What is the Internet?

The Internet is a worldwide telecommunications system that provides

connectivity for millions of other, smaller networks; therefore, the Internet is
often referred to as a network of networks. It allows computer users to
communicate with each other across distance and computer platforms.
The Internet began in 1969 as the U.S. Department of Defense's Advanced
Research Project Agency (ARPA) to provide immediate communication within
the Department in case of war. Computers were then installed at U.S.
universities with defense related projects. As scholars began to go online, this
network changed from military use to scientific use. As ARPAnet grew,
administration of the system became distributed to a number of organizations,
including the National Science Foundation (NSF). This shift of responsibility
began the transformation of the science oriented ARPAnet into the
commercially minded and funded Internet used by millions today.
The Internet acts as a pipeline to transport electronic messages from one
network to another network. At the heart of most networks is a server, a fast
computer with large amounts of memory and storage space. The server
controls the communication of information between the devices attached to a
network, such as computers, printers, or other servers.
An Internet Service Provider (ISP) allows the user access to the Internet
through their server. Many teachers use a connection through a local
university as their ISP because it is free. Other ISPs, such as America Online,
telephone companies, or cable companies provide Internet access for their
members.
You can connect to the Internet through telephone lines, cable modems,
cellphones and other mobile devices.
What makes up the World Wide Web?
The Internet is often confused with the World Wide Web. The misperception is
that these two terms are synonymous. The Internet is the collection of the
many different systems and protocols. The World Wide Web, developed in
1989, is actually one of those different protocols. As the name implies, it
allows resources to be linked with great ease in an almost seamless fashion.
The World Wide Web contains a vast collection of linked multimedia pages
that is ever-changing. However, there are several basic components of the
Web that allow users to communicate with each other. Below you will find
selected components and their descriptions.
TCP/IP protocols
In order for a computer to communicate on the Internet, a set of rules or
protocols computers must follow to exchange messages was developed. The
two most important protocols allowing computers to transmit data on the
Internet are Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP).
With these protocols, virtually all computers can communicate with each
other. For instance, if a user is running Windows on a PC, he or she can
communicate with iPhones.
Domain name system
An Internet address has four fields with numbers that are separated by
periods or dots. This type of address is known as an IP address. Rather than
have the user remember long strings of numbers, the Domain Name System
(DNS) was developed to translate the numerical addresses into words. For
example, the address fcit.usf.edu is really 131.247.120.10.
URLs
Addresses for web sites are called URLs (Uniform Resource Locators). Most
of them begin with http (HyperText Transfer Protocol), followed by a colon and
two slashes. For example, the URL for the Florida Center for Instructional
Technology is https://fcit.usf.edu/ .
Some of the URL addresses include a directory path and a file name.
Consequently, the addresses can become quite long. For example, the URL
of a web page may be:
https://fcit.usf.edu/holocaust/default.htm. In this example, "default.htm" is the
name of the file which is in a directory named "holocaust" on the FCIT server
at the University of South Florida.
Top-level domain
Each part of a domain name contains certain information. The first field is the
host name, identifying a single computer or organization. The last field is the
top-level domain, describing the type of organization and occasionally country
of origin associated with the address.
Top-level domain names include:
.com Commercial

.edu Educational

.gov US Government

.int Organization

.mil US Military

Networking
.net
Providers

.org Non-profit
 Organization

Domain name country codes include, but are not limited to:
.au Australia

.de Germany

.fr France

.nl Netherlands

.uk United Kingdom

.us United States

Paying attention to the top level domain may give you a clue as to the
accuracy of the information you find. For example, information on a "com" site
can prove useful, but one should always be aware that the intent of the site
may be to sell a particular product or service. Likewise, the quality of
information you find on the "edu" domain may vary. Although many pages in
that domain were created by the educational institutions themselves, some
"edu" pages may be the private opinions of faculty and students. A common
convention at many institutions is to indicate a faculty or student page with a ~
(tilde) in the address. For instance, https://fcit.usf.edu/~kemker/default.htm is
a student's personal web page.
What is a Webpage?
A webpage is a document written in HTML and can be viewed on any web
browser. It is contained within the web server, which can be accessed by
entering the URL for that web page, and once it is loaded, it appears on the
user’s web browser. Each webpage is linked with a unique URL; hence two
pages cannot have the same URL.

What is a Webpage
A webpage may contain text, links for other pages, graphics, videos, etc.
Moreover, it is mainly used to provide information to the user in text, images,
etc.
A webpage Is a part of a website; it means a website contains different web
pages. Such as javaTpoint.com is a website, and the page currently you are
accessing is the webpage. It can be understood as an example of a book. So,
a Website is like a complete book, and a webpage is like a page of that book.
The WWW or Internet contains millions of web pages, and daily, a lot is being
added. Tim Berners-Lee developed the first webpage.

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What is a Webpage
A web page is a single hypertext document available on World Wide Web
(WWW). It is composed of HTML elements and displayed on the user’s
browser such as Mozilla, Firefox, Chrome, etc. It is also referred to as “Page.”

In this topic, we are going to discuss various details of the webpage, including
the following topics:

What is a Webpage?
Characteristics of a Webpage
Difference between a Webpage and a Website
How does a Web Page Work?
Elements of a Webpage
Types of a Web page
How to Create a Simple Webpage?
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What is a Webpage?
A webpage is a document written in HTML and can be viewed on any web
browser. It is contained within the web server, which can be accessed by
entering the URL for that web page, and once it is loaded, it appears on the
user’s web browser. Each webpage is linked with a unique URL; hence two
pages cannot have the same URL.

What is a Webpage
A webpage may contain text, links for other pages, graphics, videos, etc.
Moreover, it is mainly used to provide information to the user in text, images,
etc.

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A webpage is a part of a website; it means a website contains different web
pages. Such as javaTpoint.com is a website, and the page currently you are
accessing is the webpage. It can be understood as an example of a book. So,
a Website is like a complete book, and a webpage is like a page of that book.

The WWW or Internet contains millions of web pages, and daily, a lot is being
added. Tim Berners-Lee developed the first webpage.

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Let’s understand some basic terms that are used with Webpage:

WebSite: A website is a collection of several web pages. These pages are

linked together with hyperlinks. A website has a unique domain name, and we
can access it by entering that domain name in the URL.
Search Engine: A search engine is an internet service that helps users find
any information available on the internet. Some examples of search engines
are Google, Yahoo, Bing, It is usually accessed with the help of Web browser.
Web Browser: A web browser or simply browser is application software used
to access the internet. Some examples of Web browsers are Google Chrome,
Microsoft Internet Explorer, Safari, etc. It does two things:
It connects to a web server on the internet and requests a page that the user
wants to view; once it finds that page, it displays it on its device.
It can Interpret the set of HTML tags within a page to display the page in the
correct format.
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Webserver: A web server can be understood as a computer that hosts or
provide a website on the internet. It contains webserver software and
component files of a website such as HTML document, images, CSS
stylesheet, and JS files.
Note: For practice, you can create web pages on your own without the need
for a web server, and your browser will display those pages on your machine
only.
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HTML: HTML is an abbreviation of Hyper-Text Markup Language. A markup
language is a computer language that specifies how a page should be
formatted. With the help of HTML, one can specify fonts, colors, images,
headings, and everything that he wants to display on a page displayed by the
browser.
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Note: A web browser can also display other documents such as a PDF
document or images, but only an HTML document is referred to as Web page.
Characteristics of a Web Page
Following are some characteristics of a Web page:

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A simple webpage can be created very quickly.
It takes very little time to create a webpage compared to a Website.
A web page and a website should be compatible with any device, such as
Mobile, Desktop, Laptop, etc.
The search engine provides a web page through a link, and when a user
clicks on that link, it is redirected to the webpage of a website.
A webpage can have any type of information including videos, and audios.
It can be made up of only HTML(Hypertext Markup Language), or CSS, or
JavaScript for dynamic and attractive behavior.
Difference between a Webpage and a Website
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Since both Websites and Web pages are related to each other, some users
may use them interchangeably, but they are much different from each other.
The basic difference between them is that webpage is a single web document,
whereas a Website is a collection of different web pages. Here are some more
differences between both of them:

Website
Webpage
A website is a collection of different web pages that are linked together with
hyperlinks.
A webpage is a single hypertext document.
It consists of more than one webpage.
It is a single document that is displayed on the user’s browser.
To develop a website, developers need more skills and more time compared
to a webpage.
To develop a webpage, developers need basic HTML knowledge and less
time.
A website is accessed through its domain name, and it does not include any
extension in the URL.
A webpage is accessed through a unique URL with some extension.
It can contain information for different entities, such as Javatpoint.com, which
contains information about different technologies.
It can contain information for a single entity, such as currently viewing a web
page containing information about this page only.
It Is a little challenging to create a perfect website and requires lots of
programming.
It is very simple to create a webpage.
Some examples of the website are Javatpoint.com, Amazon.com, etc.
Some examples of Webpages are the currently viewing page, contact page,
registration page, the home page, etc.
Note: The terms Webpage and Web page are the same, and both are
technically correct. However, most style guides suggest using a Webpage
instead of a Web page.
How does a Web Page Work?
A simple web page is created using HTML, which is a markup language.
However, we can also use CSS and JavaScript to add more functionalities
and make it more attractive.

It Is created using HTML, hence containing different markup tags that specify
how the data should be formatted on screen.
The webpage is contained within the webserver. To load this webpage, a
client sends the request to the server, and generally, the browser is known as
the client, which can request the page on the internet.

The web browser requests the page on the internet. Once it is responded to
by the server, the browser interprets the markup tags and displays them on
the user’s screen in the correct format.

What is a Webpage
The browser sends the request for a page or a file via an HTTP request. The
HTTP is the Hypertext Transfer Protocol, a network protocol that allows
transferring hypermedia documents over the internet between a browser and
server.

Once the request reaches the server, the HTTP server accepts the request,
finds the requested page, and sends it back to the browser through the HTTP
response. If a server is unable to find the requested page, it returns a 404
response.

Elements of a Webpage
The main element of the webpage is a text file composed of HTML. Apart from
this, a webpage can also have the following elements:

CSS: The CSS code is used to make the page more interactive and control its
look and feel.
Scripts: The JavaScript code is included in a webpage to add interactivity to
the page and add more functionalities to it.
Media: It is used to include media components such as audio, video, and
images.
Although every web page is different from another web, some components
are common to almost all the pages. Some of these components are given
below; you can also relate these elements by the given image:

What is a Webpage
Name of the Website: Each webpage includes the name of the website or
company, or blog to which it is attached. The name of the website and the
logo are mostly situated at the top-left corner of the page. The logo may also
contain a slogan of the site or a brief introduction to the site so that visitors
can quickly identify what this site is about. It is one of the important
components of the webpage.
The website's name also has a link that can redirect to the home page of that
site. The name of the website usually includes at the header of the page.
Search bar: A search bar is also an important component that should present
on each page of a website or blog. The search blog allows the visitor to
search related information on that website.
Navigation Bar: A navigation bar is a component of a webpage that contains
links to some important sections of the website. It helps the visitors to easily
traverse some major sections of the website. It is placed mainly on the top of
the web page or the left side of the page. When the user clicks on any link
given in the navigation bar, it redirects to the page.
Heading of the page: Heading of the page tells the main information about the
page, i.e., what this is all about. The heading is available on the top of the
page, and it is included with the help of the <h1> tag of HTML.
Content of the Page: The content of the page means the information of the
page. As you are visiting this page and reading this information, all the
information contained within this page is known as the page’s content. It may
contain below sub-elements:
Paragraphs: A webpage can have different paragraphs as per their length.
The opening paragraph is crucial on the whole page, as it draws the attention
of the visitor. If the first paragraph is not interesting and not related to the
topic, a user may leave the page immediately. To create a paragraph <P> tag
is used in HTML.
Subheadings: A page may have different subheadings as per the topic,
whether related to information about something or a website’s web page. In
HTML from <H2> to <H6> tags are used for including subheadings. Each
page should be divided into different subheadings to make it easier for the
users to read and understand.
Images: Each webpage contains images to make its content more attractive.
To include an image, <img> tag is used in HTML.
Feedback or Comment form: Different websites include a Feedback or
Comment form on each webpage. It is used to know the visitor’s views about
the information of that page and any other feedback for the page or site. It lets
to know the creator of the page that if the information is helpful or not.
Social Share links: Social share links allow the visitors to share that webpage
with their friends on different social sites such as Facebook, Linked In, Twitter,
etc.
Copyright Info: Each webpage must have Copyright information along with
Privacy Policy. This information is available at the end of the page or on the
footer of the page.
Go to Top: On most of the pages, a Back to Top button or link is available.
This option helps the users to return to the upper section of the page.
Advertisement Banner: Whenever you visit any good website, you see
different advertisement banners on each site’s page. These banners are used
to displays ads in different places on a page. These banners are used to
provide monitory benefits to the owner of the website.
Previous and Next buttons or links: On most of the pages, previous and Next
buttons are available that help the user easily navigate to the previous and
next page related to the topic. A page can also have links to other pages.
Company Info: On the footer of the page, there is a brief introduction about
the company or website of that page. By this, visitors get to know about the
company and can build trust in it.
There can also be some additional information and tools such as a button to
print the page that can also be helpful for users.

Types of a Web page

There are mainly two types of a Web page based on functionality:

Static Webpage
Dynamic Webpage
Static Webpage
Static webpages are those webpages that cannot be modified or altered by
the client. These are also known as stationary or flat web pages. They are
displayed on the client’s browser in the same format and manner as they are
saved in the webserver. Users can only load the page and read the
information but cannot perform any change on the page.

A static webpage is generally made up of HTML and CSS only.

Dynamic Webpage
As the name suggests, Dynamic webpages are dynamic, which means it
shows different information at different point of time.

The dynamic webpage shows different content each time it is viewed. There
are two types of Dynamic web pages, which are:
Server-Side Dynamic Webpage: These web pages are created using Server-
side scripting. These pages are changed when they are visited or viewed.
Some examples of server-side pages are login pages, submission forms,
shopping carts, etc. Various scripting languages such as PHP, ASP.Net, JSP,
etc., can be used for server-side scripting.
Client-side Dynamic Webpage: These web pages are created using Client-
side scripting. These pages get changed in response to actions that occur
within that page, such as mouse or keyboard action. Scripting languages such
as JavaScript, Dart, etc., can be used for client-Side scripting.
Note: Scripting languages are programming languages that allow us to write
programs in the form of scripts, and these are interpreted, not compiled.
Apart from these two Webpages, there are some examples of common web
pages that can be found on most of the websites, and these are as follow:

Home Page: The home page of any website is one of the most important
pages. It is called a home page because this is like a starting point from where
users can go anywhere on that website. This page usually contains links to
the important zones of the site. It can also be known as the index page.
Feed Page: The feed page is usually found in those websites that update
content. It is used to provide information to users for the latest information that
has been updated.
Menu Page: The menu page is created to accomplish the navigation goal. The
page contains a collection of different links that give access to different
categories and zones.
About-us Page: This page contains brief information and details of the
company, product, or website. It allows the visitors to know the details of the
website that they are using.
Registration Page: The registration page allows users to create an account by
signing up, and hence they can create a personalized account. It helps the
company to know the visitor and provide personalized offers and deals to
them.
Contacts Page: This is a simple page made for the visitors to contact the
website owner. For any issue or any feedback, users can use this page.
Landing Page: This is one of the special types of a Web page used as a core
part of a website or as an individual page. The main aim of creating this page
is to convert the visitors into the lead. It represents clear and focused content
on a specific goal.
How to Create a Simple Webpage?
Creating a simple webpage is very easy; anyone with basic knowledge of
computers and HTML can create it. But before creating a webpage, you
should be aware of the below points:

A simple webpage can be created using HTML code only. Such pages are
simple but not interactive and have very few functionalities.
To make your webpage interactive and add functionality, you need to learn
and use scripting languages, such as PHP, Python, etc.
A web page can also be created using Notepad, but it is recommended to use
IDEs for advanced uses such as Atom, Sublime Text editor, PyCharm,
Follow the below steps to create your webpage:

Open the Notepad application on your computer.

Write Below code on it.
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Your title goes here</title>
</head>
<body bgcolor=”white” text=”red”>
<h1>first Web page</h1>
<p>This is my first web page!</p>
</body>
</html>
In the above code, the following tags are used:

<!DOCTYPE html>: It is used for document type declaration, which means

which version of HTML you are using. It indicates the browser that which
language it is supposed to interpret.
<html>: it indicates the start and of the HTML code.
<head>: It can have different types of information such as title, meta tag, etc.;
this information will not appear on the webpage.
<body>: This tag contains other tags on the webpage, and users can see
them. In above code, we have included <h1> heading tag and <p> paragraph
tags.
Note: It is important to end each tag in html, and put all the tags either in
upper case or lower case. However, a lower case is recommended.
Save the file with any name and .html extension. For example, save it with
html name.
Go to the saved file (web.html), double click or right-click and run it.
It will open on your default browser and will display the below output:
What is a Webpage
You can also add more tags for different elements, such as add images,
background images, border, table, table, etc., using HTML. You can learn all
these from here.

Note: This webpage is local to your machine only, and only you can see this
on your browser. To view this on the internet, you need to first publish it.
After creating the page, you can also make changes in your file through the
editor. Just make the change, save the file again, and reload the page; those
changes will appear on the screen.

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Protocol in Computer Network
Introduction
An approved set of rules that control data transmission across various
networked devices is known as a network protocol. These set of rules specify
the data’s transmission, reception, and processing steps and make sure that
devices can comprehend and analyze the data they share. It makes it
possible for connected devices to interact with one another despite internal
and structural differences.

The proper operation of computer networks depends on protocols, which are

also essential for facilitating seamless communication.

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Significance of Protocols in Enabling Communication
The following major points highlight their significance:

Interoperability: In a networked setting, devices may originate from several

manufacturers and may use various operating systems. Regardless of where
they came from, protocols ensure these many devices can coexist peacefully.
Common Language: Devices on a network can communicate with one
another using protocols. They provide the structure and format of data to
make sure that the information can be understood and interpreted by both the
sender and the recipient.
Data Integrity: Protocols have tools for spotting and fixing errors. This makes it
possible for data to be reliably and precisely delivered even when network
conditions are less than optimal.
Security: To prevent unauthorized access to or manipulation of data, several
protocols include security measures. For instance, SSL/TLS encryption
methods guarantee the confidentiality of sensitive data while it is being
transmitted.
Scalability: Protocols are made to grow along with the complexity and size of
networks. Protocols can accommodate the increasing traffic and maintain
effective communication as networks expand.
Defined Roles: Protocols define the roles of devices in the network, such as
clients and servers, and specify how they should interact. This is crucial for
web browsing, email, and file sharing. Roles are defined by protocols, which
also establish how clients and servers should communicate with one another.
This is essential for applications like file sharing, email, and online browsing.
Structured Communication: By breaking up data into packets or frames that
can be efficiently sent through the network, they make it possible for
structured communication.
Global Connectivity: Many protocols, including the TCP/IP suite, are the
foundation upon which the Internet is built. These protocols support the
operation of the World Wide Web and allow for worldwide connectivity.
Types of Network Protocols
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In computer networks, network protocols cover many features and objectives,
each with a distinct function. The main groups of network protocols are as
follows:

1. Communication Protocols
The foundation of data transmission and information flow in computer
networks is communication protocols. To ensure seamless and dependable
communication, they specify the policies and norms defining how data is
formatted, sent, and received between devices.

These protocols formally lay out the guidelines and file types used for data
transmission. Syntax, semantics, error detection, synchronization, and
authentication are all handled by these protocols.

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Here are some prominent communication protocols:

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): The Internet and

the majority of contemporary networks are built on the foundation of the
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) protocol suite. It
includes many protocols and features, such as TCP for dependable data
transmission and IP (Internet Protocol) for addressing and routing packets.
Data is divided into packets, transported via networks, and precisely
reassembled at the destination, thanks to TCP/IP.
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): The World Wide Web uses the HTTP
(Hypertext Transfer Protocol) protocol to communicate web pages and the
resources they are connected with. Web browsers (clients) submit HTTP
queries to web servers, which then react with HTML documents, pictures, and
other media. This process is known as a request-response protocol.
HTTPS (HTTP Secure): HTTPS (HTTP Secure) is an HTTP extension that
adds security using SSL/TLS encryption. It makes sure that sensitive data,
including login passwords, personal information, and financial transactions, is
encrypted before it is transferred between a web browser and a web server.
FTP (File Transfer Protocol): File transfer protocol, or FTP, is a method for
quickly moving files between computers connected to a network. Users can
utilize it to transfer files to and from distant servers. Depending on how data
connections are formed, FTP can work in either an active mode or a passive
one.
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Between email clients and servers,
email messages are sent and relayed via the SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol) protocol. When you send an email, your email client connects
through SMTP to the server of your email provider, which then routes the
message to its intended recipient.
POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3) and IMAP (Internet Message Access
Protocol): These email protocols are used by email clients to retrieve
messages from a mail server. IMAP maintains messages on the server while
syncing messages across various devices, unlike POP3, which normally
downloads messages to a local device.
DNS (Domain Name System): DNS is responsible for converting domain
names that can be read by humans (such as www.example.com) into IP
addresses that computers can use to find one another on the Internet. Instead
of remembering a long list of numerical IP addresses, DNS makes it possible
to access websites using their domain names.
2. Routing Protocol:
For routers and other network devices to choose the best routes for data
packets as they travel through a network, routing protocols are essential
algorithms and rules. They are essential to guaranteeing effective data routing
and delivery. The following are two well-known routing protocols:

Routing Information Protocol (RIP)

Distance-Vector Routing
Use Case: RIP is frequently used in tiny to medium-sized networks when
configuration simplicity and convenience are top priorities.
Operation: Based on the number of network hops (the number of routers a
packet must pass through), RIP determines the optimum path for data
packets. It keeps track of these hop counts to destination networks in routing
tables.
Convergence: RIP updates routing tables via routine routing data exchanges
with nearby routers. However, especially in larger networks, its simplicity
might cause delayed convergence.
Metrics: Hop count is the metric that RIP employs to find the optimum route.
We favour shorter pathways with fewer hops.
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)

Link-State Routing Protocol

Use Case: OSPF is frequently used in larger, more intricate networks, such as
businesses and Internet service providers (ISPs).
Operation: OSPF creates and keeps an up-to-date map of the entire network,
complete with linkages and router status. Based on this extensive topology
data, it determines the shortest path to a destination.
Convergence: Because it can swiftly respond to changes in network
conditions by recalculating routes using the most recent topology information,
OSPF enables faster convergence than RIP.
Metrics: OSPF utilizes a cost measure that is more adaptable and
customizable and can be based on variables like bandwidth or delay. Better
pathways have lower cost values.
Note: While OSPF’s advanced link-state methodology and quick convergence
make it perfect for bigger, more dynamic network environments, RIP’s
simplicity makes it acceptable for smaller networks.
3. Security Protocols:
Network communication must include security procedures that protect data
confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity.

These protocols protect the data as it travels over a network. These protocols
also define the network’s data security measures against unauthorized
attempts to access or review data. These protocols ensure that all approved
hardware, software, or services can access network data. These protocols
primarily rely on encryption to protect data.
SSL/TLS:

Secure Sockets Layer/Transport Layer Security, or SSL/TLS, is a type of

security protocol.
The SSL/TLS protocols are created to create safe and secure
communications between clients (like web browsers) and servers (like web
servers). Sensitive data is kept private and unchanged while in transit, thanks
to their protection.
Data is encoded using encryption algorithms by SSL/TLS, rendering it
unintelligible to anyone attempting to eavesdrop on the transmission. Data
confidentiality and integrity tests to identify tampering are both included in this
encryption.
SSL/TLS is frequently used in a variety of internet services, including:
Online banking: Safeguards sensitive banking data and financial activities.
E-commerce: Protects personal information and credit card information when
making purchases online.
Secure communication: Assures discrete and private communication using
VPNs, email, and instant messaging.
Web browsing: SSL/TLS, which is denoted by the prefix https:// in URLs, is
essential for ensuring secure access to websites.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS):

Security Protocol, a component of SSL/TLS

The goal of HTTPS is to protect data transfer between a web browser (the
client) and a web server. Data is encrypted while being transmitted,
guaranteeing the confidentiality and security of critical information, including
login credentials, payment card information, and personal data.
Web browsing is made secure by using HTTPS. Websites that use HTTPS
are identified by the prefix https:// in their URLs, which is frequently followed
by a padlock icon in the address bar of the browser. This shows that secure
communication on the website is enabled by SSL/TLS encryption.
Examples: HTTPS secures user data in online banking, e-commerce sites,
email services, and other applications.
4. Management Protocol
These protocols outline the procedures and policies that keep the computer
network monitored, maintained, and managed. These protocols also assist in
distributing these requirements across the network to guarantee reliable
communication. To diagnose connections between a host and a client,
network management protocols can also be employed.

ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)

Network devices employ ICMP, which operates at Layer 3 of the network
layer, to report errors, conduct diagnostics, and transmit operational data. It
manages activities, including network troubleshooting, error warnings, and
congestion reporting.
SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol):
Network nodes are managed through the application layer (Layer 7) protocol
known as SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol). The controlled
device, SNMP manager, and agent are its three main components. Local
management information is stored by the SNMP agent, which translates it for
the SNMP manager. To monitor network performance, identify bugs, and
conduct troubleshooting, the manager presents data. To administer networks
effectively, SNMP is essential.
Gopher:
An older file retrieval protocol called Gopher was created to organize, retrieve,
and search files effectively. On a distant computer, it sets up downloadable
files with descriptions in a hierarchical structure. Although Gopher was initially
employed, it is now less frequently seen.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
The transfer of files to or from a host computer is facilitated by the client-
server protocol FTP. Using FTP, users can download documents, software,
web pages, and other resources from other services.
POP3 (Post Office Protocol Version 3)
POP3 is a protocol that local mail clients use to connect to a remote email
server and download emails. ISPs frequently use POP3 to store and retrieve
emails for their customers. Once the email client has obtained these emails,
they are finally downloaded and typically deleted from the server.
Telnet:
Telnet is a protocol that enables remote connectivity by allowing users to
connect to and use a remote computer program. To help remote sessions, it
creates a link between a host computer and a distant endpoint. Telnet enables
users to communicate with and control software on distant systems.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite
The fundamental set of protocols that supports the Internet and permits
communication between devices on computer networks is the TCP/IP protocol
suite. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP) are two
of its most well-known protocols, and they serve as its namesakes. Here is a
description of the TCP/IP model’s layers:

1. Link Layer (or Network Interface Layer):

Managing the physical and data-link components of local network

communication depends on the Link Layer.

It is in charge of guaranteeing dependable data transfer between devices

inside the same network segment and transmitting data across the local
network medium, including Ethernet and Wi-Fi.

This layer is the fundamental building block for local network communication
by utilizing specialized protocols like Ethernet and ARP (Address Resolution
Protocol) to enable effective data packaging and transfer.

2. Internet Layer (or Network Layer):

The Network Layer, commonly called the Internet Layer, is crucial in ensuring
that data packets are routed across connected networks and arrive at their
intended locations.

This layer handles the difficult task of ensuring data packets take the right
path through various routers and networks.

The Internet Layer’s primary protocol for addressing, routing, and forwarding
data packets is the Internet Protocol (IP), which includes IPv4 and IPv6.

3. Transport Layer

The Transport Layer is in charge of overseeing end-to-end communication

among devices that might be found on various networks.

Its main goals are to make sure that data is delivered reliably, to find and fix
any transmission problems that might happen, and to control data flow to
avoid congestion.
The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which is renowned for its
dependability and connection-oriented communication, and the User
Datagram Protocol (UDP), which is favoured for its connectionless
methodology and little overhead, are important transport layer protocols.

4. Application Layer

User-level communication and interaction with network services happen at the

application layer. Users access a variety of capabilities and services offered
by applications through this layer, which acts as their interface.

To facilitate particular tasks, various application protocols are used within the
application layer.

How Protocols Work

The fundamental rules and conventions known as protocols allow for efficient
communication between devices on computer networks. They are essential in
ensuring that data is correctly delivered, received, and interpreted. Here is a
description of how protocols operate, with an emphasis on the function of
headers, data packets, and handshaking:

1. Header

Protocols use headers to include crucial metadata and details about the
transferred data. The source and destination addresses, data type, sequence
numbers, and error-checking details could all be included in the metadata.

Function: Headers are an essential part of data packets because they give the
data they contain context. They assist gadgets with appropriately interpreting
incoming data and choosing how to handle it. Headers are essential for
guaranteeing data integrity and directing data to the right location.

2. Data Packets

Before transmission, data is broken up into more manageable, smaller units

known as data packets.
Function: Data packets serve as a means of dependable and effective data
transfer. Typically, each packet includes a portion of the data and the header
that goes with it. This separation makes transmission easier, lowers the
possibility of data loss, and enables more effective network routing.

3. Handshaking
In many protocols, especially connection-oriented ones like TCP, handshaking
is a step in the process.

Function: To establish, maintain, and terminate a connection, handshaking

includes a series of messages being sent and received. It makes sure that
everyone is prepared to transfer data and that everyone is in agreement on
key terms like data size, sequence numbers, and error-checking techniques.
The dependability and orderliness of data exchange are improved by shaking
hands.

Here is a condensed illustration of how protocols operate:

Initiation: A device (the sender) starts a conversation by sending a message

or request.
Header Inclusion: When sending data, the sender inserts headers with
important details like the source and destination addresses.
Packetization: Data is organized into packets, each with a unique header,
using packetization.
Transmission: The chosen protocol is used to send the packets over the
network. To get there, they might take different paths.
Reception: The packets are received by the receiver’s device, which utilizes
the headers to determine how to reassemble the contents appropriately.
Acknowledgement: In many protocols, the receiver confirms that it has
received the packets or, in the event of mistakes, asks for the retransmission
of any that were lost.
Data processing: After receiving and verifying each packet, the receiver can
proceed with the intended data processing.
Termination: To end communication politely after data transmission is
complete, devices may engage in a termination handshake.
Protocol Standards
The foundation of interoperability in the world of computer networks and
communication is standardized protocols. They are essential for enabling
efficient and reliable interaction across systems, programs, and tolls made by
various companies and developers.

They offer a solid basis that simplifies development complexity and enables
networks to scale effectively. Their thorough testing ensures resilience and
makes flawless communication possible everywhere, improving global
connectivity. Standardized protocols that support interoperability, scalability,
stability, and worldwide connectivity are essentially the foundations of
contemporary networking.

Standardization Organizations:
IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force): The IETF is a well-known group in
charge of creating and upholding Internet-related standards. It concentrates
on several subjects, including networking, security, and protocols. Experts
from all over the world participate in the IETF’s open and collaborative
process to develop and improve standards like TCP/IP.
IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers): Dedicated to
developing technology, IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers)
is a multinational organization. In electrical and electronics engineering, in
particular, it is crucial to develop standards. IEEE standards cover networking
aspects, such as Ethernet (IEEE 802.3) and Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11).
ISO (International Organization for Standardization): Information technology is
one of the fields for which ISO produces worldwide standards. Despite not
being specifically about networking, ISO standards can impact the protocols
and practices used in networks.
W3C (World Wide Web Consortium): The (W3C) is an organization that works
on online-related standards, such as HTML, CSS, and web accessibility.
These guidelines guarantee that users of various platforms and devices will
have an accessible and uniform web experience.
Wireless Protocols (in Communication)
Wireless communication protocols have revolutionized how we connect and
communicate in the digital age. Cellular specifications, including 3
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is an internet standard for sending and
receiving emails. It’s used by email clients and servers to deliver messages to
and from mail servers.

Here's how SMTP works:

Initiation: The sender’s email client or server acts as the SMTP client and
connects to the sender’s email server, which acts as the SMTP server.
Transmission: The client sends the email, including the recipient, subject, and
body.

Delivery: The server forwards the email to its final destination.

SMTP is a mail delivery protocol, not a mail retrieval protocol. Separate

protocols are used to retrieve emails from the mail server so the recipient can
read them.

Some disadvantages of SMTP include:

Firewalls can block SMTP’s common port.
SMTP’s simplicity may limit its usefulness.
SMTP servers may reject messages that are longer than a certain length.
Sending a message may involve additional back-and-forth processing
between servers, which may delay or prevent delivery.

The Gopher protocol is a communication protocol that allows users to search,

retrieve, and distribute documents on the internet. It was developed in 1991 at
the University of Minnesota and was originally designed to meet the campus’
need for an information system.

Here are some features of the Gopher protocol:

Menu-driven interface
Gopher provides a hierarchical, menu-driven interface for accessing files and
documents on remote web servers.

Text and multimedia support

Gopher was originally only compatible with text files and documents, but later
added support for some multimedia formats like GIF and JPEG.

Simplicity
Gopher is a simple protocol that some users prefer over more complex
protocols.

Plain text
All information sent and received over Gopher is in plain text, which makes it
susceptible to interception and modification.
Browser support
Not all browsers support Gopher, or have incomplete support.

Gopher was a competitor to the World Wide Web in the 1990s, but HTTP
eventually took over as the dominant protocol. However, there is still a
community of Gopher users who prefer its simplicity.

What is Telnet?
Telnet is a network protocol used to virtually access a computer and provide a
two-way, collaborative and text-based communication channel between two
machines.

It follows a user command TCP/IP networking protocol that creates remote

sessions. On the web, HTTP and File Transfer Protocol (FTP) enable users to
request specific files from remote computers. With Telnet, users can log on as
a regular user with privileges that allow them to access the specific
applications and data on that computer.

An abstract example of the syntax for a Telnet command request is as follows:

telnet the.libraryat.whatis.edu
The result of this request would be an invitation to log on with a user ID, and
the program would prompt the user for a password. If the computer accepts
the user, it grants them access to the remote host.

Program developers and anyone who needs to use specific applications or

data located at a remote machines are more likely to use Telnet.

How Telnet works

Telnet is a type of client-server protocol that opens a command line on a
remote computer, typically a server. Users can use this tool to ping a port and
find out if it’s open.

Telnet works with a virtual terminal connection emulator, which is an abstract

instance of a connection to a computer, and uses standard protocols to act
like a physical terminal connected to a machine. Telnet also sometimes uses
FTP to help users send data files.
Users connect remotely to a machine with Telnet. This is sometimes referred
to as Telnetting into the system. Telnet prompts users to enter their
usernames and passwords to access the remote computer, which enables
command lines to run as if users are logged in to the computers in person. A
user’s IP address matches the computer they’re logged in to rather than the
one physically used to connect.

What is an email protocol?

Email protocol is a set of rules defined to ensure that emails can be
exchanged between various servers and email clients in a standard manner.
This ensures that the email is universal and works for all users.

Example:

A sender using an Apple email client with a Gmail server can send an email to
another user using a Zoho mail server on an Outlook email client. This is
possible because the servers and the email clients follow the rules and
standards defined by the email protocols.

Why do we need email protocols?

Consider the difference between sending a message via a messaging
platform like WhatsApp and sending an email. When you send a message
using WhatsApp, the recipient will also use WhatsApp to read the messages.
The server which processes the message is also the WhatsApp server. The
same platform is used in the server and the client, and hence the entire flow of
data is handled by the serving platform in a custom manner.

In the case of email, the sender, recipients, and servers involved can all be
different but then they need to receive the data, decipher the content and
render it in the same way the sender has sent it. Email protocols define how
the email message has to be encoded, how it needs to be sent, received,
rendered, and so on, and hence they are essential. While email protocols
make the process behind emails a bit complex, the protocols ensure that
email is a standard, reliable, and universal mode of communication.

What are the different email protocols?

The common protocols for email delivery are Post Office Protocol (POP),
Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP), and Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
(SMTP). Each of these protocols has a standard methodology to deal with the
emails and also has defined functions.

POP Protocol
POP stands for Post Office Protocol. Email clients use the POP protocol
support in the server to download the emails. This is primarily a one-way
protocol and does not sync back the emails to the server.

IMAP Protocol
IMAP stands for Internet Message Access Protocol. IMAP Protocol is used to
sync the emails in the server with the email clients. It allows two-way sync of
emails between the server and the email client, while the emails are stored on
the server.

SMTP Protocol
SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. SMTP is the principal email
protocol that is responsible for the transfer of emails between email clients
and email servers.

Email clients and email protocols

Email clients use Mail Access protocols like the POP/ IMAP protocols to
retrieve/ sync emails from the server. Basically, mail access protocols are
used to download or sync emails from the server.

Email clients use transfer protocol – the SMTP protocol to transfer/ send
emails through the server. These protocols are quintessential to ensure that
users have the independence to use the email application of their choice, on
their own devices. Email clients depend on these protocols to send/ receive
emails using a user account that is created in an email server.
Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) is a simple, internet-standard protocol for
transferring files between computers and servers:

How it works
TFTP is a lockstep protocol that allows a client to send or receive a file from a
remote host. It uses the connectionless datagram delivery service (UDP).

When it’s used

TFTP is often used in the early stages of booting a node from a local area
network. It’s also used in embedded devices, like thin clients, to get files from
a server at bootup time.

Features
TFTP is faster than some other protocols, but it’s also less secure. It’s
generally used for transferring small files.

Comparison to other protocols

TFTP is simpler and smaller in code size than other file transfer protocols, like
FTP or HTTP. This makes it easier to implement.

To copy a file from a remote host using TFTP, you must have read permission
for the directory that contains the file. To copy a file to a remote host, you
must have write permission for the directory where the file is to be placed.

Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is an industry standard

protocol that allows network administrators to monitor and manage devices on
IP networks. SNMP is part of the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol (TCP/IP) family.

Here are some things SNMP can do:

Collect and organize data: SNMP can gather and organize information about
devices on a network.
Modify device behavior: SNMP can change device behavior by modifying the
information collected about them.
Detect and correct problems: SNMP can help network administrators detect
and correct network problems.

Reduce manual monitoring: SNMP can reduce the need for manual
monitoring of individual network components.

Identify growth needs: SNMP can help identify when and where a network
might need to grow.

SNMP works by using SNMP agents, probes, and a network management

system (NMS):
SNMP agents
These are software modules that run on managed devices and send and
receive SNMP information.

NMS
This is a centralized console that receives information from the SNMP agents.
The NMS can request updates from the agents at regular intervals.

SNMP manager
This is an entity that receives data from the SNMP agents. A user can install a
SNMP v3 manager program to view SNMP notifications.

Hypertext Transfer (HTTP) Protocol

What is Hypertext Transfer (HTTP) Protocol?
The Hypertext Transfer Protocol is an application protocol for distributed,
collaborative, hypermedia information systems that allows users to
communicate data on the World Wide Web. HTTP was invented alongside
HTML to create the first interactive, text-based web browser: the original
World Wide Web. Today, the protocol remains one of the primary means of
using the Internet.

What is the purpose of HTTP

As a request-response protocol, HTTP gives users a way to interact with web
resources such as HTML files by transmitting hypertext messages between
clients and servers. HTTP clients generally use Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP) connections to communicate with servers.

HTTP utilizes specific request methods in order to perform various tasks. All
HTTP servers use the GET and HEAD methods, but not all support the rest of
these request methods:

GET requests a specific resource in its entirety

HEAD requests a specific resource without the body content
POST adds content, messages, or data to a new page under an existing web
resource
PUT directly modifies an existing web resource or creates a new URI if need
be
DELETE gets rid of a specified resource
TRACE shows users any changes or additions made to a web resource
OPTIONS shows users which HTTP methods are available for a specific URL
CONNECT converts the request connection to a transparent TCP/IP tunnel
PATCH partially modifies a web resource

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Client Server Computing
Computer EngineeringMCAOperating System

In client server computing, the clients requests a resource and the server
provides that resource. A server may serve multiple clients at the same time
while a client is in contact with only one server. Both the client and server
usually communicate via a computer network but sometimes they may reside
in the same system.

An Illustration of the client server system is given as follows –

Client Server Architecture

Characteristics of Client Server Computing

The salient points for client server computing are as follows:

The client server computing works with a system of request and response.
The client sends a request to the server and the server responds with the
desired information.
The client and server should follow a common communication protocol so
they can easily interact with each other. All the communication protocols are
available at the application layer.
A server can only accommodate a limited number of client requests at a time.
So it uses a system based to priority to respond to the requests.
Denial of Service attacks hindera servers ability to respond to authentic client
requests by inundating it with false requests.
An example of a client server computing system is a web server. It returns the
web pages to the clients that requested them.
Ezoic
Difference between Client Server Computing and Peer to Peer Computing
The major differences between client server computing and peer to peer
computing are as follows:

In client server computing, a server is a central node that services many client
nodes. On the other hand, in a peer to peer system, the nodes collectively use
their resources and communicate with each other.
In client server computing the server is the one that communicates with the
other nodes. In peer to peer to computing, all the nodes are equal and share
data with each other directly.
Client Server computing is believed to be a subcategory of the peer to peer
computing.
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Advantages of Client Server Computing

The different advantages of client server computing are –

All the required data is concentrated in a single place i.e. the server. So it is
easy to protect the data and provide authorisation and authentication.
The server need not be located physically close to the clients. Yet the data
can be accessed efficiently.
It is easy to replace, upgrade or relocate the nodes in the client server model
because all the nodes are independent and request data only from the server.
All the nodes i.e clients and server may not be build on similar platforms yet
they can easily facilitate the transfer of data.
Ezoic
Disadvantages of Client Server Computing
The different disadvantages of client server computing are –

If all the clients simultaneously request data from the server, it may get
overloaded. This may lead to congestion in the network.
If the server fails for any reason, then none of the requests of the clients can
be fulfilled. This leads of failure of the client server network.
The cost of setting and maintaining a client server model are quite high.