Question 1

Classroom management a necessity to improve student’s behavior. Discuss

Solution

Effective classroom management is a critical component of creating a positive and productive learning
environment. When teachers implement sound classroom management strategies, it can have a
significant impact on student behavior and academic outcomes.

Here are some key reasons why classroom management is a necessity to improve student behavior:

1. Establishes clear expectations and routines:

Good classroom management involves setting clear behavioral expectations and establishing consistent
routines. When students understand the rules and expectations, it helps them feel secure and provides a
framework for appropriate behavior.

2. Promotes Self-discipline:

Well managed classrooms encourage students to develop self-discipline. By teaching students to take
responsibility for their actions and fellow procedures, they learn to regulate their own behavior, which
can lead to improve behavior overtime.

3. Minimize disruptive behaviours:

Effective classroom management techniques, such as proactive monitoring, positive enforcement and
consistent consequences can help prevent and minimize disruptive behaviours in the classroom. This
creates an environment that is conducive to learning.

4. Fosters a positive learning environment

When classroom management is effective, it can foster a positive and supportive learning environment.
Students feel safe, respected and empowered to engage in learning which can positively impact their
behavior and academic performance

5. Improves Instructional time

By reducing disruptive behaviours and maintaining well managed classroom, teachers can maximize
instructional time and focus on delivering quality lessons. This can lead to increased student
engagement and better academic outcomes.

6. Models appropriate behavior

Through the consistent implementation of classroom management strategies, teachers can model
appropriate behavior and social skills for students. This can help students learn and internalize positive
behaviours.

To implement effective classroom management, teachers can employ a variety of strategies, such as
establishing clear rules and consequences using positive reinforcement, implementing effective
behavior management techniques and fostering positive relationships with students.

By prioritizing classroom management, teachers can create an environment that supports and
encourages positive student’s behavior, ultimately enhancing the overall learning experience and
academic success of their students.

The Importance of Effective Classroom Management

The ability of teachers to organize classrooms and manage the behavior of their students is critical to
achieving positive educational outcomes. Although sound behavior management does not guarantee
effective instruction, it establishes the environmental context that makes good instruction possible.
Reciprocally, highly effective instruction reduces, but does not eliminate, classroom behavior problems
(Emmer & Stough, 2001).

A significant body of research also attests to the fact that classroom organization and behavior
management competencies significantly influence the persistence of new teachers in teaching careers
(Ingersoll & Smith, 2003). New teachers typically express concerns about lacking effective means to
handle the significant disruptive behavior of students (Browers & Tomic, 2000). Teachers who have
problems with behavior management and classroom discipline are frequently ineffective in the
classroom, and they often report high levels of stress and symptoms of burnout (Berliner, 1986; Browers
& Tomic, 2000; Espin & Yell, 1994). Disruptive classroom behavior is a significant reason why
teachers leave the profession (Ingersoll & Smith, 2003).

Disruptive behavior is a particular problem in classrooms of economically disadvantaged students

(Kellam, Ling, Merisca, Brown, & Ialongo, 1998). Thus, the ability of teachers to prevent or address
disruptive behavior becomes especially important in the context of the No Child Left Behind (NCLB)
Act of 2001 and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA) of 2004. These
federal laws place a high priority on improving results for students with historically low achievement
(e.g., economically disadvantaged students) and students with disabilities. In addition, these laws
embrace the following: teacher quality as a critical factor affecting student achievement; the
amelioration of learning and behavioral disorders; and broad educational outcomes for students, such
as high school completion and participation in postsecondary education and careers.

The inability of teachers to effectively manage classroom behavior often contributes to the low
achievement of at-risk students and to their excessive referrals for special education (Donovan & Cross,
2002; Harrell, Leavell, van Tassel, & McKee, 2004). These effects are exacerbated by the current
pattern of teacher distribution, which reveals a disproportionate assignment of less qualified and less
experienced teachers to classrooms with economically disadvantaged children (Clotfelter, Ladd, &
Vigdor, 2005; Clotfelter, Ladd, Vigdor, & Wheeler, 2007; Peske & Haycock, 2006). Thus, many of the
least capable teachers begin their careers teaching the most challenging students—with the predictable
result being low student achievement.

In addition to inappropriate assignment, inadequate preparation and inadequate professional

development are other major contributing factors to the classroom management problems faced by new
teachers. Although the importance of effective classroom organization and behavior management is
widely acknowledged by educators, many new teachers report inadequate training and little assistance
from colleagues and supervisors in establishing positive and productive classroom environments
(Baker, 2005; Siebert, 2005). Teacher educators insist that their preparation programs teach classroom
organization and behavior management skills, but the indication is that such skills are not taught
thoroughly or with adequate supervision in a real classroom context (Siebert, 2005). The absence of
supervised experience and professional development in the critical competencies of classroom
organization and behavior management significantly reduces the effectiveness of many teachers,
especially new teachers (Berliner, 1986; Espin & Yell, 1994).

The purpose of this paper is to provide research and recommendations related to teacher quality and
effectiveness, specifically addressing the area of classroom management to improve outcomes in
general and special education. Focusing on classroom organization and behavior management is
necessary as a preventive approach for students who are at-risk for poor educational outcomes due to
poverty, language status, minority status, and disabilities. This focus also is relevant to the general
education classroom, where increasing numbers of students with disabilities are receiving instruction.

The paper begins with a discussion of teacher preparation and professional development in classroom
organization and management. It provides a tool outlining effective classroom management strategies
to highlight the specific content and level of training that should be addressed in preservice teacher
preparation. Next, it presents research and recommendations for improving teacher preparation. Finally,
it outlines recommendations for improving professional development efforts.

Conclusion

The ability of teachers to organize classrooms and manage the behavior of their students is critical to
positive educational outcomes. Comprehensive teacher preparation and professional development in
effective classroom organization and behavior management is therefore needed to improve outcomes
for students in general and special education.
Teacher preparation programs should provide both special education and general education teacher
candidates with coursework and guided practice with feedback on instructional approaches to classroom
management. Highly effective instruction does not completely eliminate problem behavior, but it will
reduce such behavior by encouraging higher rates of academic engagement and on-task behavior. Also,
highly effective instruction makes classroom organization and behavior management significantly
easier.

Teacher preparation programs and school systems also should address the challenges facing new
teachers in creating a positive classroom context. This goal can be accomplished by providing content
and supervised experience related to the components of classroom management outlined in the
Classroom Organization and Behavior Management Innovation Configuration. Effective classroom
management requires a comprehensive approach, including structuring the school and classroom
environment, employing active supervision of student engagement, implementing classroom rules and
routines, enacting procedures to encourage appropriate behavior, using behavior reduction strategies,
and collecting and using data to monitor student behavior and modifying classroom management
procedures as needed.

Ongoing professional development should be created to assist educators with establishing school wide
behavior systems. School wide behavioral support is the framework for prevention and the foundation
for effective classroom organization and management. When the school context is positive and
predictable, implementing classroom-level behavior support becomes easier and practices are more
likely to be sustained (Sugai & Horner, 2006). Use of the Classroom Organization and Behavior
Management Innovation Configuration can provide teacher preparation programs and school systems
with identifiable gaps in content knowledge and application of the major components of classroom
management. Partnerships with professional development schools, education resource centers, or
institutions of higher education are all ways that school systems can access resources and support.

With the combined efforts of all stakeholders, the appropriate policies, incentives, and practices can be
put into place. This approach will ensure that teachers can acquire the knowledge and skills necessary
to manage classrooms effectively, thereby maximizing learning opportunities for all students,
preventing disruptive behavior, and responding appropriately to the inappropriate behavior that
inevitably will occur. Improving teacher quality through effective classroom organization and behavior
management is an important step in improving outcomes in general and special education for all
students.
Question 2

Elaborate on how the play helps children’s development

Solution

Play is a crucial aspect of child development as it helps children in various ways. Play fosters cognitive
development by allowing children to explore, experiment and problem solve. Through play, they
develop critical thinking skills, creativity and a deeper understanding of the world around them.
Engaging in imaginative play also helps children develop language and communication skills as they
express their thoughts and ideas.

There is a considerable body of research which is indicative, relating children’s play and aspects of their
learning and development. This evidence includes work in evolutionary and developmental psychology,
anthropology, neuroscience and educational studies. However, while researchers in these fields have
hypothesized about how play might enhance child outcomes, much of this evidence merely establishes
associations rather than firm, causal relationships. In fact, there is little or no conclusive evidence
regarding possible explanatory mechanisms.

Physical play

This type of play is the earliest to evolve and can be observed in most, if not all, mammals, and arguably
some reptiles and amphibians. In human children it includes activity play (e.g. jumping, climbing,
dancing, skipping, bike riding and ball play), fine-motor practice (e.g. sewing, colouring, cutting, junk
modelling and manipulating action toys and construction toys) and what is usually referred to as ‘rough
and-tumble’ (play fighting with friends, siblings or caregivers).

Amongst particular studies focusing on physical activity play, Colwell & Lindsey (2005), in a study
with 4-6-year-olds, focused on outcomes, in same-sex and mixed-sex play, for peer acceptance and
teacher ratings of social competence. For girls, but not for boys, same-sex physical activity play was
associated with these outcomes. Becker et al. (2014) used accelerometers to assess preschool children’s
level of physical activity and found a medium level correlation (0.46) with cognitive self-regulation,
measured using the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders Task (HTKS) test. There was also a significant
indirect effect of active play on maths and literacy scores via the HTKS test, leading to the conclusion
that self-regulation mediates a relationship between active play and school achievement. However,
Lehrer, Petrakos & Venkatesh (2014), in a study with 6-7-year-olds, failed to find any significant
relationships between the amount of out- of-school time they engaged in active physical play and
measures of school achievement, ‘adaptive’ behaviours and creativity.

As regards rough-and-tumble play, Bjorklund & Brown (1998) suggested that it facilitates development
of social cognition through the coding and decoding of social cues or signals. While, in their review of
the empirical evidence in the same year, Pellegrini & Smith (1998) found minimal support for this
hypothesis, more recent studies have reported evidence in its support.

Physically, play encourages the development of motor skills, coordination and physical fitness.
Activities like running, jumping and climbing help children improve their gross motor skills while fine
motor skills are enhanced through manipulative play with toys and other objects.

Pellis & Pellis (2009), for example, reviewed a series of studies with simple mammals, mainly rats,
showing that ‘there is a mechanism by which experiences accrued during play fighting can improve
social competence’. Similarly, Brussoni et al. (2015), in their very recent review of empirical research
on ‘risky outdoor play’, reported studies showing relationships between rough-and-tumble play and
enhanced levels of social competence. In one study, for example, moderate to large positive
correlations, for popular children and for boys (but not for rejected children and girls), were found
between rough-and-tumble play and higher interpersonal cognitive problem- solving scores. Colwell &
Lindsey (2005) also found these kinds of differential relationships according to gender. They reported
that, for boys (but not girls), same-sex rough-and-tumble play was associated with same-sex peer
acceptance and teachers’ ratings of social competence. Interestingly, however, boys’ rough-and-tumble
play with mixed-sex peers was negatively associated with peer acceptance and teachers’ ratings of
social competence. Fletcher, St. George & Freeman (2012) developed a new measure of rough-and-
tumble play between fathers and 3-4 year olds and investigated its relation to scores on the Strengths
and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). They reported negative correlations of father-child rough-and-
tumble play with father reports of SDQ conduct and peer problems, with mother reports of emotional
problems, and with both mother- and father-reported total problems scores.

Play with objects

This type of play, which is also widely observed in primates, concerns children’s developing
explorations of the world and the objects they find within it. It also has interesting and important links
to physical play – particularly in fine motor development and pretence when it involves building models
of real or imaginary objects and creatures, and imagining a scenario or narrative.

Play with objects begins as soon as infants can grasp and hold on to them; early investigative behaviours
include mouthing/biting, rotating while looking, rubbing/stroking, hitting and dropping. This might be
described as ‘sensori-motor’ play when the child is exploring how objects and materials feel and behave.
From around 18-24 months, toddlers begin to arrange objects, which gradually develops into sorting
and classifying activities. By the age of 4 years, building, making and constructing behaviours emerge.

While there have been no systematic reviews published in this area, there has been a fair amount of
empirical study. A number of key theoretical contributions also underpin the empirical work in relation
to this type of play. First, it is in play with objects that it is claimed that young children start to develop
their representational abilities.

A major spur to empirical investigation of play with objects was the seminal study conducted by Bruner
exploring this hypothesis with colleagues. In his study of play with objects and problem-solving (Sylva,
Bruner and Genova, 1976) two groups of matched 3-5-year-olds were presented with a practical
problem to solve. Beforehand, however, one group were given the opportunity to play with the objects
involved, while the other group were ‘taught’ how to use the objects in ways which would help solve
the problem. The results, perhaps surprisingly, appeared to support the hypothesis, revealing that the
children who had the experience of playing beforehand with the objects were more inventive in devising
strategies to solve the problem and persevered longer if their initial attempts did not work, ultimately
leading to higher levels of full or partial success.

Socially and emotionally, play enables children to develop empathy, cooperation and conflict resolution
skills. Group play scenarios allow them to navigate social interactions, negotiate and learn to regulate
their emotions. A group of studies have exploited the advantages of longitudinal designs in investigating
the impact of particular play experiences on language development. These studies have also commonly
compared the impact of purely functional object play with that of pretence using objects. Ungerer &
Sigman (1984), for example, carried out an observational longitudinal study of play with toys with
infants aged 13.5 and 22 months. At the younger age, playing with objects in a conventional, functional
way predicted language scores at 22 months, but at 22 months only pretend play with objects related to
language. This suggests the possibility of a developmental trend in play with objects and language,
where more functional forms of object play may help lay the foundations for language development,
along the lines suggested by Stroud, then pretend play extends this as children enter toddlerhood. A
longitudinal study by Lyytinen, Laakso, Poikkeus & Rita (1999) with 171 children aged 14, 18 and 24
months confirmed this view, showing that, when the children played alone, functional and
combinatorial play with objects did not relate to language development, but pretend play with objects
did.

Symbolic play

We now come to types of play which are engaged in only by humans, mainly because they rely on our
incomparable symbolic representational abilities. The first of the types, which we are referring to as
symbolic play, concerns play with the various symbolic representational systems we use to make and
communicate meaning. For this reason, an alternative name for this type of play might be ‘semiotic’
play.

This type of play emerges in children from around the age of 12 months when they first begin to
intentionally use sounds to convey meaning (although it could be argued that they play with sounds, in
babbling, much earlier and also with gestures, which are used to convey meaning during the first year
of life). Progressively during early childhood, these aspects are an important element within children’s
play and learning when they begin to master a range of ‘symbolic’ systems, including spoken language,
various visual media, mark making/writing, number, music and so on.

Theoretically, therefore, it might be presumed that this type of play would support their developing
technical abilities to express their ideas, feelings and experiences through these various media.
However, while there is a general presumption that this is the case, with the exception of language and
literacy, there is a death of rigorous scientific studies examining the impact of symbolic play on
development. As a consequence, there appear to be no overall systematic reviews in this area. Given
that the studies in this area each address one specific symbolic system, this section is divided into
separate reviews relating to the different media.

Despite their accepted prevalence in the activities of young children, the role of other forms of symbolic
or semiotic play in development have been even more sparsely researched. In relation to musical play,
for example, it is a common observation that children sing, dance and delight in exploring and making
sounds of all kinds, with their own bodies and with all kinds of objects. There is also a significant body
of theory suggesting influence on development arising from these activities. Trevarthen (see Malloch
& Trevarthen, 2009), for example, has demonstrated the ‘musicality’ of early infant-mother interactions
and argued for the importance of the infant’s innate response to rhythm and sounds in establishing early
communicative abilities.

The final aspect of symbolic or semiotic play to be significantly theorized and researched concerns
children’s drawing. Like language and musical play, play with mark-making and drawing is ubiquitous
in the behaviour of children across cultures, and is widely accepted as an important way in which
children, even before they are literate, record their experiences and express their ideas. Vygotsky (1986)
himself pointed out the very close links between early drawing and writing which is very commonly
observed in young children’s mark-making. However, research in this area has largely confined itself
to understanding the developmental processes that lead to children drawing as they do.

Thomas & Silk (1990) and Cox (1992), for example, pioneered work of this kind. Ring (2010)
documents very persuasively the role of drawing as a tool for children to make meaning from their
experiences and their worlds, and argues passionately and persuasively for the importance of continuous
provision for playful drawing in early years educational settings. In our increasingly visual world, this
would seem to be an eminently sound proposition. However, no studies appear to have been carried out
that unambiguously demonstrate an impact on development of children’s play with drawing or any other
kind of visual representational media.

Benefits of play
There are many benefits to play. Children gain knowledge through their play. They learn to think,
remember, and solve problems. Play gives children the opportunity to test their beliefs about the world.

Children increase their problem-solving abilities through games and puzzles. Children involved in
make-believe play can stimulate several types of learning. Children can strengthen their language skills
by modeling other children and adults. Playing house helps children create stories about their roles,
such as “I am the Mom.” They also imitate their own family experiences. This helps children learn
about the different roles of family members.

Children gain an understanding of size, shape, and texture through play. It helps them learn relationships
as they try to put a square object in a round opening or a large object in a small space. Books, games,
and toys that show pictures and matching words add to a child's vocabulary. It also helps a child's
understanding of the world. Play allows children to be creative while developing their own
imaginations. It is important to healthy brain development. Play is the first opportunity for your child
to discover the world in which he lives. Play offers a child the ability to master skills that will help
develop self-confidence and the ability to recover quickly from setbacks. For example, a child may feel
pride in stacking blocks and disappointment when the last block makes the stack fall. Play allows
children to express their views, experiences and at times, frustrations.

Play with other children helps a child learn how to be part of a group. Play allows a child to learn the
skills of negotiation, problem solving, sharing, and working within groups. Children practice decision-
making skills, move at their own pace and discover their own interests during play.

Unstructured play may lead to more physical movement and healthier children. Play is important when
your child enters school. Play can assist children in adjusting to a school setting. It enhances children’s
learning readiness and their cognitive development by allowing them to move from subject and area
without of the fear of failure. Playtime in school such as recess time, allows learning and practicing of
basic social skills. Children develop a sense of self, learn to interact with other children, how to make
friends, and the importance of role-playing. Exploratory play in school allows children time to discover
and manipulate their surroundings.

Overall, play is not just a means of entertainment but a vital component of a child’s holistic
development, supporting their cognitive, physical, social and emotional growth.
Question 3

Discuss cultural issues in communicating with children of 0 to 8 years

Solution

Communicating effectively with children aged 0 to 8 years while considering cultural factors is an
important aspect of child development and engagement.

Here are some key cultural issues to consider

1. Language and vocabulary

Children’s language skills develop at different paces and the vocabulary they are exposed to can vary
greatly based on cultural and linguistic backgrounds. Using simple, age-appropriate language and
avoiding complex terminology can help ensure understanding, regardless of the child’s cultural context.

2. Nonverbal communication

Culturally influenced nonverbal cues such as eye contact, body language, and physical touch, can
impact how children perceive and respond to communication. Being mindful of cultural norms and
adapting one’s nonverbal communication accordingly can foster better rapport and understanding

3. Parental involvement and expectations

Parenting styles and the level of involvement in a child’s education can differ across cultures which
may affect the child’s responsiveness and engagement. Understanding and respecting these cultural
differences can help practitioners collaborate effectively with parents and guardians.

4. Learning styles and performances

Children from diverse cultural backgrounds may have varied learning styles and performances such as
visual, auditory or kinesthetic approaches. Incorporating a range of teaching methods and activities can
accommodate these differences and ensure inclusive learning experiences.

5. Discipline and Behavior management

Cultural norms and beliefs can shape the way discipline and behavior management are approached
which may differ from the practitioner’s own cultural background.

Adapting discipline strategies to align with the child’s cultural context can help avoid
misunderstandings and promote positive behavior.

6. Inclusive Representation and Diversity

Providing children with materials, stories and images reflect their cultural backgrounds can foster a
sense of belonging and validate their experiences. Celebrating diversity and exposing children to a range
of cultural perspectives can promote cross cultural understanding and respect.

By acknowledging and addressing these cultural issues, practitioners can create an inclusive and
supportive environment that empowers children of diverse backgrounds to thrive in their development
and learning.

Children and young people occupy a very unique time in the human cycle that deserves our special
attention, and the best of our resources and investments. They are the major “social capital” of every
society concerned with change for a better today and for the future of its members: Their education
promises the chance of improving economic and social conditions; their positive socialization for
conflict resolution can help manage social clashes; their health and good nutrition can promote
longevity, lower social costs and lead to a better quality of life; and their psychological well-being has
the promise of a more resilient and culturally rich society. Most parents hope that their children will
have a better quality of life than they have, and most of them work hard towards achieving this goal.

Children’s communication rights

The rights of children, as delineated in the CRC, include a variety of communication rights: the right to
be heard and to be taken seriously; to free speech and to information; to maintain privacy; to develop
cultural identity; and to be proud of one’s heritage and beliefs. Yet, whether girls and boys live in
deprived and resource-poor societies, or in overwhelmingly commercialized and profit-driven ones,
their voices need to be heard and taken seriously; the possibility for expressing their needs and opinions
and their access to important information should be expanded. Communication efforts need to respect
children’s privacy and dignity and foster their self-esteem and confidence. Where efforts are made to
provide children a “voice,” it must be more than a token attempt that reflects the perspective of adults:
it should support their holistic development or problem-solving skills.

Rather than thinking of children as little people who are in the process of becoming fully grown adults,
many global child development experts suggest that we think of them as full human beings in their own
right: We need to fully recognize children, in each stage of their development, as having unique needs
and skills, as well as personal voices that deserve to be listened to with respect and empathy. For
example, it is not enough to have children appear in television or radio programmes, book illustrations,
posters, or another forms of media in order to make the materials “child-friendly”. Messages need to be
tailored for the specific child audience, and have to include their needs, perspectives and points of view
in order to relate to them in effective and helpful ways. The accumulated knowledge from years of
studying children and media demonstrates that children are active users of media: They react to, think,
feel and create their own meanings out of them. They bring to their media encounters a host of
predispositions, abilities, desires and experiences. They watch television or listen to stories in diverse
personal, social and cultural circumstances that also influence what they get out of the experience. We
must never assume that what we as adults need and take from media (such as television programmes,
magazine articles, oral stories, card games, posters), is the same as what children will get out of it.

Children’s diverse media environments

Children also differ in the access they have to different forms of media, such as books and magazines,
radio, television, computers, Internet, music-players and mobile phones. In some war and disaster-
affected areas, children may have no access to any form of media whatsoever. Most specifically, the
digital inequalities that characterize our world today confront us with a wide variety of challenges:
While some children live in media-rich environments and many media converge into a “screen culture”
that dominates their lives, others are still deprived of the most basic forms of communication technology
that characterize our global world.

In addition, several pilot projects around the world are introducing children to communication
technologies like the Internet and mobile phones on an experimental basis. However, the processes of
technological and cultural globalization are accelerating and access to various media is becoming more
common, even in remote places. But access alone is not enough in making a positive difference for
children. It is not only the ability to watch television or play computer games that may benefit them,
but the quality of television and computer content to which they are exposed. It is not the access to
mobile phones or the Internet that will provide children with opportunities for growth and development,
but the uses they are able to make of these media and the nature of the connections they foster. It is not
a matter of just developing a puppet show for children, but ensuring that the message is developmentally
and culturally appropriate as well as a catalyst for positive change.

Furthermore, while more advanced technologies are often cited as having an advantage for reaching
large numbers of children, in some instances, (for example, urban slum areas, and remote rural areas
that lack electrical access or emergencies) lower technologies might be more effective in reaching
specific populations. There is a need to develop creative ways to deliver content into disadvantaged
situations and effectively reach children who might otherwise be denied access. Simple methods can
range from mobile vans and rickshaws delivering video or audio content, to devices that do not even
use electricity, such as the bioscope, a device that uses photographic stills that are advanced by a hand
crank.

Child development and communication needs or skills.

When discussing the influences of media on children, it is critical to remember their age and
developmental stage. Children’s cognitive, emotional, physical and social skills develop as they go
through life. As they grow and mature, their needs, abilities, interests and challenges change (9). The
child’s development has direct implications to the way she or he may be able to benefit from media.
For example, the older children get, the longer their attention span grows. So while toddlers may be
able to listen to a story for only a few minutes at a time, preschoolers may be more attentive and older
children stay attuned for much longer. Similarly, while younger children may be able to comprehend
very simple language and concrete images, older children are able to process more complicated
linguistic and visual expressions.

Various psychological theories on human development are based on the concept of “stage”. The key to
stage theories is the understanding of stages as unique periods of development, with each stage typified
by its own special behavioural and cognitive characteristics. According to child development and
psychological research, all individuals progress through the same stages in a fixed chronological order,
although genetic and/or environmental factors can speed up or slow down the rate from one stage to
another.

Stages are perceived to be both hierarchical and integrative. This means that more advanced stages are
based on earlier ones and advancement results in a “reorganizing” of various skills. Furthermore, these
stages are also perceived as universal: Though children grow up in very different cultures and
environments and possess very different genetic maps, they seem to generally proceed through the same
stages in the same order.

There are various stage theories that highlight cognitive, physical, emotional, social and moral child
development. More current theories, based on new research in child development, demonstrate that
children have better capabilities and understanding than was previously thought. The new research
challenges the concept of stage and offers alternative ways of explaining developmental differences.

Principles and guidelines for communication for young children

Communication for children needs to consider different abilities and needs at different ages, and thus
must be child-centered and age-appropriate. Quality communication can support existing development
programmes and priorities to address particular needs or competencies. These can be as varied as: the
need to help children learn when and how to wash their hands correctly; the importance of everyone
being treated with respect; how to prevent exploitation or abuse; getting ready for school; staying
healthy while living with HIV/AIDS; or being prepared for an emergency.

Children need and have a right to clear and interesting child-centred (not adult-centred) communication.
As previously mentioned, children at different stages have very different needs and interests and learn
in different ways from different media/materials. This means that children need exposure to a variety
of genres and content. It is crucial to keep in mind that simply adding child-like characters or a child
friendly production format, such as using animation or comics, does not automatically make something
“appropriate for children”.
Rationale: Children learn best when communication is tailored to their specific developmental age,
needs and interests. Good-quality and effective communication begins with an understanding of the
basics of child development and how to best nurture this development and learning. Each age group
also has specific strengths and interests that translate into the most appropriate choices in selecting
storylines, characters and specific content. Fundamental to each group is the level of conceptual
difficulty, with progressive age groups able to understand and requiring more complex content, contexts
and forms.

Interactive communication is when children are inspired to be more attentive and to participate in the
story or other medium. Participatory communication, like participatory education, is more child-
friendly, providing children and adolescents the opportunity to be engaged cognitively, physically and
emotionally, especially compared to didactic forms of communication. Although technologically based
communication such as Internet blogging or text messaging is specifically designed to be interactive,
interaction can also be added with traditional media such as books, plays, puppetry, song, radio and
television. The more we invite our audiences to express themselves, use body movement, think critically
and provide feedback, the closer we come to true participatory communication.

Learning and entertainment come from a good story and characters. Special effects were developed to
make something special that was ordinary. For example, a close-up camera shot, or “zoom” is used to
get viewers to pay attention to something important, while a specific camera angle might make us look
at something from a different perspective. In today’s commercial TV culture, fast pace, continuous
change of frames, pixilation and dozens of visual and auditory effects are the norm and can oftentimes
detract from the important message. If video, audio or print communication is cluttered or frenetic, these
special effects may distract, rather than focus, causing the production to lose potential value. While still
attracting a new generation of sophisticated media consumers, it is important to remember balance: one
that accommodates and supports learning of children without overburdening their minds.

Communicators are often told to “stick with one message”. This is true insofar as it brings focus, but
there are simple ways to integrate holistic aspects of child development even when focusing on a single
issue. Children process and experience learning in integrated ways using all their senses and mental
processes. Developing communication that simultaneously meets their emotional, social, cognitive and
physical needs makes scientific and practical sense.

Communication for children should be a positive model for caregivers and all adults in their interactions
with children. This is always important, but especially so in communities where children live in difficult
circumstances and for various reasons do not have access to nurturing and attentive caregivers; or where
there are few positive media alternatives (where media present primarily negative images of caregivers
who scold, fight or are abusive). The adults targeted by these communications include parents, other
family members, teachers, health-care workers, child protection officers and others. If communication
primarily models unsupportive or abusive adults, this can be construed as the “norm”, even when there
are many adults around the world who support and take good care of their children.

Strengths-based communication focuses on portraying and nurturing the strengths and potential in every
child rather than focusing on the deficits or problems. Using this principle, the goal is not only to teach
but also to develop resilience and the capacity to cope. It does this in a healthy way for both large and
small struggles in life. It helps move communication from focusing only on problems to suggesting and
presenting options and possibilities. Regardless of country or situation, it means developing
communication that invites children to imagine or be transported to seeing things they have not
previously experienced; that excites children about possibilities of what they can do today or become
in the future; and channels their energy into positive thought and action. Such communication can be
transformative.
Question 4

Discuss HIV and AIDS misconceptions

Solution

The broad introduction on myths and misconceptions of H N and AIDS and STDs deals effectively with
the inaccurate information, which is quite often believed and passed on without the authenticity of the
source. In this light, you have to focus on the various routine activities that are done with the anticipation
of getting infected by HIV and AIDS person out of shear fear, ignorance, anxiety etc.

1. Misconception: HIV/AIDS is a death sentence. Reality- With proper treatment and care, many
people with HIV can live long, healthy lives. Antiretroviral therapy has greatly improved the
prognosis for those living with HIV.
2. Misconception: HIV can be transmitted through casual contact. Reality:- HIV is primarily
transmitted through unprotected sexual contact, sharing the needles or syringes or from mother
to child during pregnancy, childbirth or breastfeeding. It cannot be transmitted through casual
contact, such as hugging, shaking hands or sharing food and drinks
3. Misconception: Only certain groups of people can get HIV.-Reality: HIV can affect anyone,
regardless of age, gender, race or sexual orientation. Anyone who engages in high risk
behaviours such as unprotected sex or sharing needles is at a risk of contracting HIV.
4. Misconception: A person with HIV/AIDS can be identifies by their appearance. Reality: A
person’s appearance does not indicate whether they have HIV or AIDS. Many people living
with HIV may not show any visible symptoms for years and advance in treatment have reduced
the physical impact of the virus.
5. Misconception: HIV can be transmitted through mosquito bites. Reality: HIV is not spread
through insect bites including mosquitoes. The Virus cannot survive and replicate inside an
insect’s body.
6. Misconception: HIV/AIDS is a punishment for immoral behavior. Reality: HIV/AIDS is a
medical condition not a punishment or consequence of any individual’s actions or lifestyle
choices. Stigma a discrimination against people living with HIV/AIDS are unacceptable and
can have harmful effects on their well-being and access to care.

Addressing these misconceptions is crucial for reducing stigma, promoting accurate information and
ensuring that individuals affected by HIV receive the support and care they need. Educating the public
and healthcare providers about the facts surrounding HIV is essential for fostering a more
compassionate and inclusive society.

Myths and misconceptions related to the transmission of HIV and AIDS

Shaking Hands
The chances of getting infection through a hand shake is minimal, as long as the skin is intact without
any breaks because in adults the virus is mainly transmitted through the transfer of blood or sexual
fluids. Since there is no contact of blood or sexual fluids durivg a casual shake hand, there are no risks
involved. Sharing the same telephone with other people in your office or working side-by-side in a
crowded factory with other infected persons and even sharing the same cup of tea, cannot transmit the
infection. These acts will not expose a person to the risk of contracting the infection.

Sharing a Toilet/Bathroom etc.

The chances of getting infection through the toilet seat are very remote. For this to happen there would
have to be fresh infected blood on the toilet seat in contact with breaks in the skin or genitalia of the
next user. Proper and clean use of the toilet can prevent this.

Sharing a Toothbrush (Contact with Saliva)

Saliva contains HIV virus in minute amounts. Saliva also contains an enzyme that inhibits the growth
of the virus. A small amount of saliva is highly unlikely to transmit the virus. It has been shown that
sharing of a toothbrush or a towel is unlikely to spread the virus. Antiseptics present in the toothpaste
kill the virus. Till date only one report of a human bite transmitting the infection has been recorded and
it occurred in a child.

Kissing/Embracing

There is no harm in kissing, embracing or caressing an infected person provided it is a normal dry kiss
or a gentle hold. Risk from a dry luss, is almost zero. Moreover the number of infected persons in
general population is low and the risk of catching HIV from kissing someone on the lips or embracing
an infected person is almost nill. However, the western practice of kissing (French kiss) where tongue
and saliva enter another person’s mouth carries higher risk, especially if one person has sores in the
mouth, cracked lips or bleeding gums. So far, we have come across only one such case of 'mouth to
mouth' spread.

Mosquitoes

It is certain that no one will get HIV from a mosquito bite. There are many reasons to support this.
Mosquito transmitted diseases are common in the world. All the organisms that are transmitting disease
through the mosquito have a lifecycle in the mosquito. When the mosquito bites, it injects its saliva.
HIV is not found in the saliva of the mosquito. Mosquito transmitted disease is more common in older
children whereas HIV is not common among older children. When an insect bites a person, it does not
inject its own or a previously bitten person's or animal's blood into the next person bitten. Rather, it
injects saliva, which acts as a lubricant so the insect can feed efficiently. Diseases such as dengue and
malaria are transmitted through this manner. However, HIV lives for only a short time inside an insect
and unlike organisms that are transmitted via insect bites, HIV does not reproduce and does not survive
in insects.

Misconceptions related to information, education and communication

Communication (oral, written and pictorial) is arguably the single most important human ability that
has facilitated the strides humankind has made in the evolutionary chain. All of the human process can
be traced to the ability to think and then communicate with fellow beings and make the thought available
for the benefit of the race at large. Most of us realize this importance of communicating as an inner need
and as a facilitator for social living. If the influence of media and that of opinion leaders is any
indication, there is no denying the fact that each one of us also accept the ability of communication to
alter behaviours and attitudes.

To further complicate the situation, in cases where there has been an attempt to communicate, the
message has been misrepresented or misinterpreted, resulting in poor communication. Thus, the initial
attempts at creating awareness of AIDS have worsened the space by creating a fear psychosis in the
minds of the public at large. Mention AIDS or HIV and a strange fear and paranoia grips the mind of
the average individual.

Misconceptions relate to care, treatment and rehabilitation

Since the beginning of the HIV and AIDS pandemic, prevention and care programmes in most countries
have been planned and implemented with a primary focus on prevention of the spread of infection.
However, programmes providing care for those infected with HIV and AIDS are yet to be adequately
developed in a system with all kinds of constraints. In addition to the physical symptoms of the disease,
persons with HIV and AIDS are affected emotionally and together with their families, are often
ostracized and suffer from social discrimination and rejection. Stigmas associated with a number of
curable diseases like leprosy and tuberculosis still make life hell for those who suffer from them.
Thousands of such patients are daily refused treatment for want of proper diagnostic and other facilities.
The stigma about AIDS is very high in our country.

Is it Necessary to Quarantine AIDS Patients?

AIDS patients should be treated in general hospitals like any other patients. Due to lack of awareness
they are sometimes refused treatment. Ostracization is not only a social, but a medical problem too. It
affects the process of recovery in patients. Recent studies have revealed that patients in isolation develop
typical complication, which are uncommon in patients who are treated at home or in a general hospital.
Such patients also show poor response to medicines. Isolation forces a patient towards poor recovery.

Quarantine will not help in preventing the spread of the infection. Infection cannot be spread through
air, water or casual contact. It will drive the patients away from the health care system.
There is No Cure for HIVIAIDS Till Date

In the West, the disease progression has been curtailed to some extent as a result of anti-retroviral
therapy. It has reduced the incidence of opportunistic infections and increased the life span of the
infected individual. The therapy is expensive and it has side effects. It does not cure the infection. At
present the therapy has been recommended for life. Very few patients in our country can afford it. In
this situation, the patients are restless to somehow find the lifesaving drug for their illness. Therefore,
under such pressure they convince themselves to give a try on all possible forms of medicines such as
Homeopathy, Ayurveda, Siddha etc. Alternate systems of medicines have not been proved to be
effective in curing or control of the disease though they claim to do so. Patients have to be protected
from quacks and unscrupulous persons so that they are not exploited. There are strong indications to
the positive results of Ayurveda treatment. However till date no authentic case of recovery has come to
light.