Hawk-Eye

First level design of the Satellite

AE2111-I: Aerospace Systems Design

Group C06
Delft University of Technology
 Hawk-Eye
First level design of the Satellite

by

C06
Student Name Student Number

Alexander van Duyvenboode 5914612

Chiem Denen 5923018
Daniel Gallego 5916194
Jasper Copray 5993466
Jose Luis Fortes 5915546
Kiki Morelisse 5909899
Lucas García 6021816
Matthies Egmond 6039391
Raphael Dussaud 5912326
Sien Wevers 5912237

Instructor: Prof. Dr. S.J. Watson

Teaching Assistant: Arnaud Mathieu, Msc Space Flight
Faculty: Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Delft
Course: AE2111-I Aerospace System Design

Style: TU Delft Report

Summary
A summary...

i
List of Abbreviations & Symbols

Abbreviations ALPHABETIC
ORDER
Table 1: Abbreviations

Abbreviation Definition
LEO Low Earth Orbit
GEO Geostationary Orbit
ADCS Attitude Determination and Control System
TCS Thermal Control System
EPS Electrical Power System
RTG Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator
ACS Attitude control system
MAIA Multi-Angle Imager for Aerosols
MSI Multi-spectral Instrument
HIRS/4 High-Resolution Infrared Sounder
C&DH Command and data handling
GNSS Global Navigation Satellite System
IMU 3-axis Inertial Measurement Unit
PMU Power Management Unit
COTS Commercial Off-The-Shelf
RTGs Radioisotope Thermo-electric Generator
ACS Altitude Control System

Symbols ALPHABETIC
ORDER
Table 2: List of Symbols

Symbol Definition Unit

Greek Symbols
𝜂 Efficiency [-]
𝛽¤ angular rate of the magnetic field vector [s−1 ]
𝜔 angular speed [s−1 ]
v Poisson ratio [-]
E Young’s modulus [Pa]

Latin Symbols
G Solar constant [W m−2 ]
𝑃𝑟𝑒 𝑞 Power required [W]
A Area m2
𝑀𝑦 control torque about the y-axis [Nm]
𝐾𝑑 constant gain parameter [-]
Continued on next page

ii
 iii

Table 2: List of Symbols

Symbol Definition Unit

𝐵𝑦 Y-component of the magnetic field vector [T]
®
∥𝐵∥ Magnitude of the magnetic field vector [T]
H angular momentum [kg m2 s−1 ]
Contents

Summary i
1 Introduction 1
2 Subsystem Design of the Hawk-Eye Mission 2
2.1 Design of the Attitude Determination and Control System of Hawk Eye . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1.1 Main Functions of ADCS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1.2 Requirements ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1.3 Clarification of the Different Operational Modes of the ADCS . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1.4 Evaluation of the External and Internal Disturbances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.1.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2 Propulsion System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2.1 PROPS key requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2.2 Forces interacting with the Spacecraft in orbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.3 Review of Δ𝑉 estimations and calculation of required propellant mass. . . . . . . . 9
2.2.4 Choosing the type of PROPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.5 Components of the Propulsion System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3 Thermal Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3.1 Thermal environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3.2 Internal heat estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3.3 Straw-man design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3.4 Estimation of equilibrium temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3.5 Thermal control strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.4 Structures and Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.4.1 Main Functions of Structures and Mechanisms Subsystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.4.2 Subsystem main requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.4.3 Preliminary Structure Dimensions and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.4.4 Propellant Tank Size Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4.5 Solar array Dimensioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4.6 Mechanisms Needed for the Spacecraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.5 Electrical Power Subsystem (EPS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.5.1 EPS Requirements Across Mission Phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.5.2 Assessment of Viable Power Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.5.3 Power Source Selection and Dimensioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.5.4 Battery Requirements for the Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.5.5 Selection of Power Control Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.6 Other Subsystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.6.1 Command and Data Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.6.2 Communications Subsystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.6.3 Navigation Subsystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.6.4 Impact on other subsystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3 Revised budgets 32
4 Conclusion 33

Bibliography 35
A Task Division 36
B Additional Figures 37

iv
List of Figures

2.1 Drag coefficient of particular 2-dimension al shapes, the figure also shows if the drag coeffi-
cient depends on the Reynolds Number. Source: https://www.caee.utexas.edu/prof/kinnas/ce358/oenotes/Crow
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 This table compares the thrust and specific impulse of different propulsion technologies
used in small satellites. Source: https://www.nasa.gov/smallsat-institute/sst-soa/in-
space 𝑝 𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛/4.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

B.1 Albedo ratio and orbit inclination [18] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

B.2 Solar radiation intensity variations over a year [16] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

v
List of Tables
1 Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
2 List of Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
2 List of Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

2.1 ADCS requirement list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2.2 Overview of the external and internal disturbances on the spacecraft . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.4 Comparison of Hydrazine and Cold gas propulsive systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.5 TCS requirement list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.6 Internal heat generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.7 Internal heat generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.8 Subsystem Temperature Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.9 Structures and mechanisms requirement list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.10 Common Spacecraft Material Properties [27] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.11 Comparison of Power Generation Technologies for Spacecraft [34] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.12 Preliminary Dimensioning of Power Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.13 Type, capacity, voltage, mass, size, and number of batteries used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.14 Command and Data Handling Subsystem Requirement List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.15 Communications System Requirement List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.16 Navigation Subsystem Requirement List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

A.1 Distribution of the workload . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

vi
1 Introduction

Write your introduction here aub.

1
2 Subsystem Design of the
Hawk-Eye Mission
Introduction

2.1. Design of the Attitude Determination and Control System of Hawk

Eye intro
𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒(𝐴𝐷𝐶𝑆)

2.1.1. Main Functions of ADCS

Wertz [33] explains that attitude determination aims to figure out how a spacecraft is oriented with
respect to the Earth. This requires reference points or unit vectors with a known direction relative to the
spacecraft. The expected reference vectors include the Earth’s magnetic field and a unit vector pointing
toward the Earth.
After the attitude determination system determines the attitude, the attitude control system can start its
job. The system’s job is to orient the spacecraft in a specific predetermined direction, and the attitude
determination system determines the deviation from this direction [33].
The ADCS has multiple functions to ensure the mission’s success. Firstly, it is crucial to ensure that
the payload is correctly directed. In the case of Hawk-Eye, the payload instruments always need to
be directed to the Earth to be able to observe the Earth [27]. Secondly, solar arrays ideally need to be
oriented towards the sun at all times. However, this is not always possible; in that case, they must be
oriented so that enough energy is available for the spacecraft at all times. Determining and correcting the
spacecraft’s orientation as a function of the solar panels is also the task of the ADCS [27]. Next, ADCS is
also responsible for the spacecraft’s stationkeeping. If no action is taken, the spacecraft will naturally
deviate from its design orbit. Therefore, the ADCS should also be able to perform station-keeping to
ensure the spacecraft remains at the correct altitude relative to Earth [30]. Next, since various torques act
on the spacecraft, some method is needed to stabilize and control its orientation. This can be achieved in
a few ways: (1) by using the spacecraft’s angular momentum, known as spin stabilization; (2) by relying
on environmental forces, like gravity-gradient stabilization; or (3) through active control systems, such
as gas jets, reaction wheels, or electromagnets [33]. Lastly, the spacecraft antenna should be pointed
towards Earth because the communications system must be able to transmit the observation data to
Earth, and it should also be able to receive telecommands from Earth. The function of the ADCS is to
make sure the antenna is pointed correctly to perform these tasks.

Better cap-
2.1.2. Requirements ...
tion for the
A common mistake made when setting the requirements for the ADCS system is over-specifying, which is
subsection
a desire for more accuracy than is required by the payload. Over-specifying the performance requirements
can easily lead to exceeding the budget [27]. MAIA does not affect non-functional requirements because
it can work with great pointing accuracy. This is because MAIA is a global shutter. MAIA can capture
accurate, high-quality data even when flying at high speeds with no extra stabilization required [29].

Table 2.1: ADCS requirement list

Category Requirement Rationale ID
Functional The ADCS shall ensure The payload shall have to observe the Earth. There- ADCS-
that the payload is cor- fore, the ADCS has to ensure that it points in the F-01
rectly directed. correct direction so that it can take measurements
and pictures of the Earth.
Continued on next page

2
2.1. Design of the Attitude Determination and Control System of Hawk Eye 3

Table 2.1: ADCS requirement list (Continued)

The ADCS shall ensure The solar panels have to provide the spacecraft ADCS-
that the solar panels can with power, the ADCS shall ensure that the solar F-02
provide enough power. panels get enough sunlight to do so.
The ADCS shall perform The spacecraft naturally deviates from it’s design ADCS-
the spacecraft’s station- orbit, the ADCS prevents this from happening by F-03
keeping. performing the stationkeeping.
The ADCS shall stabilize Various disturbances are present in space, the ADCS-
and control the space- ADCS shall counteract these disturbances and F-05
craft’s orientation. shall make sure the spacecraft’s orientation is
stabilized and controlled.
The ADCS shall ensure The communication system has to transmit and ADCS-
the antenna is pointed in receive data to and from the Earth. Therefore, its F-06
the correct direction. pointing directions should be controlled.
Non- The pointing accuracy This is the pointing accuracy of the MSI; the point- ADCS-
functional should be more accurate ing accuracy of HIRS/4 and MAIA could not be NF-01
than 5.5 arcsec ‗ . found, but it is expected that it is less accurate
than the pointing accuracy of MSI. This is because
the pointing accuracy of MSI is very accurate.
Stability/jitter should be This is the jitter of HIRS/4 [20]. The jitter of ADCS-
less than 623 arcsec/sec. MAIA and MSI could not be found. However, it is NF-03
assumed that their jitter is in the same range as the
jitter of HIRS/4 and is not significantly smaller.
Agility/Maneuvering The agility of an Earth Spectral Oribiter should be ADCS-
rate should be 3 degrees between 1 and 6 degrees per second; according to NF-04
per second. [2], a common agility is 3 degrees per second.

In Table 2.1, the different requirements for the ADCS are discussed. First, the functional requirements are
listed; these refer to what the system must be able to do. Afterwards, the non-functional requirements
are shown, these specify how well the tasks should be performed. The functional requirements are
referred to as ADCS-F-XX and the non-functional requirements are referred to as ADCS-NF-XX, where
XX represent numbers.

2.1.3. Clarification of the Different Operational Modes of the ADCS

The ADCS will operate in three modes: attitude acquisition mode, nominal operational mode and safe
mode. The first mode in which the ADCS will operate is the attitude acquisition mode. When the
spacecraft is separated from the launcher, it is still tumbling chaotically, and its attitude is uncontrolled
[27]. Since no information about the spacecraft’s attitude is known at this point, it is quite a challenge
to orient the spacecraft in the desired direction [27]. For this mode, magnetic control is usually used
in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) because the earth’s magnetic field is academically well known [35]. For this
manner of attitude acquisition, the B-dot law is used, which is shown in Equation 2.1, where 𝑀 𝑦 is the
control torque, 𝐾 𝑑 is a constant gain parameter, 𝛽¤ the angular rate of the magnetic field vector, 𝐵 𝑦 is the
Y-component of the magnetic field vector and ∥𝐵∥ ® the magnitude of the magnetic field vector [32].

!
𝐵𝑦
¤
𝑀 𝑦 = 𝐾 𝑑 𝛽, 𝛽 = arccos (2.1)
®
∥𝐵∥

The reaction torque 𝑀 𝑦 is a magnetic torque, and it is enabled multiple times during short periods to
align the yaw axis of the spacecraft with the nadir direction, but it will still be spinning. Afterwards, the
spacecraft will still be spinning about the yaw axis; the spinning rate can be determined by a gyroscope,
which is based on the Euler equation of motion. Lastly, the ADCS can control the spinning with magnetic
‗ URL: https://www.eoportal.org/satellite-missions/copernicus-sentinel-2#msi-multispectral-imager [cited on

September 23, 2024]

2.1. Design of the Attitude Determination and Control System of Hawk Eye 4

torques, thrusters or reaction wheels [27]. The Euler equation of motion can be found in Equation 2.2,
where H is the angular momentum of the spacecraft, 𝜔𝑢 , 𝜔𝑣Í, 𝜔𝑤 , are the components of the angular
velocity in the roll, pitch and yaw direction respectively and 𝑀 is the sum of the external torques on
the spacecraft.

® © 𝜔𝑢 ª
𝑑𝐻 Õ
® =
+ ­ 𝜔𝑣 ® × 𝐻 ®
𝑀 (2.2)
𝑑𝑡
« 𝜔𝑤 ¬
The second mode is the nominal operational mode, in this mode the instruments will be collecting data.
To do this, the payload must always point towards Earth. In addition, the solar panels must be pointed at
the sun. The direction of the Earth is determined by the spacecraft’s position. Reaction wheels can be
used to stabilize the spacecraft and keep it on the same attitude [27]. It is possible that the payload of the
spacecraft stays in line of sight with the Earth by constantly updating the pointing command [27]. To
determine the attitude for the spacecraft to get in this mode, the spacecraft can use different kinds of
sensors, for example, a sun sensor, Earth sensor, or star tracker [27].
The third mode is the safe mode. This mode is only activated in case of problems with the ADCS. In this
mode, non-essential systems will be shut down. It is recommended to use hardware components and
algorithms that are different from those in the other modes [3].

2.1.4. Evaluation of the External and Internal Disturbances

There are several possible disturbances in space; the ADCS must ensure that the attitude does not get
distorted by these disturbances. Two types of disturbances exist, external and internal disturbances.
The external disturbances that can affect the spacecraft during the mission are gravity gradient torque,
aerodynamic torque, solar radiation torque, and magnetic torque. Internal disturbances may result from
the expulsion of mass caused by thruster operation. The different types of disturbances, their source and
counteraction can be found in Table 2.2.

Table 2.2: Overview of the external and internal disturbances on the spacecraft
Disturbance Source Counteraction
External disturbances
Gravity gradi- Gravity gradient torques occur when a Additional systems are needed to handle
ent torque spacecraft’s center of gravity is offset damping and prevent excess oscillation
from its center of mass, creating a natural [21]. There are multiple systems that
twisting force as it orbits the planet [26]. can help with damping, such as reaction
In a satellite it acts like a spring; it can wheels, magnetic torques, and thrusters.
stabilize the spacecraft but does not slow
down or stop any unwanted motion on its
own. It provides a sort of balancing force
but lacks the ability to naturally calm or
dampen the satellite’s movements, which
is why other systems are needed to keep
things steady [21].
Aerodynamic The spacecraft encounters drag forces To counteract aerodynamic torque, usu-
torque due to the Earth’s atmosphere. If the ally magnetic torquers or reaction
spacecraft’s surface that experiences the wheels, thrusters are used more often
drag is not symmetric, torque can be to counteract bigger disturbances than
induced [21]. aerodynamic torque [21].
Continued on next page
2.1. Design of the Attitude Determination and Control System of Hawk Eye 5

Table 2.2: Overview of the external and internal disturbances on the spacecraft (Continued)
Solar radiation Just like aerodynamic torque the solar To counteract solar radiation torque,
torque radiation creates a pressure on the space- thrusters, magnetic torquers and momen-
craft, if the center of mass of the space- tum wheels can be used [26].
craft is not aligned with the center of
pressure, solar radiation can produce a
torque [21].
Magnetic A spacecraft always contains some inter- To counteract magnetic torque, magnetic
torque nal dipole, this can be due to for exam- torquers are most effective. By adjusting
ple current loops or magnetic torquers, the current flowing through the coils of
which work based on a torque rod. When the magnetic torquer, the direction and
the internal dipole interacts with Earth’s strength of the magnetic moment can
magnetic field, this creates a torque on be modified, allowing the spacecraft to
the spacecraft [21]. rotate in the opposite direction of the
unwanted magnetic torque [26].
Albedo pres- If sunlight hits the Earth, and part of it is Just like solar radiation torque thrusters,
sure torque reflected, about 34% [21]. This reflected magnetic torquers and momentum
part also contains solar radiation and can wheels can be used to counteract albedo
create pressure on the spacecraft, just like pressure torque [26].
solar radiation origination from the sun
[27].
Internal disturbances
Thruster Thrusters that are not distributed well To counteract this torque other thrusters
torques and will cause a center of mass offset. Also, or reaction wheels can be used. It is also
forces the forces of the thrusters can vary from important to make sure that the thrusters
one another, which will lead to torque. are lined up well to prevent this torque
from happening.
Slosh Liquid slosh is caused by moving liquids, Propellant management devices, like
such as fuel. the spacecraft accelerates slosh baffles, or incorporating counter-
or moves, the liquids can move around rotating elements to counteract liquid
in the fuel tanks, causing forces that lead slosh should be used [26].
to an unstable environment [21].
Friction Internal friction is caused by rotating To counteract this torque, thrusters or
or sliding parts inside the spacecraft’s momentum wheels can be used. Mo-
architecture [21], this will cause a torque. mentum wheels themselves also cause
friction, but this friction can be compen-
sated either automatically through feed-
back (closed-loop control) or by making
adjustments as needed. Some reaction
wheels even have built-in modes to coun-
teract the friction [26].

In Table 2.2 the different disturbance torques are put in order from most significant to least significant,
and the internal and external disturbance torques are separated. The most significant disturbance torque
is the torque due to thruster misalignment; typical values for a medium satellite in LEO range from
1 × 10−1 N m to 1 N m.
Gravity gradient torque due to Earth’s gravity field and slosh due to moving liquid inside the spacecraft
play quite a big role as disturbance torques; typical value for gravity gradient torque is 3 × 10−7 N m
and, slosh torque usually ranges from 1 × 10−5 N m to 1 × 10−3 N m [31].
Lastly, friction torque due to rotating or sliding parts in the spacecraft, solar radiation torque caused
by the pressure of sunlight, and magnetic torque due to Earth’s magnetic field are the least significant,
typical values are 1 × 10−7 N m to 1 × 10−5 N m for friction torque [31], 3.6 × 10−6 N m for solar radiation
torque and 3 × 10−6 N m for magnetic torque [34], albedo torque is due to the reflected sunlight, by the
2.2. Propulsion System 6

Earth. The torque caused by this disturbance is a fraction of solar radiation torque, about 34% for Earth
[21], so that will, in any case, be lower than solar radiation pressure.
aerodynamic torque due to aerodynamic drag 1 × 10−4 N m [34]

2.1.5.
In this subsection, the different actuators and sensors are
For the actuators, the earlier discussed disturbances were analyzed to determine how they could be
counteracted. Four different types of actuators were identified: reaction wheels, magnetic torques,
momentum wheels, and thrusters.
Reaction wheels are devices that exchange momentum, and are used for attitude control [21]. According
to Paluszek (2023) [21] a motor is attached to the spacecraft, with its shaft linked to a flywheel. When a
control voltage is applied to the motor, it creates a torque that causes the wheel to spin in one direction
while the spacecraft rotates in the opposite direction. The torque generated is internal to the spacecraft, so
the reaction wheel does not change the total angular momentum of the entire system; but only transfers
momentum between the flywheel and the spacecraft itself. When the external torque acting on the
spacecraft changes periodically, and at a high frequency, the reaction wheel can control the spacecraft.
However, the wheel will keep spinning until it reaches saturation if there is a constant external torque.
The reaction wheel can also maneuver the spacecraft: when the wheel speeds up, the spacecraft starts to
rotate, and when the wheel slows down, it absorbs some of its angular momentum, effectively stopping
its motion [21]. For three-axis control, reaction wheels must be positioned along at least three axes,
with additional wheels providing redundancy for the attitude control system. A redundant mounting
configuration might include a spare wheel in addition to the three-axis setup, as noted by Wertz (1991)
[34].
- magnetic torques (3) - momentum wheels (1-3) - thrusters (4-12) –> alleen om momentum te dumpen
gyro?
Sensors:
Attitude Determination and Control Sensors star (1-3) sun (2-6) magno (1-3) earth (1-2)
Position Determination GPS? (1-2)
- Earth sensor (scanning or static) - Magnetometer - Sun sensor (solar panels) - *Star sensors (accurate)

2.2. Propulsion System

Once the spacecraft is placed in orbit, it is still in free fall and can easily be disturbed. Due to this,
the spacecraft has to have a reliable propulsion system, whose goal is to provide the necessary thrust
for orbital control in terms of manoeuvres and maintenance of general trajectory. These include the
de-orbiting manoeuvres at the spacecraft’s end of life, as well as station-keeping maintenance such as
altitude, inclination, attitude, plane changes, and rephasing control.

2.2.1. PROPS key requirements

To narrow down some design choices, a few requirements the PROPS must fulfil have been formulated;
besides this, a rationale has been given to explain the necessity of the requirement.

Table 2.3:
Category Requirement Rationale ID
Continued on next page
2.2. Propulsion System 7

Table 2.3: (Continued)

Functional The PROPS must provide To prevent space debris and obstacles in Earth’s PROPS-
at least 32 m/s of V at orbit, after the mission has been completed, the F-01
the end of the design life. spacecraft must be taken out of its orbit to make
This is necessary to in- space for operational spacecraft.
tentionally put the space-
craft in a decaying or-
bit after the mission has
been completed.
The PROPS must provide When the spacecraft is in orbit, it is exposed to PROPS-
at least 2 m/s of V per all sorts of external forces and torques, which can F-02
year, therefore 10 m/s disturb the nominal orbit of the spacecraft. In the
over the design life of event that the orbit of the spacecraft is heavily
the spacecraft. This is disturbed, the desired data can not be collected
necessary to ensure the anymore. The propulsion system can be used to
orbit inclination of the counter this problem.
spacecraft is maintained
at 98.4 degrees.
The PROPS must provide PROPS-
at least 6 m/s of V per F-03
year, therefore 30 m/s
over the design life of the
spacecraft. This is neces-
sary to ensure the orbit
altitude of 750 kilometers
is maintained.
The PROPS must provide PROPS-
at least 7 m/s of V per F-04
year, therefore 35 m/s
over the design life of
the spacecraft. This is
necessary to ensure that
unwanted plane changes
and re-phasing of the or-
bit are countered.

2.2.2. Forces interacting with the Spacecraft in orbit

Several disturbances can affect the trajectory of a spacecraft in orbit as it constantly interacts with celestial
bodies and their properties. Common forces experienced by such satellites are gravity forces due to the
inert gravity of the earth, aerodynamic forces due to the thin atmosphere still present at orbital altitude,
solar radiation pressure forces, and magnetic forces once again due to the earth’s own magnetic field.

Gravity
Gravity-induced forces can be calculated with the gravitational force formula where G is the universal
gravitational constant, M is the mass of the earth, m is the loaded mass of the spacecraft, and r is the
radial distance of the earth combined with the previously selected orbital altitude of 750km.
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐹𝑔 = (2.3)
𝑟2
(6.6743 × 10−11 ) × (5.972 × 1024 ) × (2069)
𝐹𝑔 = (2.4)
(7.121 × 106 )2
𝐹 𝑔 ≈ 16[kN] (2.5)
This force, however, is already balanced by the centripetal force created through the velocity of the
spacecraft in orbit and, therefore, does not need to be accounted for by the propulsion system itself.
However, any orbital adjustments will require some sort of ΔV by the propulsion system.
2.2. Propulsion System 8

Aerodynamic Drag
It may seem insignificant, but even in orbit, aerodynamic drag poses a great threat to a spacecraft’s
mission. In particular, Low Earth Orbit Satellites must compensate for the loss in velocity due to
aerodynamic drag.
Aerodynamic Drag can be calculated with the following formula [27]:

1 2
𝐹𝐷 = 𝜌𝑉 𝐴𝑐 𝐷 (2.6)
2

Where 𝜌 is the thermosphere mass density in 𝑘 𝑔/𝑚 3 at the orbit altitude, 𝑉 is the orbital velocity in 𝑚/𝑠,
𝐴 is the exposed area of the satellite to incoming particles in 𝑚 2 and 𝑐 𝐷 is the drag-coefficient of the
satellite’s shape.
In the rest of this section, each parameter will be analysed and quantified. THis will be done using
available information and acceptable assumptions, while keeping the analysis as accurate as possible.
At 750 kilometres altitude, the thermoshpere mass density is approximately 𝜌 = 10−13 𝑘 𝑔/𝑚 3 [10].
The orbital velocity can be calculated using the following equation from mechanics:

r
𝐺𝑀 𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑡 ℎ
𝑉𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 = (2.7)
𝑅 𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡

Where 𝐺 = 6.67430151011 𝑚 3 𝑘 𝑔 1 𝑠 2 is the gravitational parameter , 𝑀 = 5.97221024 𝑘 𝑔 is the mass of earth,

𝑅 is the orbit radius, which can be calculated by:

𝑅 𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 = 𝑅 𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑡 ℎ + ℎ 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 (2.8)

Using that ℎ 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 = 750𝑘𝑚, 𝑅 𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 = 7124𝑘𝑚. Finally using 2.7 it can be calculated that the orbital
velocity at 750 kilometer altitude is 𝑉𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 = 7.5𝑘𝑚/𝑠.
The exposed area 𝐴 depends on how the spacecraft is oriented with respect to the direction in which the
spacecraft is travelling. In the updated design, the spacecraft’s body has a cylindrical body shape, with a
diameter of 𝐷𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = 2.5𝑚 and a height of ℎ 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = 2.5𝑚. Since the instruments need to be pointed towards
earth, this means that the curved surface of the cylinder is the exposed area. Therefore the exposed area
of the body is equal to 𝐴 = 6.25𝑚 2 :

𝐴 𝑒 𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑,𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = 𝐷𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 ∗ ℎ 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 (2.9)

Besides the body, a great contributor to the drag will be the solar panels. The solar panels will be actively
rotated and therefore their exposed area will change over time. To find out how the exposed area changes
over time, we can consider that the orbit is sun-synchronous. If we consider one orbit, and assume
Earth is fixed in space, and the solar rays come from one direction, then to keep the solar array correctly
oriented, the solar array must rotate one full circle every orbit. From this analysis it becomes clear that
the exposed area changes periodically. For this analysis a sinusoidal function will be chosen, of which
the period matches the orbital period in seconds.
The orbital period can be calculated using:
s
4𝜋2 𝑅 3𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡
𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 = (2.10)
𝐺𝑀𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡 ℎ

Using 2.10, it can be calculated that 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 = 99.82[𝑚𝑖𝑛] = 5989[𝑠] This means that the equation for the
exposed area of the solar panel is:
In 2.11, ’t’ is in seconds, 𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑙 = 2.5 and 𝑤 𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑙 = 2.0𝑚 .

𝑡
𝐴 𝑒 𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑑,𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑙 (𝑡) = 𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑙 ∗ 𝑤 𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑙 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛( ) = 5.0𝑠𝑖𝑛(0.00105𝑡)[𝑚 2 ] (2.11)
𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡
2.2. Propulsion System 9

At last, the drag coefficients of the body and the solar panels need to be determined. As can be seen in ??,
the drag coefficient of a flat plate is independent of the Reynolds Number. However, the drag coefficient
of a cylindrical body does depend on the Reynolds Number. The process to accurately estimate the drag
coefficient of a cylindrical body in space is complicated, for this analysis it will be assumed that the
drag coefficient is similar to that of a rectangular body. Using ??, we can estimate that for a solar panel:
𝐶 𝐷,𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑙𝑠 = 1.9 (flat plate) and for the body: 𝐶 𝐷,𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = 2.1, according to [<empty citation>].

Figure 2.1: Drag coefficient of particular 2-dimension al shapes, the figure also shows if the drag coefficient depends on the
Reynolds Number. Source:
https://www.caee.utexas.edu/prof/kinnas/ce358/oenotes/Crowe.pdf: :text=The%20coefficient%20of%20drag%20for%20the

To finally evaluate the total drag on the spacecraft, the drag on the solar array and body can be summed:
1 2
𝐹𝑑𝑟 𝑎 𝑔 = 𝐹𝑑,𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑟 𝑎 𝑦 +𝐹𝑑,𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = 𝜌𝑉 (𝐴 𝑒 𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑,𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑙 𝐶 𝐷,𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑙 +𝐴𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝐶 𝐷,𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 ) = 2.8∗10−6 (9.5𝑠𝑖𝑛(0.00105𝑡)+13.125)
2
(2.12)

Solar Radiation Pressure

Another force which can also seem irrelevant is the pressure force caused by the sun’s radiation on the
satellite in free space. Due to the fact that photons radiated by the sun have momentum, the constant
collision of these onto the spacecraft poses a small force.
𝑃𝑠 𝐴
𝐹𝑠𝑟𝑝 = (2.13)
𝑐
Where 𝑃𝑠 is the solar radiation pressure at 1 AU, A is the effective area subjected to the pressure force
(spacecraft body and solar panels, and c is the speed of light.

(4.56106 ) × 7.08
𝐹𝑠𝑟𝑝 = (2.14)
(3108 )

𝐹𝑠𝑟𝑝 ≈ 1.110−13 [N] (2.15)

Even though this force can seem negligible, due to the lack of drag in such orbits, the constant collision
of photons onto the spacecraft over time can certainly affect the spacecraft’s trajectory.

2.2.3. Review of Δ𝑉 estimations and calculation of required propellant mass.

In our previous report, a Δ𝑉 estimation was made based limited information. In this section, a more
accurate estimation of the Δ𝑉 will be made. To conclude, the propellant mass required will be calculated.
First of all, the Δ𝑉 required to compensate for drag will be recalculated using the drag force acting on
the spacecraft, which was determined in 2.2.2.
The reduction in velocity due to drag can be calculated using the moment equation:
∫
𝑚𝑉 = 𝐹(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 (2.16)
2.2. Propulsion System 10

Which means that: ∫

1
Δ𝑉 = 𝐹(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 (2.17)
𝑚

Using 2.17, 2.12, an integration domain of [0, 15768000] seconds (five years) and a spacecraft mass of
𝑚 = 1955.5𝑘 𝑔 (as estimated in the previous report) it can be found that the Delta V required to compensate
for drag is:

Δ𝑉𝑑𝑟𝑎 𝑔 = 4.34[𝑚/𝑠] (2.18)

Because the force due to solar radiation is in the order of 10−13 , the Δ𝑉 due to this force will be so small,
that it is negligible to account for.
One of the things that was not considered in the Δ𝑉 estimation in our previous report, is the need
for propellant to control the attitude of the spacecraft. According to [AttitudecontroldeltaV], this is
Δ𝑉𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 = 1[𝑚/𝑠]
Finally, the total Delta V recalculated is:

Δ𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑎𝑙 = Δ𝑉𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑘𝑒 𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑛 𝑔 +Δ𝑉𝑑𝑒−𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 = Δ𝑉𝑑𝑟𝑎 𝑔 +Δ𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑝 ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑔 +Δ𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 +Δ𝑉𝑑𝑒−𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 +Δ𝑉𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 = 82.36[𝑚/𝑠]
(2.19)
Where Δ𝑉𝑟𝑒 𝑝 ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑔 , Δ𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 and Δ𝑉𝑑𝑒−𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 , remain unchanged from the previous report, as these
were deemed to be sufficient for this analysis.
To conclude this section, the propellant mass will be calculated.

𝑀 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝 = (Λ − 1)𝑀 𝑑𝑟 𝑦 (2.20)

Where Λ is the propellant mass ratio between the initial and final mass of the spacecraft (over its lifetime).
The propellant mass can be calculated using Tjolkovsky’s rocket equation. The specific impulse of the
PROPS selected in 2.2.4 is: 𝐼 𝑠𝑝 = 210[𝑠] By rewriting the equation, and plugging it in to 2.20 we can
obtain:
Δ𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑎𝑙
𝑀 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝 = (𝑒 𝐼 𝑠𝑝 𝑔0
− 1)𝑀 𝑑𝑟 𝑦 = 79.77[𝑘 𝑔] (2.21)

2.2.4. Choosing the type of PROPS

This section will deal with the decision making around what type of propulsion system to use in the
spacecraft. The propulsion system will be of an existing type. The most common propulsion technologies
are: Cold gas, Mono-propellant, Bi-Propellant, Solid Bi-Propellant and Electrical. To narrow down the
design choice, bi-propellant, solid and electrical, will not be considered. Electrical systems have high
specific impulse, however they provide little thrust, which consequently means that the thrusters need to
be fired for long periods of time to achieve a certain . Orbital control maneuvers require more thrust
than any current electrical systems can offer. Bi-propellant technologies offer more performance than
is required for this mission. Besides that these systems use complicated and expensive technologies.
Additionally the systems are heavy and large. Solid bi-propellant systems are similar to bi-propellant
systems, a key difference is that solid systems can only be fired once. For orbital control it is necessary to
perform multiple thrusts over the mission lifetime, therefore a solid system is not a viable option.
2.2. Propulsion System 11

Figure 2.2: This table compares the thrust and specific impulse of different propulsion technologies used in small satellites. Source:
https://www.nasa.gov/smallsat-institute/sst-soa/in-space 𝑝 𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛/4.5

This leads to the decision to be split between either monopropellant or cold gas propulsion systems for
the spacecraft being designed. To compare both systems it is crucial to dive into specific characteristics
typically considered for propellants and compare each one in order to figure out which one is more fit for
the mission design.

Table 2.4: Comparison of Hydrazine and Cold gas propulsive systems

Specifications Hydrazine Cold Gas
Specific Im- 206-235 57-65
pulse (Isp)
Density 0.9 0.5
ˆ
(g/cm3)
Pressurization 2930 41369
(kpa)
Thrust 0.02-572 0.001-266
Level
Thermal Heating required. Opera- No heating required. Operational range from -50°C to
Considera- tional range is above 7 °C +60°C
tion and below 49 °C.
Technological Typical layout is com- Typical system consists of a propellant tank, filter, high
Complexity posed of, propellant tank, pressure latch valve, pressure regulators, and a manifold
thruster module, fill/drain that feeds into a thruster assembly.
valve module, filter/pres-
sure transducer module,
propellant pipelines, cat-
alytic bed and temperature
sensors
Reliability > 750,000 ( on/off cycles) > 500,000 ( on/off cycles)
Continued on next page
2.3. Thermal Control System 12

Table 2.4: Comparison of Hydrazine and Cold gas propulsive systems (Continued)
Safety Corrosive, toxic, and poten- Inert, non-toxic propellants
tially carcinogenic. How-
ever frequently used and un-
derstanded

The specifications mentioned above broadly describe each propellant and its respective system. As
shown, it is clear that in most categories hydrazine propulsive systems outperform the cold gas ones,
mostly due to its inert stored chemical energy. This doesn’t conceal the fact that hydrazine systems are
less safe to work with, and are more complicated regarding technical functioning, components, and
temperature ranges. However, its widespread use and proven effectiveness are complemented by its
superior performance characteristics. Hydrazine offers a higher specific impulse, greater density, and
improved thrust levels. Additionally, it allows for longer on/off cycle durations. These properties enable
a hydrazine-based system to achieve greater Δ𝑉 manoeuvres within a given fuel volume compared to
cold gas alternatives. The ability to achieve greater Δ𝑉 manoeuvres in addition to the enhanced reliability
of hydrazine systems is particularly crucial for long-term station keeping and the final de-orbiting
manoeuvres of the spacecraft. Consequently, hydrazine has established itself as the more capable and
dependable choice for an earth-observing spacecraft propulsion system.

2.2.5. Components of the Propulsion System

As decided previously to continue with the hydrazine propulsion system, quite a few components make
this system, and have to be accurately depicted for compatibility with the spacecraft being designed.
The system will be based on the commercial design of a dual-branched hydrazine propulsion system
formulated by Rafael, an Israeli aerospace company. This design contains 8 low thrust thrusters of 1 force,
which as mentioned in the name are divided into two branches of 4 thrusters to improve redundancy
and increase reliability in case of thruster failure. Moving onto the propellant distribution network, these
thrusters will all be connected through their respective branch to a latch valve (one per branch), to control
the flow of propellant to the thrusters. The two latch valves will be connected to a propellant filter that
will remove contaminants in the fuel as soon as it leaves the propellant tank. A pressure transducer will
also be included in the system directly connected to the propellant lines, to monitor propellant pressure
and control valves. Finally, to load and drain the propellant tank there will be two crucial valves. These
include a fill drain valve to control propellant levels and a load vent one to control the pressurant gas in
the tank.
All of these components will be connected through the use of pipelines/tubes, where the propellant
will flow, in addition to brackets, clamps, and fasteners to hold them all in place. Other secondary
components such as thermostats and thermistors for thermal control and electrical harnesses for all
electrical components in the propulsion system will also be included.

2.3. Thermal Control System

The thermal control system (TCS) is responsible for creating and maintaining an appropriate environment
for the equipment and satellite structures, to function during the different phases and operations of the
spacecraft during its lifetime. It is additionally responsible for heat control, heat transportation/distribu-
tion as well as heat storage. [tab:TCS_Requirements].
The TCS has certain requirements that it must respect. These are listed in table??.

Table 2.5: TCS requirement list

Category Requirement Rationale
Functional Instruments The thermal environment in the spacecraft shall accom-
require- modate the temperature range of all instruments.
ments
Continued on next page
2.3. Thermal Control System 13

Table 2.5: TCS requirement list (Continued)

Acceptable thermal gradi- The TCS shall maintain a temperature gradient of during
ents launch, transfer and operational phase, within accept-
able margins to prevent subsystem failure
Temperature gradient The TCS shall maintain a temperature gradient of 289 to
302 K during launch, transfer and operational phase
Interfaces The TCS shall use materials with high thermal conduc-
tivity for thermal pipes and materials with low thermal
conductivity for insulation.
Non- Size The TCS shall not surpass a size of 1 x 1.5 x 2m
functional
require-
ments

Passive thermal control maintains temperature without the use of electrical power. Radiators, for example,
should be created with highly thermal conductivity materials.
To take into account worst case scenario, hot and cold: Hottest - closest to the sun, all systems operating
(usually all equipment) Coldest - Furthest from the sun sun, no systems operating (in case cannot initiate
systems, still maintain operation environment)
Tank and pipes transporting fuel to thrusters
Radiators Paint

2.3.1. Thermal environment

The spacecraft’s orbit has already been determined to be a LEO. This means it will experience several
different sources of heating, such as solar radiation, the Earth’s infrared radiation, and the Earth’s albedo
radiation[17]. These will act on the spacecraft while it is simultaneously cooled by the surrounding
environment.
In general, due to the alternating temperatures, a spacecraft in LEO experiences a range of temperatures.
The typical range is from −101◦ 𝐶 to 93◦ [17]. This will cause thermal deformation and vibration, vibration
which can lead to countless pores within the spacecraft and its subsystems. Of all the possible issues
hostile to the spacecraft, the temperature-induced ones make up 11%[17].

Solar Radiation
Solar radiation is simply the heat that the sun radiates. Of the three heat sources incident on the spacecraft,
the largest intensities of radiation will be solar radiation. Since the distance between the spacecraft and
the earth relative to the distance between the earth and the sun is so large, research tends to approximate
the spacecraft’s received solar radiation as that for the earth[16]. At aphelion in an earth orbit, the
solar intensity received will reach a minimum intensity of 1322𝑊/𝑚 2 , and at perihelion, a maximum
intensity of 1414𝑊/𝑚 2 [18]. Figure B.2 displays the solar intensities over a year to better demonstrate the
continuous variation.

Earth Albedo Radiation

Earth albedo radiation is the heat reflected by the earth. It varies with seasons, day and night time, as
well as geographic latitude and longitude[18]; therefore, it is a more complicated radiation source to
consider than the other two. The following equation can be used in order to approximate the Earth’s
albedo radiation intensity incident on the spacecraft.

𝐽𝑎 = 𝑝 ∗ 𝐹 ∗ 𝑆[18] (2.22)

where p is the albedo ratio, F is the view factor, and S is the solar intensity, which has a value of 1367𝑊/𝑚 2
For Earth orbits, the albedo ratio varies depending on the inclination of the orbit. Using figure Figure B.1
2.3. Thermal Control System 14

and the orbit inclination determined in work package 1 of about 90◦ , the min and max values for p are
the following: 0.38 and 0.46.
The nadir-facing view factor can be determined using the known orbit height of 7121𝑘𝑚], the earth’s
radius which is 6371[𝑘𝑚], and the following equation:

𝑟𝑒 2
𝑉𝐹 = ( ) [24] (2.23)
𝑟𝑒 + ℎ

Therefore, 𝑉 𝐹 ≈ 0.8 and, as a result, the min, average, and max earth albedo radiation received by the
spacecraft can be approximated. (𝐽𝑎 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 415.57𝑊/𝑚 2 and (𝐽𝑎 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 503.10𝑊/𝑚 2

Earth Infrared Radiation

Earth’s infrared radiation is the heat radiated directly from the Earth. It can be assumed that the earth
has the same intensity of infrared radiation across its whole surface[18]. Therefore, the Earth’s infrared
radiation only significantly varies according to the distance between the Earth and the sun. Therefore,
the maximum Earth infrared radiation intensity can be approximated as 247𝑊/𝑚 2 (at perihelion), and
the minimum as 214𝑊/𝑚 2 (at aphelion)[18].
However, since the spacecraft is in orbit, the radiation that it receives will be much lower. In order to
calculate an approximate value of the radiation received by the spacecraft at orbit height, the following
equation can be used.

𝐸 𝑝 = 237 ∗ (𝑅 𝑟𝑎𝑑 /𝑅 𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 )2 [18] (2.24)

where 𝐸 𝑝 is the Earth’s Infrared Radiation Intensity, 𝑅 𝑟𝑎𝑑 is the radius of the Earth, and 𝑅 𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 is the radius
of the spacecraft’s orbit. Therefore, 𝐸 𝑝 ≈ 189.71𝑊/𝑚 2 .

Orbit particularity
Although the typical maximum and minimum values for each type of radiation have been discussed
in the above subsections, the minimum values will actually reach 0 for two of the three types. This is
because part of the spacecraft’s orbit is shaded from the sun by the earth. This means that during this
time, the spacecraft will receive no solar radiation as well as no earth albedo radiation.

Other factors
There are also a few mission parameters that impact the radiation that the spacecraft receives. These
include the beta angle(the angle between the sun vector and the plane of the satellite orbit), satellite
altitude, spacecraft spin rate, and the position of the satellite [11]. These all contribute to how much solar
radiation, earth albedo, and earth infrared the spacecraft receives and determine which surfaces and
components are exposed to which thermal environment.

2.3.2. Internal heat estimation

The spacecraft is subject to both external and internal heat sources. The internal heat is generated by
the various processes within the spacecraft, notably Electrical–thermal energy conversion(electronic
devices), Chemical–thermal energy conversion(batteries), Mechanical–thermal energy conversion, and
Microwave–thermal energy conversion.
It is assumed that the thrusters are not operating and that the spacecraft is in the operation phase. This is
the phase that requires the largest amount of power and, therefore, the phase in which the internal heat
generation will be greatest.
In order to approximate the internal heat generated, the electrical efficiencies of the components listed in
Table 2.6 will be considered in order to approximate the power dissipated(heat generated) by each.
312.48 Ah, 28 V rechargeable Lithium-Ion battery. For this, the 69.6 kg VL51ES Li-ion cell manufactured
by Saft is selected. The mass is 26 kg higher than dimensioned, which is significant. However, finding a
battery with a 200 Wh/kg specific energy proved difficult. The selected battery meets all other criteria,
with a stored energy of 9100 Wh and capable of a voltage of 28 V
2.3. Thermal Control System 15

Table 2.6: Internal heat generation

Subsystem Minimum Temperature Maximum Temperature

Electronic equipment −15◦ 𝐶 50◦ 𝐶
Joint reducer −25◦ 𝐶 50◦ 𝐶
Structural parts −100◦ 𝐶 100◦ 𝐶
Antenna −100◦ 𝐶 100◦ 𝐶
Battery −5◦ 𝐶 30◦ 𝐶
Imaging cameras
MAIA 0◦ 𝐶 40◦ 𝐶
MSI −30◦ 𝐶 60◦ 𝐶
HIRS 16◦ 𝐶 29◦ 𝐶
Electromechanical products
Motor surface −50◦ 𝐶 85◦ 𝐶
Mechanical arm joint drive −30◦ 𝐶 65◦ 𝐶
Limits 24◦ 𝐶 29◦ 𝐶

Table 2.7: Internal heat generation

Subsystem Heat generated per second [W]

MAIA 29.75 ‗
MSI † 266
HIRS [4] 24
Electrical subsystem −100◦ 𝐶
Batteries −100◦ 𝐶
Global heat generation 24◦ 𝐶

The heat generated from propulsion will be treated separately as it generates the greatest heat of all
subsystems. Hence, it will be thermally isolated from the other subsystems.
Some heat will leak through the insulator; as such

2.3.3. Straw-man design

In this section, the
Given that
𝑄¤ 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 = 𝜖 𝐼𝑅 · 𝐴 𝑖,𝐼𝑅 · 𝜎 · 𝑇 4 (2.25)
𝑄¤ 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒 𝑑 = 𝛼 𝑠 · 𝐽𝑠 · 𝐴 𝑖,𝑠 + 𝛼 𝑎 · 𝐽𝑎 · 𝐴 𝑖,𝑎 + 𝜖 𝐼𝑅 · 𝐽𝐼𝑅 · 𝐴 𝑖,𝐼𝑅 (2.26)
Where subscript s, a and IR refer to solar radiation, albedo and IR radiation. 𝐴 𝑖 is the projected area
receiving solar, albedo and planetary radiation.
Then emissivity 𝜖 is determined by

𝛼 𝑠 · 𝐽𝑠 · 𝐴 𝑖,𝑠 + 𝛼 𝑎 · 𝐽𝑎 · 𝐴 𝑖,𝑎
𝜖= (2.27)
𝐴 𝑖,𝐼𝑅 · 𝜎 · 𝑇 4 − 𝐽𝐼𝑅 · 𝐴 𝑖,𝐼𝑅

𝐴 𝑒 denotes the emitting surface

2.3. Thermal Control System 16

2.3.4. Estimation of equilibrium temperature

In this section, the first estimation of the maximum and minimum equilibrium temperature of the
spacecraft will be calculated. It is assumed that the temperature is not controlled by any active technology
and that the emissivity and absorptance of the spacecraft are... In order to calculate the desired values,
the following formulas will be used.

𝑄¤ 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑄¤ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 [34] (2.28)

Which is equivalent to,

𝑄¤ 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑑 + 𝑃𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠 = 𝑄¤ 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 (2.29)

Since the max and min temperatures only occur during the most critical conditions, during orbit, the
thrusters will not be operating. This means that the power dissipated is equivalent to the internal heat
generated by the spacecraft calculated in subsection 2.3.2: 𝑃𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠 = [𝑊]
In order to calculate the heat emitted by the spacecraft, the following formula can be used.

𝑄¤ 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒 𝑑 = 𝜖 ∗ 𝜎 ∗ 𝑇 4 ∗ 𝐴 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛 𝑔 [34] (2.30)

where 𝜖 is the emissivity, 𝜎 = 5.67 ∗ 10−8𝑊/𝑚 2 𝐾 4 , T is the temperature of the spacecraft in kelvins, and
𝐴 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛 𝑔 is the emitting surface of the spacecraft.
Furthermore, in order to calculate 𝑄¤ 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 , the following equation, which takes into account all three
sources of incoming radiation, can be used.

𝑄¤ 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒 𝑑 = (𝑄¤ 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒 𝑑 )𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 + (𝑄¤ 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 )𝑎𝑙𝑏𝑒𝑑𝑜 + (𝑄¤ 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 )𝐼𝑅 [34] (2.31)

which can be expanded to,

𝑄¤ 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒 𝑑 = 𝛼 𝑠 ∗ 𝐽𝑠 ∗ 𝐴 𝑖,𝑠 + 𝛼 𝑎 ∗ 𝐽𝑎 ∗ 𝐴 𝑖,𝑎 + 𝜖 𝐼𝑅 ∗ 𝐽𝐼𝑅 ∗ 𝐴 𝑖,𝐼𝑅 (2.32)

where the subscripts: s, a, and IR refer to solar, albedo, and infrared radiation, respectively. In addition, J
is the heat, A is the receiving area, 𝛼 is absorbance, and 𝜖 is emissivity.

Maximum temperature
In this section, the maximum equilibrium temperature of the spacecraft will be approximated. When the
spacecraft is in the section of its orbit between the Earth and the sun, it will receive all three kinds of
thermal radiation at once. Solar radiation, Albedo radiation, and Earth Infrared radiation. Thus, the total
energy absorbed by the spacecraft (𝑄¤ 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
With the use of 𝑃𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠 , (𝑄¤ 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒 𝑑 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 and 𝑄¤ 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 calculated above as well as equation Equation 2.29, the
maximum equilibrium temperature can be approximated. 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 =

Minimum temperature
In this section, the maximum equilibrium temperature of the spacecraft will be approximated. When
the spacecraft is in the section of its orbit shaded from the sun by the Earth, it will receive only Earth’s
infrared radiation. Therefore the terms (𝑄¤ 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 )𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 and (𝑄¤ 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 )𝑎𝑙𝑏𝑒𝑑𝑜 are equal to zero and can be
ignored. Thus, the total energy absorbed by the spacecraft (𝑄¤ 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
With the use of 𝑃𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠 , (𝑄¤ 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒 𝑑 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 and 𝑄¤ 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 calculated above as well as equation Equation 2.29, the
minimum equilibrium temperature can be approximated. 𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
2.3. Thermal Control System 17

2.3.5. Thermal control strategy

In this section, a thermal control strategy for the spacecraft will be designed, and the appropriate TCS
components needed for it will be selected. The following table shows the required temperatures for
different components that will be present in the spacecraft.

Table 2.8: Subsystem Temperature Range

Subsystem Minimum Temperature Maximum Temperature

Electronic equipment −15◦ 𝐶 50◦ 𝐶
Joint reducer −25◦ 𝐶 50◦ 𝐶
Structural parts −100◦ 𝐶 100◦ 𝐶
Antenna −100◦ 𝐶 100◦ 𝐶
Battery −5◦ 𝐶 30◦ 𝐶
Imaging cameras
MAIA 0◦ 𝐶 40◦ 𝐶
MSI −30◦ 𝐶 60◦ 𝐶
HIRS 16◦ 𝐶 29◦ 𝐶
Electromechanical products
Motor surface −50◦ 𝐶 85◦ 𝐶
Mechanical arm joint drive −30◦ 𝐶 65◦ 𝐶
Limits 24◦ 𝐶 29◦ 𝐶

Passive technology
for what tech we need: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ded5/03c407f2cb8562c74ec3ada46ed8c9bf3410.pdf
Insulation:
multilayer insulation (MLI) is a type of insulator that uses radiation-heat transfer barriers to interrupt
the flow of energy. The barriers are usually thin polymer films with vapor-deposited metal on one or
both sides. Since a single barrier is not capable of blocking out all incoming radiation, they are usually
designed and layered in series leading to a nearly 100-percent-effective barrier[37].
One of the most important parameters that need to be considered when selecting an MLI is the maximum
and minimum temperatures that the equipment will be exposed to.
for mli options: https://blog.satsearch.co/2024-05-21-multi-layer-insulation-mli-for-satellites
Multi-Layer Composite structure (MLI) - (service life - 20 years) (specific mass - 4kg/m2) (aluminum and
carbon fiber skins and aluminum foil honeycombs)
Thermal surface:
Another mode of passive thermal control is the use of thermal surfaces like paints and chemical coatings.
One-half of the circumference will be an FEP MLI (emissivity of 0,4 to 0,85) whilst the other half will be
coated in black paint (emissivity of 0.95)
black paint emissivity - 0.95 Polished aluminium emissivity - 0.05
Three types of coatings: Pigmented - a mixture of pigment and solvent Contact - layers of substance
coated on a substrate without chemical reaction Conversion coatings = layers of compounds formed by
the chemical reaction of the substrate with another material.

Thermal conduction control:

Thermal radiators:
2.4. Structures and Mechanisms 18

Thermal Transfer:

Kirchhoff’s law states that the body’s emissivity equals absorptivity when it remains in thermal equilibrium
with its surroundings. This assumption will be made to obtain a value for the surface absorptivity.
Black body formula:
𝑊 = 𝜖𝐴𝜎𝑇 4
where W[Watts] is the power emitted by the surface, 𝜖 is the emissivity of the surface, A [𝑚 2 ] is the
surface area, 𝜎 is the Stephan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 ∗ 10−8 𝑊 𝑚 −2 𝐾 −4 ) and T is the temperature of the
body [K].
Δ𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐Δ𝑇
OSR (Optical Solar Reflector)

Active technology
Technology selected
https://web.archive.org/web/20240729030319/https://www.nasa.gov/SmallSat-institute/sst-soa/thermal-
control/
Layers, parres emiss

2.4. Structures and Mechanisms

2.4.1. Main Functions of Structures and Mechanisms Subsystem
During the launch phase the spacecraft structure is subjected to many different types of loads which it
has to endure to make sure the satellite can operate properly once it has reached low earth orbit. The
structure already has to endure heavy loads once the engines of the launch vehicle have fired up but the
rocked is not moving yet. These severe vibrations are mainly acoustic as the engine sounds reflect of the
ground thus creating severe vibrations in the launch vehicle and spacecraft, though some vibrations
also directly pass from the engines through the launch vehicle[27]. Once the rocket slowly accelerates
of the platform the acoustic vibrations dissipate and new loads arise caused by the high air density at
low altitudes. A compressive load is created by the dynamic pressure which is why the engine thrust is
usually lowered until the air density has fallen enough at a certain altitude. As the rockets accelerates
and gets lighter because of the fuel getting burnt the axial acceleration increases. Peak axial acceleration
usually happens at stage one separation. During launch the spacecraft structure is usually subjected to
the many dynamic loads of different frequencies which is why spacecraft structure is of vital importance
to ensure mission success. However, the structure of the spacecraft also protects the instruments from
radiation and it needs to be able to survive impact of space debris during its lifetime[27].
As the solar panels of the spacecraft take up a significant a amount of volume the solar array will be
stowed away during launch. This requires a deployment mechanism once the spacecraft is in orbit. There
are two main requirements for the deployment system: first of all the latches keeping the solar array in
place should not loosen due to vibrations during launch, and second of all a positive force should be
exercised on the deploy-able at all times during deployment[27].

2.4.2. Subsystem main requirements

From earlier research it is now possible to define the core requirements for the structural and mechanical
components of the S/C.

Table 2.9: Structures and mechanisms requirement list

Category Requirement Rationale ID
Continued on next page
2.4. Structures and Mechanisms 19

Table 2.9: Structures and mechanisms requirement list (Continued)

functional The Structure shall be Solar radiation is a major threat to electronics and SM-F-
able to shield all compo- can cause degradation and failure for systems as 01
nents sufficiently in or- radiation accumulates
der to keep the total ra-
diation dose below that
for which they were de-
signed for the mission
duration.
The S/C shall be able SM-F-
to maintain structural in- 02
tegrity and all post de-
ployment functionality
for a period of five years
after deployment
The structure of the S/C The arianne 62 user manual [<empty citation>] in- SM-F-
shall be able to support dicates the maximum acceleration during launch. 03
an acceleration of 6 G It is assumed to be the maximum load the S/C
longitudinally in launch wil have to endure during its life.
configuration
The S/C shall be able This requirement also arises from SM-F-
to endure a lateral ac- [<empty citation>] with this again being 04
celeration of 2 G during assumed to be the maximum.
launch.
The S/C Shall be de- Because the S/C shall vibrate during launch it SM-F-
signed to have a lateral shall not resonate with these vibration as this risks 05
natural frequency that damage to the S/C. [<empty citation>]
does not resonate with
2-100 Hz when attached
to the launch vehicle.
The S/C Shall be de- Same reasoning as previous requirement SM-F-
signed to have a longitu- 06
dinal natural frequency
that does not resonate
with 2-100 Hz when at-
tached to the launch ve-
hicle.
All calculations for struc- This safety factor was based upon those SM-F-
tural parts of the S/C and outlined by The European cooperation for 07
its mechanisms shall ad- space standardization guidelines for satellites
here to a safety factor of [<empty citation>].
1.1 for yielding and 1.25
for ultimate load.
Non- The S/C shall be able Due to the stresses of space such as atomic oxy- SM-NF-
functional to maintain structural in- gen found in LEO and wear caused by cyclical 01
tegrity and all post de- stresses imposed by the heating and cooling of the
ployment functionality S/C measures shall be taken to maintain mission
for a period of five years readiness.
after deployment
SM-NF-
02
Continued on next page
2.4. Structures and Mechanisms 20

Table 2.9: Structures and mechanisms requirement list (Continued)

SM-NF-
03
Range SM-NF-
04
Drift SM-NF-
05
Settling time SM-NF-
06

2.4.3. Preliminary Structure Dimensions and Design

To design the spacecraft’s primary structure as weight efficient as possible it is important to take into
consideration the placement of the instruments and electronics within the spacecraft. To avoid buckling
stiffeners are needed to steer clear of to many long unsupported members. Stiffening panels can be
placed in the middle of the spacecraft structure to which the electronics can also be attached. This option
will provide a straight load path which in term means the walls of the cylinder needs to be less thick. Not
attaching the instruments to the side walls also requires less thermal insulation as solar heating affect the
instruments less heavily. However, a center brace takes up more volume and a cylinder already has great
resistance against buckling by itself.
Materials commonly used in a spacecraft’s structure include aluminium and titanium alloys as well as
composite materials such as carbon and glass fibre epoxy laminates. An overview of common spacecraft
materials and their properties can be found in the table below.

Table 2.10: Common Spacecraft Material Properties [27]

Alloy Density [kg/m3 ] E [GPa] v 𝐹𝑡𝑢 [MPa] 𝐹𝑡 𝑦 [MPa]

6061-T6 Aluminium 2770 68.3 0.33 289 241
Beryllium 1850 241.0 0.08 342 211
Invar 8069 141.0 0.23 518 276
6AL-4V Titanium 4432 110.3 0.31 896 813
A-286 Steel (Fasteners) 8310 206.8 0.31 1100 827

The structure has to be designed primarily opting for high stiffness as buckling of the main structure will
be considered as failure of the spacecraft. The strength of the spacecraft material is also important though
as the satellite structure should not fail under the high loads during launch. The internal pressure is
however not taken into consideration as the spacecraft will not be pressurised. Taking these requirements
into consideration the main spacecraft structure will be made of 6061-T6 Aluminium with relatively low
density and high strength and stiffness, while being cheaper to manufacture than composite materials.
A-286 steel fasteners will be used as fasteners often have to endure higher stress loads, requiring a higher
strength than the main spacecraft body.
After choosing the material of the primary structure the thickness can be calculated using the formula
for critical buckling stress for thin-walled cylindrical shells[13]:

2𝐸𝑡
𝜎𝑐𝑟 = p (2.33)
3(1 − 𝑣 2 )𝐷

Here we assume use a Poisson ratio of 0.33 for 6061-T6 Aluminium and t is thickness and D the diameter
of the shell. The critical buckling load will be equal to the maximum axial load which is 6 G’s. To convert
this to a force, newton’s second law will be used with a safety factor of 1.1 and using the 1955.48 kg
estimated mass from the previous report:

𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.1 · 𝑚 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑟 𝑎 𝑓 𝑡 · 𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.1 · 1955.48 · 6 · 9.81 = 126.6𝑘𝑁 (2.34)

2.4. Structures and Mechanisms 21

As the cylinder is thin-walled the assumption is made that the cross sectional area, 𝐴 ≈ 2𝜋𝑅𝑡. Next
using the fact that stress equals load divided by the cross-sectional area and taking a 68.3 GPa Young’s
Modulus for 6061-T6 Aluminium and a cylinder diameter of 2.5 meter, numerical analysis leads to a
minimum required thickness of 0.6945 mm neglecting sheet imperfections. However, a knockdown factor
must be applied because of how easy imperfections for in thin walled cylinder manufacturing. In the
worst case the real critical buckling stress is 5 times as low, so the minimum required thickness is five
times as high or 3.47 mm[12]. Using this thickness the cross-sectional area can be calculated to be 0.0273
𝑚 2 , which leads to a maximum stress of 4.65 MPa which is well below the ultimate stress, highlighting
the importance of stiffness over strength.

For the dimensions of the S/C body a diameter of 2.5 m and a height of 2.5 meters. These dimensions
were selected as these in adition to the undeployed solar pannel wil make the total undeployed volume
of the S/C around 18.75 m3 . This puts it in line with the volume estimated during preliminary sizing in
the previous report and other S/C of the same class. The cube-like dimensioning was chosen as this
roughly approximates other satellites and there simply in no other data yet to indicate the necessity for
a different shape. Besides that this approach roughly minimizes surface area to volume for the given
volume yielding a smaller amount of radiation shielding and structural material required.

2.4.4. Propellant Tank Size Estimation

To keep development and overall project cost low an existing propellant tank will be used to store the
hydrazine propellant needed for attitude control. As a launch vehicle from Arianegroup is already used
it is convenient to use their propellant tanks as well. The Orbital Propulsion Centre, which is also part of
the Arianegroup, provides hydrazine tank options with different propellant volumes on their website‡ . Need propel-
lant volume
2.4.5. Solar array Dimensioning and decide
Solar panels are one of the most delicate exposed components of the S/C. In order to ensure that they which pro-
remain intact and deploy properly a careful approach is critical. pellant tank
is needed

Geometry
The total required area for the solar panel is 5.17 m2 . As the sideview area of the body is 2.5 m x 2.5
m it was decided that a one panel design will be used. The main reason for this is that it drastically
reduces the number of components required. This choice will decrease the cost of the deployment
mechanism and reduce the complexity leading to a higher reliability. However there are some potential
disadvantages. Chief among them is that a single panel would create an asymmetric moment on the
S/C due to sticking out on one side. Besides that this approach likely increases the total area moment of
inertia of the S/C and pulls it’s centre of gravity away from the centre of the cylindrical body. However
this is estimated not to pose a large issue as the solar panel mass is only 10 kg2.5.3.
Beside this the decision was made to place the solar panel 0.5 m offset from the main body in the
undeployed configuration. This was done in order to ensure that if the panels flex due to the lateral
loading they may hit the body leading to damage. Besides this it was done in order to leave space for
extremities such as sensors or thrusters in the space between the panel and S/C.
The area of the panel will be split so that the dimensions will be 2.5 m x 2.068 m as seen in with the
panel beginning 20 cm below the hinge. This is done to give the structure space to properly support the
panel, it also helps to offset the panel from the main body making sure that it will be in his shade less.

Materials & mass

As the specific solar panel has not been decided upon yet it is difficult to do specific estimations with
regards to how it will be supported, but considering the high launch loads it will be assumed that the
structure directly attaching the solar panel to the top hinge will weigh as much as the panel itself. This
margin is currently taken as it may be easier to scale this value down at a later time.
The top shaft creating the offset from the body will have to support quite a large moment during launch.
To ensure that it will hold the decision was made to use steel for its strength. In addition to this top
support it will be supported at the bottom by a second member, mainly to counter the later loads. The
mechanisms required for the unloading are described in ??. This bottom section will be made from
aluminium as it save weight and it will be less loaded. For further reference see the table below??
‡ https://www.space-propulsion.com/spacecraft-propulsion/hydrazine-tanks/index.html. Retrieved on: September

25, 2024
2.5. Electrical Power Subsystem (EPS) 22

2.4.6. Mechanisms Needed for the Spacecraft

When the launch vehicle reaches LEO the spacecraft needs to be separated from the launch vehicle. This
will done using pyrotechnic bolts made by Pyroaaliance which is part of the Arianegroup. The bolts have
an operating time of under 20 ms and weigh approximately 400 grams a piece. They have a reliability of
0.999955 but can be used only once. The pyrotechnics are ignited with electrical ignition of 1 Amperes
and 1 Watt for 5 minutes. These bolts are very strong cheap, reliable and light weight, making them
optimal for separation of the spacecraft from the launch vehicle § .
The easiest way to extent the solar array when the satellite has arrived in Low Earth Orbit is by using
a spring-powered hinge on both sides. As designing and manufacturing a completely new hinge
deployment system is costly and takes a lot of time it’s easiest to buy an existing product from a well
known manufacturer. The chosen hinge is the STI hinge axis assembly (HAA) made by SpaceTech GmbH.
The hinge is autonomous and spring driven and it releases the solar array into its final stiff position within
3 minutes. The HAA is made of carbon fibre reinforced plastic and consists of three main elements.¶ :
1. Providing torque for the deployment and latch into the final position is the C shaped alloy tape
spring manufactured by CarboSpaceTech called the "C-Blade" which is considered the core element
of the hinge.
2. The Torque Limiter (TL) prevents the de-latching of a solar panel in its final latched position as
high torques at the C-Blades can be absorbed in one axis only.
3. The final element, the exoskeleton (CAM), provides protection for the C-Blades from bounce back
caused by the latching of the solar panels.
The release mechanism for the HAA is also included by this manufacturer and happens in three steps:
First the Hold Down And Release Mechanism (HDRM) is released but the solar panels are still caught by
a hook-roller combination. The next step is driving the seasonal drive, which causes the boom hinges to
partly latch. Finally, the seasonal drive is driven even further and releases from the hook causing the
solar panels to fully deploy.¶

2.5. Electrical Power Subsystem (EPS)

The Electrical Power Subsystem (EPS) is crucial for ensuring reliable power supply throughout all mission
phases of the spacecraft. This chapter outlines the EPS requirements, focusing on the total power needed
during each phase and the evaluation of potential energy sources, such as solar panels, radioisotope
thermoelectric generators (RTGs), hydrogen fuel cells, and lithium-ion batteries. A selected power
source will be dimensioned and integrated with the spacecraft, and the properties of batteries—such as
energy density, capacity, mass, and size—will be assessed to ensure they meet mission needs. Finally,
commercially available power management units, batteries, and distribution systems will be selected to
optimise performance.

2.5.1. EPS Requirements Across Mission Phases

The total power requirements for Hawk-Eye will vary significantly depending on the mission phase:
launch, cruise, and in-orbit operations. Each phase has different power demands based on the instruments
and systems active at the time. To quantify each of these requirements estimations should be made based
on the similar spacecraft subsystems and instruments analyzed in the previous report.

Launch Phase
During launch, the spacecraft is powered by the launch vehicle Ariane-62, which typically takes about
10-15 minutes [23], so the satellite’s on board power systems are generally not fully active. However,
some critical subsystems, such as the command and control electronics, thermal management, and basic
telemetry, may still need some power supply from onboard batteries to ensure the satellite remains
functional and responsive. Therefore, there should be a source able to supply approximately 100 W to
200 W during this phase [14]. The power consumption in this phase is minimal compared to later stages.
§ https://pyroalliance.ariane.group/en/defence-activities/missile/explosive-bolts/[Retrieved on: September 25,

2024]
¶ https://spacetech-i.com/fileadmin/user_upload/Equipment/Mechanisms/STI-DS-02-202210-413_Datasheet_

DeploymentMechanisms_2022-10-11_web.pdf. Retrieved on: September 25, 2024.

2.5. Electrical Power Subsystem (EPS) 23

Cruise Phase
In the cruise phase, which occurs immediately after the spacecraft has been placed into orbit, the
satellite will begin orbit maneuvering to reach its final LEO with a semi-major axis of 7121 km and
an inclination of 98.4◦ degrees. This can last several hours. Moreover, with a delta-v requirement of
104 m s−1 for station-keeping and de-orbit, the propulsion system will consume substantial power during
these maneuvers. Additionally, the spacecraft must power its altitude control system (ACS) to stabilise its
orientation, communication systems to maintain contact with ground control and thermal management
systems to regulate onboard temperatures. Power consumption here is high due to propulsion and ACS,
though instruments such as MAIA, MSI, and HIRS/4 are likely inactive during this phase to conserve
energy. It can be estimated that the ACS could need around 250 W; the thermal regulation, 100 watts; and
communication another 200 W. In total the source should supply at least 550 W during this phase [14].

Operation and Science phases

Once the spacecraft reaches its designated orbit, the primary mission objectives begin. The instruments
onboard, including MAIA, MSI, and HIRS/4, will be activated to perform surface mapping and seismic
activity monitoring during all the years of the mission. These scientific instruments require consistent
power to operate, especially MSI (266 W), since it is the main instrument that composes the imaging
system. MAIA and HIRS/4 require another 85 W and 24 W respectively - values obtained from the
previous report. Data processing, storage, and transmission back to Earth also contribute to power
consumption, with the communication system continuously transmitting high-resolution data, thus it
can be assumed that an extra 750 watts supply is required [14]. In total, for this phase, the electrical power
source should continuously provide around 1000 W for the proper functioning of the active subsystems.

2.5.2. Assessment of Viable Power Sources

As to determine what power source to implement in Hawk-Eye, an assessment is conducted into which
power sources are available for use in the subject spacecraft. It is also important to distinguish between
mission phases, for it might be beneficial to use different power sources for the different phases.
Wertz and Larson [34] line out a number of common power sources, and importantly, distinguish between
energy storage and energy sources. For example, a battery can be both used as an energy source (in
which case it is called a primary battery) or an energy storage, in which case it is called a secondary
battery. Four types of energy sources are presented, namely: photovoltaic solar cells, static power sources,
dynamic power sources and fuel cells. Static power sources directly convert heat energy to electric energy,
something that happens in thermionic energy converters. Dynamic power sources use the heat energy to
set something in motion which intern produces electrical energy. The heat can be provided by either
concentrated solar power, radioisotopes, a nuclear fission reactor or other heat sources. The typical
specifications are given in Table 2.11, a summerised table of the one given by Wertz and Larson [34], in
the form of solar photovoltaic (solar panels), solar thermodynamic, radioisotopic, nuclear reactor and
fuel cells.
2.5. Electrical Power Subsystem (EPS) 24

Table 2.11: Comparison of Power Generation Technologies for Spacecraft [34]

Parameter Solar Photo- Solar Ther- Radioisotopic Nuclear Reac- Fuel Cell
voltaic mal Dynamic tor
Power Range 0.2 - 300 5 - 300 0.2 - 10 5 - 300 0.2 - 50
[]
Specific Power 25 - 200 9 - 15 5 - 20 2 - 40 275
[W kg−1 ]
Specific Cost 800 - 3000 1000 - 2000 16k - 200k 400k - 700k Not enough
[US$/W] data
Degradation Medium Medium Low Low Low
Over Life
Fuel Availabil- Unlimited Unlimited Very Low Very Low Medium
ity
Principal Ap- Earth- Interplanetary Interplanetary Interplanetary Interplanetary
plications Orbiting and Earth-
Orbiting

During launch phase, for a brief amount of time, a higher power is often required. To satisfy, a primary
battery is often used, for the lifespan is not required to be high. [34]

2.5.3. Power Source Selection and Dimensioning

Moving on, we need to determine which power source will be used for the spacecraft. This will have
impact on numerous other design factors and subsystems. It is therefore key to make a well-informed
decision.

Selection of Power Source

From 2.5.1, we find that for the launch phase, a power of 200 W is required, for cruise phase, this is
500 W, and for operation phase, it is 1000 W. For the biggest part of the lifetime, the spacecraft will be in
operation phase, so for most of it’s lifespan, a power of 1000 W will be required. Looking at 2.11, we see
that solar photovoltaic, radio-isotopic and fuel cells typically provide such an amount of power. Looking
at the other data points, solar photovoltaic has numerous advantages compared to the other options. It
has a greater specific power and a specific costs that is much more economical than the other options.
Additionally, solar power is typically used for earth-orbiting missions. Therefore, the choice is made to
use a solar photovoltaic power system. [34] It should be noted that this means there not only needs to
be a power generation system (solar panels), but also a storage system, for during nighttime, no power
can be generated, while it is still required. Dimensioning and selection of a rechargeable battery is thus
also required. Additionally, there also needs to be a power source during launch phase, when the solar
panels are not yet deployed. This is typically a non-rechargeable chemical battery.

Preliminary Dimensioning of Power Source

In order to dimension the power source, it is first important to find the required power output. While we
are using a solar powered system, it is important to consider that for a part of the orbit, no energy can be
generated due to the spacecraft falling in the shade. Also, we know that for most of the missions lifetime,
a power of 1000 W is required.
To find the amount of hours in daylight, simple geometry is used. Assuming the sun at an infinite
distance from earth, the angle without sunlight equals 𝜃 = 2 ∗ 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝑅𝑏 ), with 𝑅 the earths radius and
𝑏 the semi-major axis. Using a semi-major axis of 7121 km and the earths radius as 6371 km we find
𝜃 = 127◦
360 = 0.35 is the fraction of the orbit not in sunlight and 1 − 0.35 = 0.647 is the fraction in sunlight. To
. 127
1000
ensure 1000 [W] at all times, the solar panels need to provide a power of 0.647 = 1545 [W] during daytime.
It is also important to consider the lifetime degradation of the solar array. For this, we use 2.35.
2.5. Electrical Power Subsystem (EPS) 25

𝐿 𝑑 = (1 − degredation per year)satellite life (2.35)

For this, we use a high estimate degradation per year from Wertz and Larson [34], namely 3.75%. Filling
in these values, with the satellite life of 5 years, we find a lifetime degradation of (1 − 0.0375)5 = 82.6%.
1545
The design power required thus is 0.826 = 1871 W.
Moving on, the sizing of the solar array is considered. First, for determining the area2.36 is used:

𝑃𝑟𝑒 𝑞
𝐴= (2.36)
𝐺𝜂

Where 𝐴 is area of the solar array, 𝑃𝑟𝑒 𝑞 is power required during sunlight, 𝐺 is the solar constant and 𝜂 is
the efficiency. Using 𝑃𝑟𝑒 𝑞 = 1871 W, 𝐺 = 1361 W m−2 [6] and 𝜂 = 0.266 [36] we find 𝐴 = 5.17 m2
From the area, we can calculate the solar array’s mass. Spectrolab, a Boeing company provides the area
density of solar panels as 2.06 kg m2 ‖ . Then, the mass can be calculated by multiplying the area by the
area density: 𝑀 = 5.17 ∗ 2.06 = 10.643 kg. Thus, the mass of the solar array is equal to 10.65 kg.

Integration with Spacecraft

Lastly, it is necessary to determine how the solar panels are integrated within the spacecraft. While the
satellite is in a sun-synchronous orbit, it is only necessary that the solar panel has one degree of freedom.
Taking the area of the largest side of the spacecraft 2.5 ∗ 1.5 = 3.75 m2 , which means a panel on both sides
is enough to fullfill 5.17.We can dimension the panel as a rectangle of 1.2 x 4.75 m, with the long side
split in two sections of 2.375 m, with the sattelite.

2.5.4. Battery Requirements for the Mission

The satellite’s energy storage system requires both a non-rechargeable battery for the launch phase and a
rechargeable battery to power the satellite during eclipses and nighttime. The sizing of each battery type
is determined by factors such as energy density, specific energy, capacity, mass, and size, while adhering
to mission constraints.

Energy Requirements Estimation

During the Launch Phase, the spacecraft requires between 100 and 200 W of power over a maximum
duration of 15 minutes. The energy required is calculated by multiplying the average power by the
duration:  
100 + 200 15
𝐸launch = ×
2 60
From this, the energy needed for the launch phase is approximately 37.5 Wh.
In the Cruise Phase, the satellite will consume 550 W over a period of up to 4 hours. The energy required
during this phase is calculated as:
𝐸cruise = 550 × 4
This results in a total energy requirement of 2200 Wh for the cruise phase.
For the Operation and Science Phases, the satellite will orbit Earth and periodically enter eclipse phases.
During these eclipses, lasting about 35 minutes each [25], the satellite will require 1000 W of power:

35
𝐸operation = 1000 ×
60
This results in approximately 583.3 Wh per eclipse. Over the course of 15 orbits per day [25], the total
energy requirement is:
𝐸total, operation = 583.3 × 15
yielding a daily energy consumption of around 8749.5 Wh.
‖ https://www.spectrolab.com/DataSheets/Panel/panels.pdf
2.5. Electrical Power Subsystem (EPS) 26

Battery Selection Criteria

For the Launch Phase, a non-rechargeable Lithium-Thionyl Chloride (Li-SOCl2 ) battery is selected. With
a specific energy of 500 Wh/kg and energy density of 1000 Wh/L [5], the required capacity is determined
by:
𝐸launch
𝐶launch = (2.37)
𝑉
where 𝑉 = 28 V is the nominal voltage , resulting in a capacity of approximately 1.34 Ah.
The battery mass and volume are calculated using:

𝐸launch
𝑀launch = (2.38)
Specific Energy

𝐸launch
𝑉launch = (2.39)
Energy Density
Thus, the mass and volume are approximately 0.075 kg and 0.0375 L, respectively.
For the Cruise and Operation Phases, a rechargeable Lithium-Ion battery is chosen due to its specific
energy of 200 Wh/kg and energy density of 300 Wh/L [28]. The capacity required for the cruise phase is:

𝐸cruise
𝐶cruise = (2.40)
𝑉
which gives a capacity of about 78.57 Ah. For the operation phase, the required capacity is:

𝐸total, operation
𝐶operation = (2.41)
𝑉
resulting in a capacity of around 312.48 Ah.
The battery mass and volume are calculated similarly for both phases. For the cruise phase:

𝐸cruise
𝑀cruise = (2.42)
Specific Energy

𝐸cruise
𝑉cruise = (2.43)
Energy Density
For the operation phase:
𝐸total, operation
𝑀operation = (2.44)
Specific Energy
𝐸total, operation
𝑉operation = (2.45)
Energy Density

The mass and volume values for both phases are calculated accordingly. In Table 2.12 all the values for
the previous calculations are summarized.

Table 2.12: Preliminary Dimensioning of Power Source

Category Parameter Value
Solar Power Require- Power during sunlight 1545 W
ment
Solar Array Area Area calculation 4.268 m2
Continued on next page

‗ The choice of 28 volts for the battery calculations is a common nominal voltage used in many spacecraft power systems,

especially for satellite and spacecraft applications [19]. This voltage level is typical for both Lithium-Ion and other battery types
used in space due to its balance between efficiency and safety.
2.5. Electrical Power Subsystem (EPS) 27

Table 2.12: Preliminary Dimensioning of Power Source (Continued)

Launch Phase Duration 15 min
(Non-Rechargeable
Battery)
Power Requirement 100-200 W
Total Energy Required 37.5 Wh
Specific Energy 500 Wh/kg
Energy Density 1000 Wh/L
Capacity 1.34 Ah
Mass 0.075 kg
Volume 0.0375 L
Cruise Phase Duration 4h
(Rechargeable
Battery)
Power Requirement 550 W
Total Energy Required 2200 Wh
Specific Energy 200 Wh/kg
Energy Density 300 Wh/L
Capacity 78.57 Ah
Mass 11 kg
Volume 7.33 L
Operation Phase Duration Continuous
(Rechargeable
Battery)
Power Requirement 1000 W
Total Energy Required (per eclipse) 583.3 Wh/orbit
Total Daily Energy Requirement 8749.5 Wh/day
Capacity 312.48 Ah
Mass 43.75 kg
Volume 29.16 L

2.5.5. Selection of Power Control Components

Battery selection
For the spacecraft, two batteries are required. First, a look is taken at the primary battery for the launch
phase. A Lithium-Thionyl-Chloride battery at 28 V and with 1.4 Ah of capacity was selected. From
commercially available batteries, it was decided to use four of the Eaglepicher-made LTC-7PMS, these
have nominal voltage of 7 V and capacity of 750 mAh [9]. When placed in series, the voltage is thus 28,
and the capacity 3000 mAh, well above the requirement, but as the weight of the battery is only 20 g,
the use of four of these batteries only exceeds the calculated value by 5 g, which we consider acceptable
[9]2.38.
The other battery is a 312.48 Ah, 28 V rechargeable Lithium-Ion battery. For this, the 69.6 kg VL51ES
Li-ion cell manufactured by Saft is selected. The mass is 26 kg higher than dimensioned, which is
significant. However, finding a battery with a 200 Wh/kg specific energy proved difficult. The selected
battery meets all other criteria, with a stored energy of 9100 Wh and capable of a voltage of 28 V. It was
thus decided to choose this battery, which is a decision we can revisit if it is found that the mass budget
is exceeded. Further details of both batteries can be found in Table 2.13. [8]
2.6. Other Subsystems 28

Table 2.13: Type, capacity, voltage, mass, size, and number of batteries used

Battery Type Capacity Voltage [V] Mass [kg] Size [mm] Amount
[Ah]
LTC-7PMS Primary 0.75 7.0 0.019 30.48 x 17.78 4
[9] x 8.89
VL51ES [8] Rechargeable 255 27 - 41.4 69.6 699 x 396 x 1
249

Power Management Unit

The power management unit (PMU) regulates, controls and distributes power to different subsystems
by handling the energy from the solar arrays. Two common commercial choices for small satellites are
the Clyde Space PMU or the GOMSpace NanoPower PMU. For this mission the GOMSpace NanoPower
PMU is the most suitable since for a more complex and higher-stake mission it can provide better
capabilities, making it more reliable. Actually, the NanoPower P80 is an Electrical Power System (EPS) for
small satellites, consisting of a Power Management Unit (PMU), Array Conditioning Unit (ACU) and a
Power Distribution Unit (PDU), stacked on top of each other and fitted into an enclosure with mounting
brackets that functions as shield and provides thermal dissipation [1]. According to the GOMSpace A/S
NanoPower P80 datasheet, the power management unit has a compact size of 95 x 95 x 38.8 mm (length x
width x height) and a mass of 360.8 g.

Power Distribution
Power distribution is handled through power buses and distribution cables to ensure the power is
delivered at the correct voltage and current to each subsystem. Good options for the cables are COTS
(Commercial Off-The-Shelf) cables used for LEO satellites like Alpha Wire or Belden Space Wire ‗‗ . Add block
diagram
2.6. Other Subsystems showing
main compo-
This section will briefly outline the key requirements, functions and architecture for the Command and
nents, power
Data Handling (C&DH), communications, and navigation subsystems. Moreover, their impact on the
flow and effi-
overall spacecraft design will be analyzed.
ciencies.

2.6.1. Command and Data Handling

The C&DH subsystem mainly manages the spacecraft’s operations. One of its primary functions is to act
as the central processing unit for all the commands sent to the S/C, as well as processing telemetry and
data from the payload and housekeeping systems. It also handles data logging so that it is processed in
real-time with minimal latency [22], allowing for efficient control: and it is in charge of data storage and
real-time data retrieval. Furthermore, it monitors the health and status of the S/C, using telemetry data
to provide critical feedback to ground control.

Requirements:

Table 2.14: Command and Data Handling Subsystem Requirement List

Category Requirement Rationale ID
Functional There shall be sufficient Real-time processing power is critical to handle CDH-F-
processing power. real-time commands and telemetry data with min- 01
imal latency.
There shall be on-board Memory storage is essential to retain valuable CDH-F-
memory. data when communication with ground stations 02
is not possible.
The system shall include Redundancy ensures that the system can continue CDH-F-
redundant components. to operate in the event of a component failure, 03
enhancing reliability.
Continued on next page

‗‗ Digikey - Connectors and Cabling for Space Applications

2.6. Other Subsystems 29

Table 2.14: Command and Data Handling Subsystem Requirement List (Continued)
Non- The processing power Operating within thermal limits is crucial for main- CDH-
Functional should operate within taining system performance and longevity. NF-01
defined thermal limits to
avoid overheating.
The system shall be de- Minimizing power consumption extends the life CDH-
signed for low power of the satellite’s power supply and reduces opera- NF-02
consumption to maxi- tional costs.
mize operational effi-
ciency.

To accomplish the power requirements the C&DH subsystem will include a space-qualified and radiation-
hardened processor. RAD750 has been chosen from research since it is capable of performing up to 240
MIPS (million instructions per second)†† . This processor has a mass of 0.5 kg and consumes around 10 W
of power. Then, to ensure the mission robustness, redundancy is vital, so the subsystem will include
multiple backups for critical components. It will also be equipped with 256 GB of non-volatile flash
memory to store large volumes of data in the event of communication outages [7]. The storage unit
weighs 0.2 kg and consumes 2 W.

2.6.2. Communications Subsystem

The communications subsystem is responsible for establishing and maintaining a reliable up-link and
down-link between the spacecraft and the ground control. It handles telemetry, tele-commands, and the
transmission of scientific data collected throughout the entire mission.

Requirements:

Table 2.15: Communications System Requirement List

Category Requirement Rationale ID
Functional The transceiver shall be Selecting the appropriate frequency band is es- COM-
S-band or X-band. sential for achieving high data rates and reliable F-01
communication links.
Minimum data transmis- A high data transmission rate is necessary to en- COM-
sion rate of 500 Mbps. sure timely delivery of scientific data to ground F-02
stations [15].
The system shall include A high-gain antenna is critical for transmitting COM-
a high-gain parabolic an- large amounts of scientific data, such as high- F-03
tenna. resolution spectral images.
It shall also include An omni-directional antenna is essential for con- COM-
an omni-directional low- stant telemetry and tracking, ensuring the satel- F-04
gain antenna primarily. lite’s operational status is monitored.
Antennas shall be gim- Gimbaled antennas allow for optimal alignment COM-
baled. with ground stations, improving communication F-05
reliability.
Non- The communication sys- Reliability in thermal extremes is essential for con- COM-
Functional tem should operate reli- sistent communication performance throughout NF-01
ably under varying ther- the mission.
mal conditions.
Continued on next page

†† Ars Technica - Space Grade CPUs

2.6. Other Subsystems 30

Table 2.15: Communications System Requirement List (Continued)

The system shall have a Security is vital to protect sensitive scientific data COM-
robust encryption mech- during transmission to ground stations. NF-02
anism for secure data
transmission.

An X-Band High-Data-Rate Transmitter from XONOS‡‡ offers a transmission rate of up to 1 Gbps,

more than sufficient to accommodate the spacecraft needs. Tesat-Spacecom produces this same type
of transceivers with a range mass between 1 to 2 kg, thus we can assume the same range for this one,
requiring 40 W of power during peak transmission§§ . Antenna Siz-
ing
2.6.3. Navigation Subsystem
The navigation subsystem provides precise orbit determination and supports autonomous navigation,
particularly during critical phases like orbit insertion and station-keeping. The primary component of
this subsystem is a dual-frequency Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) receiver, which ensures
sub-meter accuracy for the spacecraft’s position throughout its mission. The GNSS receiver is vital for
ensuring the spacecraft can conduct precise orbital maneuvers and maintain its intended trajectory. ¶¶

Requirements:

Table 2.16: Navigation Subsystem Requirement List

Category Requirement Rationale ID
Functional The system shall obtain High-precision positioning is crucial for mission NS-F-
high-precision position success, especially for tasks requiring accurate 01
data with sub-meter ac- data collection.
curacy during orbit.
There shall be redundant Redundancy is essential for maintaining naviga- NS-F-
GNSS receivers. tion accuracy in the event of receiver failure and 02
to prevent loss of navigation data.
Non- The navigation system Reliability under different orbital conditions is nec- NS-NF-
Functional shall operate reliably un- essary to ensure consistent performance through- 01
der varying orbital con- out the mission.
ditions.
The system should be Minimizing power consumption is important for NS-NF-
designed for low power the overall efficiency and longevity of the satellite’s 02
consumption to maxi- power system.
mize operational effi-
ciency.

To obtain the high-precision data, the subsystem already contains the GNSS. Additionally, a 3-axis Inertial
Measurement Unit (IMU)‗‗‗ will be supplemented to provide attitude data, especially during periods
when GNSS signals are unavailable. Together, these components provide high-precision navigation data,
crucial for mission success. The data generated by the navigation subsystem is integrated with the ADCS
to maintain precise orientation and position, enabling accurate pointing of the spacecraft’s instruments
and effective control during mission-critical operations. It can be assumed that these components might
weigh a total of 0.5 kg and consume 5 W of power††† .
‡‡ Syrlinks XONOS Datasheet
§§ Tesat-Spacecom Product Page
¶¶ Global Navigation - GNSS
‗‗‗ https://www.advancednavigation.com/tech-articles/inertial-measurement-unit-imu-an-introduction/#:

~%3Atext=An%20IMU%20(sometimes%20referred%20to%20as%20an%20inertial%20reference%20unit
††† https://www.nasa.gov/smallsat-institute/sst-soa/guidance-navigation-and-control/#:~%3Atext=The%

20Guidance,%20Navigation%20&%20Control%20(GNC)%20subsystem%20includes%20the%20components
2.6. Other Subsystems 31

2.6.4. Impact on other subsystems

The selected components of the C&DH, communications, and navigation subsystems have been selected
to ensure minimal interference with other subsystems. The power consumption and mass of these
subsystems are moderate, ensuring compatibility with the spacecraft’s EPS and structural design.
Additionally, redundant components have been integrated where applicable to increase mission reliability.
The C&DH and communications subsystems interface directly with the spacecraft’s ADCS, providing
essential data for precise orientation and control. Similarly, the navigation system ensures accurate
station-keeping, contributing to the overall mission success.
3 Revised budgets

32
4 Conclusion

33
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A Task Division

Table A.1: Distribution of the workload

Student Names Tasks Hours spent

Alexander van Duyvenboode
Daniel Gallego-Preciado
Lucas Garcia Gome
Sien Wevers
Kiki Morelisse
Chiem Denen
Matthies Egmond
Raphael Dussaud
Jasper Copray
Jose Luis Fortes

36
B Additional Figures

Figure B.1: Albedo ratio and orbit inclination [18]

Figure B.2: Solar radiation intensity variations over a year [16]

37