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Senior Vice President, Content Strategy: Charles Linsmeier
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Executive Program Manager for Psychology: Daniel DeBonis
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Library of Congress Control Number: 2019948195

ISBN-13: 978-1-319-26902-9 (ePub)

Copyright © 2020, 2017, 2014, 2011 by Worth Publishers

All rights reserved.

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8
About the Authors

ROBERT SIEGLER is the Schiff Foundations Professor of Psychology

and Education at Teachers College, Columbia University. His research
focuses on how children learn mathematics. He is author of the cognitive
development textbook Children’s Thinking and has written or edited
several additional books on child development. His books have been
translated into Japanese, Chinese, Korean, German, Spanish, French,
Greek, Hebrew, and Portuguese. He has presented keynote addresses at
the conventions of the Cognitive Development Society, the Japanese

9
Psychological Association, the German Psychological Association, the
American Psychological Society, and the Conference on Human
Development. He also has served as Associate Editor of the journal
Developmental Psychology, co-edited the cognitive development volume
of the 1998 and 2006 editions of the Handbook of Child Psychology, and
served on the National Mathematics Advisory Panel from 2006 to 2008.
Dr. Siegler received the American Psychological Association’s
Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award in 2005, was elected to the
National Academy of Education in 2010, was named Director of the
Siegler Center for Innovative Learning at Beijing Normal University in
2012 and was elected to the Society of Experimental Psychologists in
2016.

10
JENNY R. SAFFRAN is the Vilas Distinguished Achievement Professor
and College of Letters & Science Distinguished Professor of Psychology
at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, and is an investigator at the
Waisman Center. Her research is focused on learning in infancy and early
childhood, with a particular emphasis on language. Dr. Saffran’s research
has been continually funded by the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National
Institute of Child Health and Human Development for over 20 years. She
has received numerous awards for her research and teaching, including
the Boyd McCandless Award from the American Psychological
Association for early career contributions to developmental psychology
and the Presidential Early Career Award for Scientists and Engineers
from the National Science Foundation. In 2015, she was elected to the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

11
ELIZABETH T. GERSHOFF is the Amy Johnson McLaughlin
Centennial Professor of Human Development and Family Sciences and
Associate Director of the Population Research Center, both at the
University of Texas at Austin. Her research focuses on how parental and
school discipline affect child and youth development and on how parent
education and early childhood education programs, such as the federal

12
Head Start program, can improve the lives of at-risk children. Dr.
Gershoff has been awarded numerous federal grants from the Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, the National Institute for Child Health
and Human Development, the National Institute for Mental Health, and
the National Science Foundation to support her research. She was lead
author of the volume Societal Contexts of Child Development, which won
the 2014 Society for Research on Adolescence Social Policy Award for
Best Edited Book, and of a new book, Ending the Physical Punishment of
Children: A Guide for Clinicians and Practitioners. She was an Associate
Editor at the journal Developmental Psychology and is President-Elect of
the Society for Child and Family Policy and Practice, which is Division
37 of the American Psychological Association. She is an internationally
recognized expert on the effects of physical punishment on children, and
her research on the topic has been recognized with a Lifetime Legacy
Achievement Award from the Center for the Human Rights of Children at
Loyola University Chicago and the Nicholas Hobbs Award from Division
37 of the American Psychological Association.

NANCY EISENBERG is Regents’ Professor of Psychology at Arizona

State University. Her research interests include social, emotional, and
moral development, as well as socialization influences, especially in the
areas of self-regulation and adjustment. She has published numerous
empirical studies, as well as books and chapters on these topics. She has
also been editor of Psychological Bulletin and the Handbook of Child
Psychology and was the founding editor of the Society for Research in
Child Development journal Child Development Perspectives. Dr.
Eisenberg has been a recipient of Research Scientist Development
Awards and a Research Scientist Award from the National Institutes of
Health (NICHD and NIMH). She has served as President of the Western
Psychological Association and of Division 7 of the American

13
Psychological Association and is president-elect of the Association for
Psychological Science. She is the 2007 recipient of the Ernest R. Hilgard
Award for a Career Contribution to General Psychology, Division 1,
American Psychological Association; the 2008 recipient of the
International Society for the Study of Behavioral Development
Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award; the 2009 recipient of the G.
Stanley Hall Award for Distinguished Contribution to Developmental
Psychology, Division 7, American Psychological Association; and the
2011 recipient of the William James Fellow Award for Career
Contributions in the Basic Science of Psychology from the Association
for Psychological Science.

14
Brief Contents
Preface
1 An Introduction to Child Development
2 Prenatal Development and the Newborn Period
3 Biology and Behavior
4 Theories of Cognitive Development
5 Perception, Action, and Learning in Infancy
6 Development of Language and Symbol Use
7 Conceptual Development
8 Intelligence and Academic Achievement
9 Theories of Social Development
10 Emotional Development
11 Attachment to Others and Development of the Self
12 The Family
13 Peer Relationships
14 Moral Development
15 Gender Development
16 Conclusions

Glossary
References
Name Index

15
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Subject Index

16
Contents
Preface

CHAPTER 1 An Introduction to Child Development

Reasons to Learn About Child Development

17
 Raising Children
Choosing Social Policies
BOX 1.1 A Closer Look: The Romanian Adoption
Study
Understanding Human Nature
Historical Foundations of the Study of Child
Development
Early Philosophers’ Views of Children’s Development
Social Reform Movements
Darwin’s Theory of Evolution
Enduring Themes in Child Development
1. Nature and Nurture: How Do Nature and Nurture
Together Shape Development?
2. The Active Child: How Do Children Shape Their
Own Development?
3. Continuity/Discontinuity: In What Ways Is
Development Continuous, and in What Ways Is It
Discontinuous?
4. Mechanisms of Change: How Does Change Occur?
5. The Sociocultural Context: How Does the
Sociocultural Context Influence Development?
6. Individual Differences: How Do Children Become
So Different from One Another?
7. Research and Children’s Welfare: How Can
Research Promote Children’s Well-Being?

18
 BOX 1.2 Individual Differences: Can Children Learn
to Be More Intelligent?
Methods for Studying Child Development
The Scientific Method
Contexts for Gathering Data About Children
Correlation and Causation
Research Designs for Examining Children’s
Development
Ethical Issues in Child-Development Research
CHAPTER SUMMARY

CHAPTER 2 Prenatal Development and the Newborn

Period

19
Prenatal Development
BOX 2.1 A Closer Look: Beng Beginnings
Conception
BOX 2.2 Individual Differences: Do Girls
Outnumber Boys?
Developmental Processes
Early Development
An Illustrated Summary of Prenatal Development
Fetal Experience and Behavior
Fetal Learning
Hazards to Prenatal Development
Teratogens
BOX 2.3 Applications: Sudden Infant Death
Syndrome
Maternal Factors
The Birth Experience
Diversity of Childbirth Practices
The Newborn Infant
State of Arousal
Negative Outcomes at Birth
CHAPTER SUMMARY

20
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 Aspect Ratio.—The third factor in wing efficiency has to do with
the plan shape. It was early found that square wings were not much
good, and that if you made them wide in span like those of a bird,
the efficiency was best (see Fig. 23). Aspect ratio is the term which
gives the relation of the span to the fore and aft dimension of the
wing, and this relation is usually equal to six or so. The reason why
large aspect ratios are advantageous is as follows:
The tips of all wings are inefficient, because they allow the air to
slip sideways around the ends, and there is all the trouble of
disturbing this air without extracting any considerable lift from it. In
a wide-span wing these inefficient wing tips are only a small
percentage of the total area, but in a small-span wing they may be
an important consideration (see Fig. 24).

Fig. 24.—Diagram illustrating aspect-ratio effect.

Arrows show direction of air flow past plate; note that air escapes sideways
around sides of plate. This phenomenon occurs at the tips of all airplane wings
and accounts for small efficiency of narrow-span wings.
 Wing Arrangements.—All the foregoing remarks in this chapter
have applied only to a single wing. They apply in general to double
or triple wings (biplanes and triplanes), but the matter of arranging
multiple wings affects the efficiency.
The monoplane with its single layer of wings is the most efficient
type of flying machine. We find if we arrange wings into the biplane
shape that the presence of the upper wing interferes with the
vacuum formed above the lower wing, and the efficiency decreases
(see Fig. 22). The same is true of the triplane and the quadruplane
arrangement. If all we wanted in airplanes was efficiency, we would
use monoplanes, but the biplane is pretty popular now in spite of its
low efficiency; this is because it can be much more strongly trussed
than the monoplane, and also because of the fact that sufficient
area may be secured with less span of wings.
It may be said that the low efficiency of the biplane can be
somewhat relieved by spacing the upper and lower wings at a
considerable distance apart; but if they are spaced at a distance
much greater than the chord, it requires extra long struts and wires,
and the resistance and weight of these will offset the advantage of
wider spacing; so that practically biplane-wing efficiency may be
taken as 85 per cent. of monoplane efficiency.
It remains to mention the tandem arrangement, used in all
airplanes, where the tail is a tandem surface in conjunction with the
wings. A surface located in the position of an airplane tail is at a
disadvantage and shows low efficiency for flight purposes. This is
because the main wings deflect the air downward and when the tail
comes along it meets air which has a more or less downward trend,
instead of encountering fresh, undisturbed air (see Fig. 16).
Resistance of an Airplane to Motion.—Earlier in this chapter
the support of an airplane was explained and it was seen that the
weight was exactly equalled by the lift or support; it was also
explained that the production of this lift required considerable force
in moving the wings rapidly through the air. It is not only the wings,
however, which require force to overcome the resistance to motion.
In order to have any wings at all it is unfortunately necessary to
supply also struts, wires, etc., for bracing these wings, also a motor
and seat for the passenger, which are usually included inside a
fuselage, also wheels for landing and various control surfaces. None
of these accessories to the wings contribute material lift, but they
involve a large amount of resistance which is therefore a dead loss.
Note carefully that there are two distinct sorts of resistance: (1) that
of the wings, which is the necessary price paid for securing lift; (2)
that of all the rest of the machine, in return for which nothing
beneficial is received, and which therefore has sometimes been
called “parasite” or “deadhead” resistance.
In a typical training machine the total resistance to be overcome if
forward motion is maintained is as follows: (See Fig. 26.)
At 72 miles per hour:
Wings 160 lb.
Fuselage 75
Wiring 70
Deadhead
Struts 20 195 lb.
resistance
Miscellaneous
Balance 30
Total 355 lb.
At a speed of 57 miles per hour:
Wings 158 lb.
Deadhead resistance 130 lb.
Total 288 lb.
At a speed of 43 miles per hour:
Wings 350 lb.
Deadhead resistance 125 lb.
Total 475 lb.

It is seen that the above resistance values total to the highest

figure at the lowest speed, and that the lowest value of resistance
occurs at an intermediate speed; the resistance decreases as the
speed decreases from 73 to 57 miles per hour; but a further
decrease in speed finds the resistance running up rapidly so that at
minimum speed the resistance is very great again. This is due to the
fact that at high speeds the deadhead resistance exceeds that of the
wings but at slow speeds although the deadhead resistance is very
small, the wings being turned up to a large angle within the air, have
a resistance which is at its maximum. This seems clear enough when
we remember that the lift of the wings remains the same as the
angle decreases (and speed goes up) but that the efficiency of the
wings increases so that the wing resistance is a smaller fraction of
the lift at high speed than at low speed.
Cause of Resistance.—Wing resistance, which is affected, as
mentioned previously, by the wing curvature, can not be decreased
unless new and improved sorts of wings are invented. As to
deadhead resistance, it may be decreased in future by methods of
construction which eliminate unessential parts. In a high-speed
airplane in this country an attempt was made to eliminate the wires
altogether and most of the struts (because the wiring is one of the
largest single items of deadhead resistance); so far the attempt has
failed for structural reasons. In the monoplane type of airplane of
course the struts are eliminated, which is an advantage from the
standpoint of resistance.
 Fig. 25.—Diagram illustrating advantage of stream-line shape.
Note large eddy disturbance and vacuum behind round shape, causing high
resistance.

As long as struts, wires, etc., are used at all, the minimum

resistance can be secured by giving them a proper “stream-line”
shape. The stream-line shape is one in which the thickest part is in
front and tapers off to a point in the rear, like a fish. If, for instance,
we take round rods instead of the struts of the training machine
above mentioned and having the same thickness, the resistance
might be 80 lb. instead of 20 lb.; and if we take a rod whose shape
is elliptical with its axes in a ratio of 1 to 5 the resistance might be
40 lb. instead of 20 lb.; and if we took the stream-line struts out of
the training machine and put them back sharp edge foremost, the
resistance would be increased. The advantage of the stream-line
shape is that it provides smooth lines of flow for the air which has
been thrust aside at the front to flow back again without eddies to
the rear. This is not possible in the case of the round strut, behind
which will be found a whirl of eddies resulting in a vacuum that
tends to suck it backward. By fastening a stream-line tail behind the
round rod the eddies are greatly reduced, as is the vacuum. The
wires of the airplane are subject to the same law and if the training
machine above mentioned had stream-line wires instead of round
wires we might expect them to have less than 70 lb. resistance. The
fuselage should always be given as nearly a stream-line shape as the
presence of the motor and tanks will permit; and it must all be
inclosed smoothly in “doped” fabric in order that the air-flow
phenomena may operate. As for the wheels, they must of necessity
be round, but by enclosing them with fabric the air flow past them is
more easy and the resistance may be halved.
Total Resistance.—The necessity has been explained of
discriminating between wing and deadhead resistance; if we are
talking about wings we may ignore everything except the wing
resistance (commonly called “wing drift”), but if we are talking about
the whole airplane, we then must refer to the total resistance, which
includes all the others and is overcome by the propeller thrust.
“Skin-friction” resistance has not been mentioned nor need it be
more than to say that any surface moving through air attributes part
of its resistance to the actual friction of the air against it, and
therefore should be as smooth as possible.
Motor Power Required for Flying.—The reason resistance
interests us is that motor power is required to propel the airplane
against it; more and more power as the resistance and speed
increase. Obviously, the power required is least when the resistance
is small, i.e., when the speed is intermediate between minimum and
maximum. It takes more power to fly at minimum speed than at this
intermediate speed. Of course it also takes more power to fly at
maximum speed, where again the resistance is high.
Maximum Speed.—Ordinarily, for moderate speeds, airplanes
have a margin of power at which the throttle need not be opened
wide; should speed be increased the resistance and horsepower
required will increase steadily until the throttle is wide open and
motor “full out;” this establishes the maximum speed of an airplane;
there is no margin of power, no climb is possible. The only way to
increase speed is to use the force of gravity in addition to the motor
force. It may be interesting to know what is the maximum possible
speed in the case of a vertical dive with the motor shut off; it will be
about double the maximum horizontal speed as may be readily seen
from the fact that the thrust in the direction of motion is now no
longer horizontal and equal to the resistance but is vertical and
equal to the weight of the machine; that is, the thrust may be
increased fivefold, and the speed resulting will be increased
correspondingly, if the motor be running in such a vertical dive the
velocity may be slightly increased though at this speed of motion the
propeller would not have much efficiency.
There is danger in such high speeds; the stresses in the machine
are increased several times merely by the increased resistance, and
if the angle of incidence should be suddenly brought up to a large
value at this high speed the stress would again be increased so that
the total stress increase theoretically might be as high as fourteen
times the normal value, thus exceeding the factor of safety. It is for
such reasons that the maximum strength is desirable in airplanes;
holes must not be carelessly drilled in the beams but should be
located if anywhere midway between the top and bottom edges,
where the stress will be least; initial stresses, due to tightness of the
wires, should not be too great.
Climbing Ability.—Climbing ability refers to the number of feet
of rise per minute or per 10 min. In order to climb, extra horsepower
is required beyond that necessary for more horizontal flight. The
machine can, for instance, fly at 56 miles per hour at which speed it
requires 43 hp. If now the throttle is opened up so as to increase the
horsepower by 22, making a total of 65 hp., the machine will climb
at the rate of 380 ft. per minute, maintaining approximately the
same flight speed. If instead of 65 hp., it were 54 hp. the speed of
climb would be about one-half of the 380, or 190 ft. per minute; the
flight speed again remaining approximately as before; that is, any
margin of horsepower beyond the particular value of horsepower
required may be used for climbing without material change of the
flight speed. It is necessary here to state that lift does not increase
during climb; and while for the instant that a climb commences
there may be, due to acceleration, more lift on the wings than
balances the weight, this does not remain true after a steady rate of
climb is reached. To illustrate, in a wagon drawn uphill by horses the
wheels which support the wagon do not exert any more support
than on the level, and the entire force to make the wagon ascend is
supplied through extra hard pulling by the horses. Thus in a climbing
airplane the propeller furnishes all the climbing force and lift is no
greater than in horizontal flight. In fact, the actual lift force may be
even less, as the weight of the airplane is partly supported by the
propeller thrust which is now inclined upward slightly.
To secure maximum climbing ability, we must determine at what
velocity the margin of motor power is the greatest. In the above-
mentioned machine we know that the horsepower required for
support is least for a speed of near 55 miles per hour, and it is near
speed where therefore the excess margin of power is greatest and at
which climbing is best done. An airplane designed chiefly for
climbing must have low values of motor power necessary for
support, namely, must have small resistance, therefore small size,
therefore small weight.
 Fig. 26.—Performance curves for typical training airplane.

Gliding Angle.—Gliding angle denotes the angle at which the

airplane will glide downward with the motor shut off and is spoken
of as 1 in 5, 1 in 6, etc., according as it brings the airplane 1 mile
down for each 5, 6, etc., miles of travel in the line of flight. The
gliding angle of a machine may be found by dividing the total
resistance into the weight:
Gliding angle = Weight/Total resistance.
In the above-mentioned airplane it is one in 6.6 when the
resistance is 288 lb., that is, when the speed is 57 miles per hour. At
any other speed the resistance increases and hence the gliding angle
decreases. Hence the importance of putting the airplane into its
proper speed in order to secure the best gliding angle.
The Propeller.—The propeller or “screw,” by screwing its way
forward through the air, is able to propel the airplane at the desired
velocity. Regarding principles of propeller action the matter can be
hastily summarized in the following brief lines. The propeller blades
may be regarded as little wings moving in a circular path about the
shaft; and they have a lift and drift as do the regular wings. The lift
is analogous to the thrust; to secure this thrust with least torque
(drift) the blades are set at their most efficient angle of incidence,
and while the blade appears to have a steep angle near the hub, it
actually meets the air in flight at the same angle of incidence from
hub to tip.
Propeller Pitch.—Pitch is best defined by analogy to an ordinary
wood-screw; if the screw is turned one revolution it advances into
the wood by an amount equal to its pitch. If the air were solid, a
propeller would do the same, and the distance might be 8 ft., say.
Actually the air yields, and slips backward, and the propeller
advances only 6 ft. Its “slip” is then 8 minus 6, equals 2 ft., or 25 per
cent. Such a propeller has an 8-ft. pitch, and a 25 per cent. slip.
This “slip stream” blows backward in a flight so that the tail of an
airplane has air slipping past it faster than do the wings. Hence the
air forces at the tail are greater than might be expected. The rudder
and elevators therefore give a quicker action when the propeller is
rotating than when, as in the case of a glide, it is not.
 Fig. 27.—Washout in left-wing tips.

Washout.—Due to torque of the motor, the airplane tends to

rotate in the opposite direction to the propeller. This tendency may
be neutralized by giving one wing tip a smaller angle of incidence,
called “washout,” so that the machine normally tends to neutralize
the torque-effect.

PRINCIPLES OF AIRPLANE EQUILIBRIUM

 Fig. 28.—Balances of forces in an airplane.
Weight forward of lift, thrust below resistance. Thrust equals resistance, weight
equals lift.

Introductory.—Under this head will be discussed: (a) features of

airplane design which tend to maintain equilibrium irrespective of
the pilot; (b) matters of voluntary controlling operations by the pilot.
As regards (a) the tendency of the airplane toward inherent stability
acts to oppose any deviation from its course whether the pilot so
desires or not. The more stable is a machine, the less delicately is it
controlled, and the present consensus of opinion among pilots is that
a 50-50 compromise between stability and controllability is the best
thing.
In questions of airplane equilibrium the starting point is the center
of gravity; obviously, if the center of gravity were back at the tail or
up at the nose there would be no balance; the proper place for it is
the same spot where all the other forces such as thrust, lift and
resistance act; there it is easy to balance them all up. But it is not
always easy to bring the line of thrust and the line of total resistance
into coincidence, because the line of thrust is the line of the
propeller shaft and when this is high up as in the case of some
pushers it may be several inches above the line of resistance. And as
the thrust is above the resistance there is a tendency to nose the
machine down; to balance which the designer deliberately locates
the center of gravity sufficiently far behind the center of lift so that
there is an equal tendency to tip the nose upward; and all four
forces mentioned completely balance each other. But things may
happen to change the amount or position of these forces during
flight, and if this does happen the first thing to do is to restore the
balance by bringing in a small new force somewhere. In an actual
airplane this small restoring force is supplied at each critical moment
first, by the tail, etc., of the airplane and second, by voluntary
actions of the pilot. The center of gravity of any airplane may be
determined easily by putting a roller under it and seeing where it will
balance, or by getting the amount of weight supported at the wheels
and tail, according to the method of moments.
Longitudinal Stability.—Longitudinal stability has to do with the
tendency of an airplane to maintain its proper pitching angle. It was
said above that the four forces of lift, resistance, thrust and weight
always exactly balanced due to their size and their position. Now the
first consideration about longitudinal stability is that while the
centers of gravity and other forces remain in a fixed position, the
center of lift changes its position whenever the angle of incidence
(that is the speed) is changed. The phenomenon of shift of center of
pressure applies only to the wings and to the lift (the position of
center of resistance remains practically fixed at all angles).
 Note the effect on center of pressure position of a change of wing
angle (see Fig. 20). The wing used on the U. S. training machine has
a center of lift which is about in the middle of the wing when flying
at a small angle of maximum speed; but if the angle is increased to
the stalling angle of 15°, the center of pressure moves from midway
of the wing to a point which is about one-third the chord distance of
the wing from the front edge. The lift may travel about ½ foot, and
it is equal in amount to the weight of the machine (that is, nearly a
ton), and the mere effect of changing the angle from its minimum to
its maximum value therefore tends to disturb the longitudinal
equilibrium with a force which may be represented as 1 ton acting
on a lever arm of ½ ft. Suppose that the airplane is balancing at an
angle of 2° so that the center of gravity coincides with the center of
lift for this angle; now if a gust of wind causes the angle to increase
for an instant to 2¼°, the center of lift will move forward and tend
to push the front edge of the wing up, thus increasing the angle
further to 2½°. Then the center of lift, of course, moves further
forward to accommodate the increase of angle, and in a fraction of a
second the wing would rear up unless it were firmly attached to the
airplane body and held in its proper position by the tail. Similarly if
for any reason the proper angle of 2° were decreased, the same
upset would follow, only this time tending to dive the wing violently
to earth. This tendency is neutralized in an airplane by the “Penaud
Tail Principle.”
There are certain shapes of wings in which the center of pressure
travels in the reverse direction; a flat plate, for example; or a wing
having its rear edge turned up so that the general wing shape is like
a thin letter “S.” Such wings as these would not tend to lose their
proper angle, because when the angle is changed for any reason the
center or pressure in these wings moves in just the manner
necessary to restore them to their proper position; but these wings
are inefficient and are not in present use on airplanes.
Fig. 29.—Diagrams illustrating theory and application of longitudinal
dihedral angle.

The Penaud Tail Principle.—Rule.—The horizontal tail must

have a smaller angle of incidence than the wings. The upsetting
force above mentioned must be met by a strong opposite righting
force, and this latter is furnished by the horizontal tail surface. In the
angle of equilibrium of 2° above mentioned, the flat horizontal
stabilizer will perhaps have no force acting on it at all because it is
edgewise to the air and its angle of incidence is zero. When the
angle of the wing increases to 2¼° and the lift moves forward
tending to rear it up, the wing being rigidly fastened to the body
pushes the tail downward so that the tail now begins to have a small
lift force upon it due to its angle of ¼°; and this newly created
force, though small, acts at such a long lever arm that it exceeds the
rearing force of the wing and will quickly restore the airplane to 2°.
This action depends upon the principle of the Penaud Tail or
longitudinal “Dihedral” which requires that the front wings of an
airplane make a larger angle with the wind than the rear surface.
This principle holds good even when we have rear surfaces which
actually are lifting surfaces in normal flight, the requisite being that
the wings themselves shall in such cases be at an even greater angle
than the tail. No mention has been made of the elevator control,
because its action is additional to the above-mentioned stability. The
elevator is able to alter the lift on the tail; such alteration requires,
of course, immediate change of angle of the wings so that
equilibrium shall again follow; and this equilibrium will be maintained
until the lift at the tail is again altered by some movement of the
elevator control. Thus the elevator may be considered as a device
for adjusting the angle of incidence of the wings.
The air through which the wings have passed receives downward
motion, and therefore a tail which is poised at zero angle with the
line of flight may actually receive air at an angle of -2° or -3°. In the
above case we would expect an actual downward force on the tail,
unless this tail is given a slight arch on its top surface (for it is
known that arched surfaces have an angle of zero lift which is
negative angle).
Longitudinal Control.—Steering up or down is done by the
elevator, which as explained above is merely a device for adjusting
the angle of incidence of the wings. The elevator controls like all the
other controls of an airplane depend for their quick efficient action
upon generous speed; they can not be expected to give good
response when the machine is near its stalling speed. The elevators
like the rudder are located directly in the blast of the propeller and in
case the speed of motion should become very slow, the elevators
may be made to exert considerable controlling force if the motor is
opened up to blow a strong blast against them. This is good to bear
in mind when taxying on the ground because if the motor is shut off
at the slow speed of motion the elevator and rudder will lose their
efficacy. The propeller blast, due to a 25 per cent. slip, adds 25 per
cent. of apparent speed to those parts which are in its way, and
therefore the tail forces are affected as the square of this increase,
that is, the forces may be 50 per cent. greater with the propeller on
than off.
Lateral Stability.—This depends upon the keel surface or total
side area of an airplane. The keel surface includes all the struts,
wires, wheels, wings, as well as body, against which a side wind can
blow. Skidding and side-slipping have the same effect as a side
wind, and the resulting forces acting against the side of the machine
should be made useful instead of harmful. This is done by properly
proportioning the keel or side surface. If keel surface is low, the side
force will rotate the airplane about its axis so that the windward
wing sinks; if high, so that it rises. But if the keel surface is at just
the right height (i.e., level with the center of gravity) the side forces
will not rotate the machine at all and will simply oppose the skidding
without upsetting equilibrium.
Fig. 30.—Diagram showing effect on lateral stability of dihedral angle
and non-skid fins.
(a) Machine flying level. (b) Machine tips and side-slips: excess pressure is created
on windward wing and fins, (c) Machine has side-slipped and rotated back to level.

Lateral Dihedral.—Now when an airplane appears to have its

keel-surface center too low, the easiest way to raise it level with the
center of gravity is to give the wings a dihedral angle, that is make
them point upward and outward from the body. Thus their
projection, as seen in a side view, is increased, and the effect is to
add some keel surface above the center of gravity, thus raising the
center of total keel surface.
A further advantage of the lateral dihedral is that any list of the
airplane sideways is automatically corrected (see Fig. 30). The low
wing supports better than the high wing, because a side slip sets in,
hence will restore the airplane to level position.
Non-Skid-Fins.—Where for the above-mentioned purposes an
excessive dihedral would be needed, resort may be had to non-skid-
fins erected vertically edgewise to the line of flight above or beneath
the topwing. These are used in marine machines to balance the
abnormally large keel surface of the boat or pontoon below.
Lateral Control.—By means of ailerons, lateral control is
maintained voluntarily by the pilot; the aileron on the low tip is given
a greater angle of incidence while on the high tip a less angle of
incidence thus restoring the proper level of the machine. Notice that
the efficacy of the ailerons depends upon speed of motion of the
airplane, irrespective of propeller slip because the propeller slip does
not reach the ailerons. Therefore, at stalling speeds the ailerons may
not be expected to work at their best, and when lateral balance is
upset at slow speeds it is necessary to dive the machine before
enough lateral control can be secured to restore the balance.
 Fig. 31.—Deperdussin control.
System used in U. S. training airplanes.

Directional Stability.—Directional stability has to do with the

tendency of an airplane to swerve to the right or left of its proper
course. To maintain directional stability the “vertical stabilizer” is
used, which acts in a manner analogous to the feather on an arrow.
Thus in case of a side slip the tail will swing and force the airplane
nose around into the direction of the side slip so that the airplane
tends to meet the relative side wind “nose-on” as it should. The
vertical stabilizer should not be too large, however, as then any side
pressure due to deviation from a rectilinear course will cause the
machine to swerve violently; the wing which is outermost in the turn
will have preponderance of lift due to its higher speed; that is, the
airplane will get into a turn where there is too much bank and a
spiral dive may result.
Directional Control.—The rudder gives directional control in
exactly the same way that it does on a boat; it should be said,
however, that the rudder is sometimes used without any intention of
changing the direction, that is, it is used simultaneously with the
ailerons as a means of neutralizing their swerving tendency. The
ailerons, of course, at the same time that they restore lateral
balance create a disadvantageous tendency to swerve the machine
away from its directional course; that is what the rudder must
neutralize. Moreover, the rudder is frequently used against side
winds to maintain rectilinear motion.
Banking.—Banking combines the lateral and directional control,
which should be operated simultaneously so as to tilt the machine
and at the same time maintain the radius of turn. The wings are
tilted in a bank because in going around a curve of a certain radius
the weight of the machine creates a centrifugal force in a horizontal
direction and if the curved path is to be maintained this centrifugal
force must be neutralized; and this is done by inclining the force of
lift inward until it has a horizontal component equal to the
centrifugal force. That is why the angle of bank must be rigidly
observed, or else the inward component of the lift will change. Now
as soon as the wings bank up, the lift force is no longer all vertical
and therefore may not be enough to support the weight of the
machine. To offset this have plenty of motor power for speed in a
bank; and do not try to climb while banking.
It is better to bank too little than too much; too little results in
skidding which may be easily cured; too much results in side slipping
inward and if the tail surface is too great in this latter case, a spiral
dive may result—so look out for over banking.
It is better for the beginner in banking to move his ailerons first
and then move the rudder; for if he moves the rudder first there will
be skidding outward, forward speed will drop and a stall may result.
On high angles of banking, over 45°, it should be noted that the
elevators are now more nearly vertical than horizontal and operate
as a rudder; similarly the rudder’s function is reversed, and to turn
down the rudder will be used.
Damping in an Airplane.—Above have been mentioned the
restoring forces which tend toward airplane equilibrium. Now these
restoring forces tend to push the machine back to equilibrium and
even beyond in exactly the same way that gravity causes a
pendulum to swing about its point of equilibrium. This can
sometimes be noticed in the case of an automobile when travelling
at high speed along country roads where a sort of slow oscillation
from side to side may be noticed due to the forceful maintenance of
equilibrium of the body in its forward motion. This oscillation in an
airplane would be serious unless there were means of damping it out
and these means are: first, the wings; second, the tail surfaces;
third, the weight and inertia of the machine itself. Regarding inertia
it should be said that a machine with weight distributed far from the
center of gravity, such as the double-motor airplane has a large
tendency to resist the rolling motions associated with lateral stability.
But from the same sign airplanes with large moment of inertia are
difficult to deviate from any given attitude, and therefore have the
name of being “logy.” The proper proportioning of an airplane’s parts
to secure first, the restoring forces; second, the proper damping
force; third, the proper amount of moment of inertia, is a very
delicate matter and beyond the scope of the present chapter.
 CHAPTER IV
FLYING THE AIRPLANE
Starting Off.—The first thing to do before starting off in an
airplane is to inspect carefully everything about the machine and
assure yourself that it is in perfect condition.
When all is ready to start turn the machine directly against the
wind; this is done in order that the rise from the ground may be
more quickly made with the assistance of the wind under the wings,
and it has a more important advantage in the fact that if you try to
get off the ground across the wind the machine will be very hard to
balance. Birds also take the air directly against the wind even though
for the moment this carries them in a direction toward some
supposed enemy, and it is a fundamental principle in airdromes.
Keep the machine pointed into the wind for the first 200 ft. of
altitude (and similarly in landing face the wind when within 200 feet
of the ground). In case the engine should fail before a height of 200
ft. is reached, never turn down wind as this is extremely dangerous.
Assistance will be had for the start from the mechanics, or if away
from the airdrome from bystanders. Have each assistant in his
proper place before starting the engine; one is to start the propeller
and the rest to hold back the machine until ready to let go.
 (From “How to Instruct in Flying.”)
Fig. 32.—Airplane in flying position just after starting.
This cut also illustrates proper landing attitude, since airplane is just skimming the
ground.

In order to get off the ground you will want good engine power; it
takes considerable thrust to accelerate an airplane on the ground to
its flying speed; in fact the first flying machine of the Wrights had to
use an auxiliary catapult to furnish the thrust necessary to get them
into the air. Making sure that the motor is giving full power raise the
hand as a signal to the attendants to remove the chocks and let go.
As you start rolling forward push the control lever forward which will
raise the tail off the ground and place the wings edgewise to the
wind while they will not offer resistance to the acquiring of good
rolling speed. Within a few seconds the machine will have attained
on the ground a velocity not less than the low flying speed; it will
not rise, however, until the tail is lowered by pulling the lever back.
When the necessary rolling speed is attained pull the lever softly
backward; the tail at once drops, the wings increase their angle and
lift and the machine will rise, the lever being held in a fixed position
(see Fig. 32). The distance between the point of starting and rising
will be 100 yd. or more and will occupy from 5 to 10 sec. depending
on the wind.
The change from flying position to climbing position is only a slight
modification involving only a slight pulling back of the control lever
and holding it in fixed position; the motor may in some machines
simply be opened out when its increased power will make the
machine rise; however, there is only one speed at which the climb
will be fastest and therefore it is well to know what is the proper
speed for climbing; the motor is then opened out full and the
airplane operated to give the proper speed corresponding.
The pupil should rise to the height of at least 100 ft., as any less is
useless and nothing will be learned from landing. In the case of
cross-country flying the pilot will rise to the height of 2000 ft.,
circling over the field rather than flying off in a straight line so that
preparatory to his start he always has the flying field in reach.
 (From “How to Instruct in Flying.”)
Fig. 33.—Airplane in gliding position, approaching a landing.
Note that its attitude relative to line of flight is similar to “flying position,” line of
flight however being inclined.

Landing.—Proper landing is the most important thing in airplane

flying. The pilot in turning his machine downward toward a landing
spot from flight will choose a distance from the field equivalent to
the proper gliding angle of his machine. If the gliding angle is 1 in 7
he must not turn downward any further from the field than a
distance greater than seven times his altitude or he will fall short. It
is safer to come closer to the field before turning downward for two
reasons: first, because you may not be gliding at the best gliding
angle; second, because you can always kill extra height by a spiral or
two better than you can regain it. Have height to spare when
landing.
To come down throttle down the engine and push the lever softly
forward until the proper gliding angle is obtained (Fig. 33). The
reason for throttling down the engine is: first, that you do not need
its thrust when you are coasting down because gravity furnishes all
the necessary velocity; second, if you glide or dive with the motor
wide open high speed will result, resulting in strains on the machine
especially on the moment of leveling out again; third, at this high
speed the controls become stiff to operate.

Fig. 34.—Attitudes of an airplane in flight.

Maintain the proper gliding speed to within 5 miles an hour of

what it ought to be as it is the speed which determines the proper
gliding angle. The revolution counter will indicate what the speed is
or the air-speed meter may be used. Arrange to come on to the field
facing directly into the wind, which may be observed by watching
smoke or flags below. In landing against the wind you are again
copying the practice of the birds. When you come to within 15 ft. of
the ground pull the lever softly back until the machine is in its slow-
flying position, which should be attained 5 ft. above the ground (Fig.
34). Hold the stick at this position of horizontal flying; no further
movement of the lever is necessary except to correct bumps, for
which purpose it would be held lightly for instant action. The aileron
control must be used here to keep the machine level and it may be
necessary to operate the rudder after touching the ground in order
to avoid swerving; in fact some machines are provided with a rear
skid which steers for this purpose.
In rolling just after landing keep the tail as close to the ground as
possible without causing undue bumping, so that the maximum
resistance of the wings may be presented to the air and the machine
be slowed up rapidly. Some machines are fitted with brakes on the
wheels to assist in the quick retardation of the roll. Landing is one of
the biggest problems in aviation and is a hard thing to learn because
it is done at a high speed especially in the fast military machines
such as the Fokker, Nieuport, etc. Landing is more of a problem than
it used to be in the early days when, for instance, the Wrights were
able to land without any wheels at all on mere skids because their
machines were not fast.
The following are examples of bad landings:
1. The pancake results from allowing the machine to get into its
rising position when it is landing (Fig. 35). There will be a
perpendicular bounce and on the second bounce the running gear
will break. In order to get out of an imminent pancake open up the
engine to keep machine flying, put the machine into a flying
position, then throttle down again and land.
2. Another type of pancake results from bringing the machine out
of its gliding position at a point too far above the ground when the
machine will drop due to lack of speed and break the running gear.
To avoid this open motor full, thus regaining speed and flying
position; afterward throttle down and reland.

(From “How to Instruct in Flying.”)

Fig. 35.—Bad landing, Type 1—the “pancake” landing.
Line of flight is downward; angle of incidence large, hence speed is slow; but
there is too much downward momentum and landing gear will break. Should line
of flight arrow point upward, airplane as shown would then be in climbing position.

3. A third type of bad landing results from failure to turn the

machine out of its glide at all, so that it glides straight downward
until it touches the ground. This is the most dangerous case of all
the bad landings. To cure it open up the engine after the first
bounce, regaining flying speed before the second bounce; then
reland.

(From “How to Instruct in Flying.”)

Fig. 36.—Bad landing Type 4—machine not level.

Wheels do not touch ground at same time, and one may smash.

4. If at the moment of landing the rudder is turned causing

machine to swerve, or if the machine is not level, a side strain will
be placed upon the landing gear and the wheels will buckle (Fig.
36).