ensure they produce the desired results.

Chapter 8: Programming
This chapter provides a practical introduction to programming, building upon the concepts of
algorithms from the previous chapter. It introduces fundamental programming concepts, using
pseudocode and examples in various programming languages like Python, VB.NET, and Java, to
illustrate how these concepts translate into actual code.

Topics covered include:

Variables and constants: Explaining how data is stored and manipulated within a program,
differentiating between variables, whose values can change, and constants, whose values remain
fixed.
Data types: Exploring various data types like integers, real numbers, booleans, and characters,
which determine the kind of data a variable can hold and how it is processed.

Input and output: Demonstrating how programs interact with users, taking input from sources like
the keyboard and displaying output on the screen.

Arithmetic operators: Using standard mathematical operations like addition, subtraction,

multiplication, and division within programs.

Selection (conditional statements): Using IF, ELSE, and ELSEIF statements to control the flow of a
program based on specific conditions.

Iteration (loops): Employing FOR loops and WHILE loops to repeatedly execute blocks of code,
either for a specified number of times or until a certain condition is met.

Arrays: Using one-dimensional and two-dimensional arrays to efficiently store and manipulate
collections of data.

Subroutines (procedures and functions): Breaking down programs into smaller, self-contained
modules, promoting code reusability and readability.

File handling: Reading data from files and writing data to files, enabling programs to persist data
beyond the program's execution.

Maintainable programs: Emphasizing the importance of writing code that is easy to understand,
modify, and debug, using techniques like meaningful variable names, consistent indentation, and
adding comments to explain the code's purpose.

The chapter aims to equip students with the basic skills and understanding to start writing their
programs.

Chapter 9: Databases
This chapter introduces databases, structured collections of data organized for efficient storage,
retrieval, and manipulation. The focus is on single-table databases, where data is stored in a single
table, as opposed to multi-table databases, which involve relationships between multiple tables.

Key concepts discussed include:

Database structure: Understanding the basic components of a database, including tables, which
hold data organized in rows (records) and columns (fields), records, which represent individual
entities, and fields, which store specific pieces of information about each record.

Data types: Exploring the various data types used in databases, including integers, text, booleans,
and dates, and their importance in ensuring data consistency and facilitating accurate analysis.

Primary keys: Emphasizing the role of primary keys as unique identifiers for each record in a table,
ensuring that each record can be distinguished and accessed individually.
SQL (Structured Query Language): Introducing SQL as the standard language for interacting with
databases, covering commands used to:

Retrieve data: Using the SELECT command to specify the fields to be retrieved and the FROM
clause to identify the table.

Filter data: Applying the WHERE clause to select only records that meet specific criteria.

Sort data: Utilizing the ORDER BY clause to arrange the retrieved data in ascending or descending
order based on a specified field.

Perform calculations: Employing functions like SUM and COUNT to calculate totals and counts of
specific data within a table.

The chapter aims to provide a foundational understanding of database concepts and the use of
SQL to manage and analyze data effectively.

Chapter 10: Boolean Logic

This chapter delves into the world of Boolean logic, a system of logical operations that forms the
foundation of digital circuits. It starts by introducing the basic building blocks of digital circuits:
logic gates. These gates are electronic components that implement Boolean operations, taking
one or more binary inputs (0 or 1) and producing a single binary output based on the logic of the
gate.

The chapter covers the six fundamental logic gates:

NOT gate: Inverts the input signal.

AND gate: Outputs 1 only if both inputs are 1.

OR gate: Outputs 1 if at least one input is 1.

NAND gate: The inverse of the AND gate, outputs 0 only if both inputs are 1.

NOR gate: The inverse of the OR gate, outputs 1 only if both inputs are 0.

XOR gate (EOR gate): Outputs 1 if the inputs are different53.

The chapter further explores how to represent logic circuits using:

Truth tables: Systematically listing all possible input combinations and the corresponding outputs
of a logic circuit.

Logic expressions: Using Boolean operators (AND, OR, NOT) to express the logic of a circuit in a
concise mathematical form.

Diagrams: Employing standard symbols to represent each logic gate and their connections within a
circuit.
The chapter emphasizes the crucial role of Boolean logic in designing and understanding the
behavior of digital circuits, the fundamental building blocks of modern computers.

Chapter 11: Programming Scenarios Practice

This chapter focuses on equipping students with the skills to analyze and solve programming
problems, building upon the programming concepts introduced in earlier chapters. It presents two
methods for tackling programming scenarios:

Method 1: Identifying Inputs, Processes, and Outputs

This method encourages students to start by carefully analyzing the scenario and breaking it down
into its key components:

Inputs: The data the program needs to receive from the user or other sources.

Processes: The operations the program needs to perform on the input data, such as calculations,
comparisons, or data manipulation.

Outputs: The information the program needs to display to the user or store in a specific format.

By clearly identifying these elements, students can start planning the logic and structure of their
program.

Method 2: Practically Carrying Out the Program and Identifying the Stages

This method takes a more practical approach, encouraging students to "walk through" the scenario
as if they were the program, mentally performing the required actions. By doing so, they can gain a
deeper understanding of the program's flow and identify the steps needed to achieve the desired
outcome.

The chapter emphasizes the importance of:

Validation of inputs: Ensuring that the data entered by the user is reasonable and within
acceptable limits.

Appropriate messages: Providing clear and informative messages to guide the user through the
program's interactions, both during input and output.

Comments: Adding explanatory comments within the code to enhance readability and make it
easier to understand and maintain.

The chapter provides numerous programming scenarios and prompts students to practice
analyzing, designing, and implementing solutions using pseudocode or actual programming
languages. It aims to bridge the gap between theoretical concepts and practical application,
fostering problem-solving skills essential for aspiring programmers.
Sample Lessons
Lesson 1: The World Wide Web
Objective: Students will be able to differentiate between the internet and the World Wide Web.
Students will understand how a URL is structured and used to access web pages.

Materials: Whiteboard or projector, markers or pens, student computers or tablets with internet
access (optional).

Procedure:

Warm-Up (5 minutes): Begin by brainstorming what students already know about the internet. Ask
questions like:

• What are some things you use the internet for?

• What are some popular websites you visit regularly?
• Do you know the difference between the internet and the World Wide Web?

Lecture and Discussion (15 minutes):

Introduce the concepts of the internet as a global network infrastructure1 and the World Wide Web
as a collection of websites and web pages accessible through this infrastructure1.

Explain that each web page has a unique text-based address called a URL (Uniform Resource
Locator).

Break down the structure of a URL into its three main components, using an example from the
source:

• Protocol (e.g., HTTP or HTTPS)

• Domain name (e.g., www.cambridgeinternational.org)
• Web page or file name (e.g., index.html)

Engage students in a discussion about the importance of each component.

Activity (20 minutes):

Divide students into small groups. Assign each group a specific website to analyze.

Have students identify the protocol, domain name, and web page or file name for the assigned
website.

Ask each group to present their findings and explain the purpose or content of the website based on
its URL.
Optional: If students have access to computers or tablets, they can visit the websites and explore
their features.

Wrap-Up (10 minutes):

Review the key concepts covered in the lesson.

Ask students to provide examples of URLs and explain how each part contributes to accessing
information online.

Assign homework: Students can research the history of the World Wide Web, focusing on its
invention by Tim Berners-Lee.

Lesson 2: Requesting and Displaying Web Pages

Objective: Students will learn the process of requesting and retrieving web pages from a web
server. They will understand the roles of web browsers, domain name servers (DNS), and the HTTP
and HTTPS protocols.

Materials: Whiteboard or projector, markers or pens, diagrams or illustrations of the web page
request process (optional).

Procedure:

Warm-Up (5 minutes): Review the concept of URLs from the previous lesson. Ask students to
share some URLs they have encountered.

Interactive Lecture (20 minutes):

Explain that when you type a URL into a web browser, a request is sent to a web server that hosts
the website.

Describe the role of domain name servers (DNS) in translating the domain name into an IP address
that identifies the web server.

Discuss the process of the web browser sending an HTTP or HTTPS request to the server.

Explain the difference between HTTP and HTTPS, emphasizing the importance of HTTPS for secure
communication and the use of digital certificates.

Activity: Role-Playing (15 minutes):

Divide students into groups and assign roles: user, web browser, DNS, web server.

Use a simple scenario, such as a user wanting to access a specific web page.

Have each group act out the process of requesting and retrieving the web page, highlighting the
communication between different entities.
Wrap-Up and Discussion (10 minutes):

Discuss the importance of each component in the process.

Ask questions like:

• What might happen if the DNS server is not working?

• Why is HTTPS important for online transactions and sensitive information?

Assign homework: Have students research the role of web browsers and compare different
browsers available (e.g., Chrome, Firefox, Safari).

Lesson 3: Cyber Security and Keeping Data Safe

Objective: Students will understand common cyber security threats and learn about security
solutions to protect themselves and their data online.

Materials: Whiteboard or projector, markers or pens, list of cyber security threats and solutions.

Procedure:

Warm-Up (5 minutes): Engage students in a discussion about online safety. Ask questions like:

What are some potential dangers or risks of using the internet?

Have you ever encountered any suspicious websites or emails?

Interactive Lecture (15 minutes):

Introduce the concept of cyber security and why it is essential.

Discuss common cyber security threats:

• Malware
• Brute-force attacks
• Data interception
• Denial-of-service (DoS) and distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks
• Phishing
• Social Engineering

Provide a brief explanation and examples of each threat.

Activity: Matching Threats and Solutions (15 minutes):

Prepare a set of cards or slips of paper. Write a cyber security threat on one card and a
corresponding security solution on another.

Examples:

Threat: Malware / Solution: Anti-malware software

Threat: Brute-force attack / Solution: Strong passwords

Threat: Phishing / Solution: Be cautious about suspicious emails and links

Distribute the cards randomly among students. Have them find their matching pairs by explaining
the relationship between the threat and the solution.

Wrap-Up and Discussion (15 minutes):

Review the matched pairs and discuss the importance of each security solution.

Engage in a broader conversation about online safety tips and best practices.

Assign a research project: Have students investigate a specific cyber security threat in detail,
including its history, impact, and preventive measures.