1.

Definition, history and scope of Pharmacognosy including

indigenous system of medicine.
PHARMACOGNOSY- History and Scope
It literally means the knowledge or Orally, then through Baked Clay Tablets,
science of drugs. This word is derived from Manuscript Herbals and Materia-medica.
two Greek words, ‘PHAMACON’-meaning Presently even computer is helping in this
‘dry herb’ and, ‘GIGNOSCO’- meaning ‘to process of transmission of knowledge.
acquire knowledge of’. The word The available evidences suggest that the
pharmacognosy was coined by C.A. Seydler; Babylonians were aware of healing power(s) of
a German scientist, in the year 1815, in his many plants. The PAPYRUS-EBERS (Ebers
doctoral thesis, titled- ANALECTA
papyrus), a famous document found in tomb of
PHARMACOGNOSTICA mummy indicates that Egyptians were having
The simplest definition of the knowledge of medicinal effects of plants.
pharmacognosy is- “the science which aims at It is mainly the Greek scientists who
complete and systemic knowledge of enriched the natural sciences. Hippo crates
Structural, Physical, Chemical and Sensory (460-370 BC) dealt with Anatomy and
characters of Crude drugs and their Physiology. Aristotle (384-322 BC) wrote
Constituents; obtained from Plants, Animals about Animal Kingdom. Theopharastus
and Mineral sources.” Another definition is- (Aristotle’s pupil; 370-287 BC) described
“the science of simultaneous application of mainly the Plant Kingdom. Dioscorides
various scientific disciplines with the object of
described various Medicinal Plants in 78 AD.
acquiring the knowledge of crude drugs from Pliny the Elder (23-78 AD) complied 37
every aspect or point of view.” volumes on Natural History. Galen (131-200
AD) complied 20 volumes, describing the
methods of preparing formulae from plant and
HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF
animal drugs.
PHARACOGNOSY
From this point the Medicine and
The first requirement of primitive man-
Pharmacy developed along separate paths. The
was food. It ate available plants, hence arose
Physicians started specializing in Diagnosis
the categorization of these into EDIBLE and
and Prescribing whereas the Pharmacists
NON-EDIBLE. Non-edible were further
(Apothecary) started specializing in
categorized into poisonous and ‘causing other
identification, collection, preparation and
effects’ like emesis (vomiting) or diarrhoea.
compounding of drugs. The materials
These and similar effects and healing powers of
possessing medicinal values were arranged
many plants were certainly discovered
alphabetically into following major heads
accidentally, but; this knowledge, once gained
was too important to be forgotten. Each The Plant materials.
progeny enriched this knowledge, mainly by The Animal materials.
trial and error method and passed it on to next
generation. In beginning, this passage was The Mineral materials.

1
and described as separate entities. The books Till the beginning of 20th century, the
thus prepared came to be known as Herbals. A pharmacognosy developed mainly on the lines
few important herbals are- of descriptive botany with emphasis on
identification (Entire or Powdered drugs),
ORTUS SANITATIS, 1491- It is written in
history, cultivation collection, preparation,
Latin. English translation of title is- “ Garden
storage and commerce of drugs.
of Health”. Author not known.
During the period 1934-1960 the knowledge of
DE-HISTORIA STIRPIUM, 1542- It is
pharmacognosy has been greatly enriched by
written in Latin. Author Leonhart Fuchs.
the application of principles of plant chemistry
A NEW HERBAL, 1551- It is in English. (organic and Bio-chemistry), Pharmacology,
Author William Turner. and modern methods of analysis. Important
With increase in knowledge about events during this period have been-
medicinal substances the description started ❖ Isolation of Penicillin (1928) by A.
including their actions, botanical and Fleming and its large-scale production
zoological classification and even the chemical by Florey and Chain in 1941.
constituents. The physical agents of treatments
❖ Isolation of Alkaloids from Rauwolfia
like heat and electricity were also included.
(Reserpine), Vinca (Vincristine and
These books were now called Materia
Vinblastine) and Opium (Morphine).
Medica. One such example of Materia Medica
Their structure and use were studied.
is- Materia Medica by Pereira (1839). The
knowledge thus accumulated became beyond ❖ Isolation of various antibiotics like
the scope of single author hence following four Streptomycin, Chloramphenicol and
distinct departments of study developed- Tetracyclines.
Pharmaceutical chemistry- It includes the ❖ SAR (Structure Activity Relationship)
theory and fundamental principal of chemistry of various active constituents studied.
with emphasis on pharmaceutical substances. ❖ Semi-synthetic drugs obtained from
Pharmacy/Pharmaceutics- This department is natural products.
concerned with modes/methods of treatment of ❖ Certain plant drugs served as models for
crude drugs/chemicals so as to prepare suitable synthetic drug e.g. Morphine for potent
formulations, ready to administer. analgesics like Apomorphine,
Pharmacology/Pharmacodynamic- This Pethidine. Salicin served as model for
department is concerned with study of response Aspirin.
of organism when treated with medicinal ❖ Biosynthetic pathways for bio-synthesis
substance. of primary and secondary metabolites,
Pharmacognosy-It is concerned with study of studied. Examples are- Calvin Cycle
Structural, Physical, Chemical and Sensory (photosynthesis) Shikimic Acid
characters of Crude drugs and their Pathway (for aromatic compounds)
Constituents; obtained from Plants, Animals Acetate Mevalonate pathway (for
and Mineral sources. biosynthesis of terpenoid compounds)
PROGRESS FROM 1960 ONWARDS

2
 During this period much newer Similarly the animal drugs include the
compounds have not been discovered, but entire animal, some part of it or its product e.g.
newer and better methods for production of Entire animals- Cantharides, Leech, Mylabris.
Antibiotics, Hormones and Anti-tumour
compounds have been devised. From 6- Amino Animal’s Part- Gall bladder, Pancreas, thyroid
Penicillanic Acid (6-APA), important broad gland.
spectrum Antibiotics like Ampicillin, Oxacillin, Animal Products- Cochineal, Shellac.
Methicillin, Cloxacillin and Phenethicillin.
Examples for mineral are- Bentonite, Kaolin
These developments have helped the and Talc.
pharmacognosy to develop to a well-
Fibres like Cotton, Silk and wool (used in
established subject of pharmaceutical science
surgery and dressing) are studied.
from its descriptive botany stage.
Substances like Agar, Beeswax, Fixed oils,
Lanolin, Lard, Honey, Gelatin, Spermaceti,
SCOPE OF PHARMACOGNOSY Starch and Suet can be obtained in fairly pure
Pharmacognosy includes the knowledge state. These do not have any medicinal value
of History, Distribution, Identification, but are used for various pharmaceutical
Cultivation, Collection, Preparation, purposes. These are categorized as
Evaluation, Preservation and uses of Natural Pharmaceutical-aid and studied under this
drugs and their constituents; of Plant, Animal subject.
and Mineral origin. Filter-aids of natural origin like Asbestos and
The plant drugs may be entire plant, some part Fuller’s earth also come within scope of this
of it or its product e.g. subject.

Entire Plant-Irish moss, Ergot, Ephedra and Other substances falling within its purview are-
Datura. Allergens, Anti-biotics, Herbicides,
Immunizing agents and Insecticides.
Plant Parts-
Technical products; which find use even in
Roots- Aconite, Ipecac, Senega. other industries and studied in pharmacognosy
Rhizomes- Ginger, Rhubarb, Turmeric. are- Beverages, Condiments, flavouring agents,
Solvents of biological origin and Tannins.
Leaves- Buchu, Digitalis, Senna.
Barks- Ashoka, Cinchona, Cinnamon.
FORMAT FOR SYSTEMIC STUDY OF
Fruits- Amla, Bael, Black pepper, Fennel,
DRUGS IN PHARMACOGNOSY
Psoralea and Senna pod.
To acquire complete and systemic
Seeds-Isbagol, Mustard, Nux-vomica.
knowledge of any drug, it is studied under
Plant Products- Acacia (dried gummy following headings-
exudates), Aloe (dried leaf juice), Balsams
Origin- This includes Biological source,
(pathological resin), Catechu (dried aqueous
extract of heart wood), Fixed oils, Opium Geographical source and History.
(dried latex from capsule and Volatile oils.

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Cultivation, Collection and preparation- It psychology and spirituality. In ayurveda the
means the Cultivation, Collection, Drying, immense power of health maintenance,
Treatment and Packing of drug so that it prevention and treatment of diseases and
maintains its potency during storage. longevity lies in its HOLISTIC approach.
Characters- It includes Macroscopical HOLISTIC APPROACH OF AYURVEDA
(physical), Microscopical (histological) and Ayurvedic philosophy believes that the
Sensory characters. ultimate goal of medical treatment is- complete
Constituents- Under this heading we study restoration of physical and mental well being
important Active constituents and other with minimum tampering of homeostasis of
constituents present. system. To achieve this goal the ayurveda
adopts the holistic approach towards Disease,
Chemical Tests- it includes those chemical
Patient and Drug i.e. these are viewed in
tests, which help in Identification or evaluation
totality instead the component part of a
of drug under study.
complex system.
Evaluation- It means judging the quality of
DISEASE: According to ayurveda, there are
drug by means of various Physical, Chemical
three life forces or biological humours in the
and other parameters so as to know whether the
body named- ‘VATA’, ‘PITTA’ and
drug is of acceptable quality or not.
‘KAPHA’. The Kapha is organic body and the
Uses- It includes various Therapeutic and other Vata and Pitta are its functional parts. In each
Pharmaceutical Uses. individual one humour, predominates deciding
Substituents- It includes those drug(s), which the psychosomatic make up or PRAKRITI of
can be used in place of drug under study. that individual. Perfect balance of these
humour means health while imbalance means
Adulterant- It includes possible adulterant(s)
disease
and their detection by various means.
Patient is also viewed as individual within
INDIGENOUS SYSTEMS OF MEDICINE
his/her socio-ecological system including
AYURVEDA his/her psychosomatic make up.
The word ‘AYURVEDA’ is derived from Holistic approach towards drug us that it is
‘AYURH’ meaning life and ‘VEDA’ meaning always the entire drug, which benefits the
knowledge; hence the ayurvedic science is patient. Drugs are prescribed to restore the
based upon principals of maintaining the health balance of biological humours. A drug has its
of a healthy person and relieving the patient action due to following five characteristics-
from diseased state.
RASA- Taste
Ayurveda is truly a natural and traditional
VIPAKA- Taste of digestion product of the
healing system of India as its existence has
drug
been proved as far back as 3000 BC. It is
considered to be part of Vedic science, which GUNA- Certain Physical attributes
includes YOGA, MEDITATION and VEERYA- Intrinsic property correlated to Sun
ASTROLOGY. The ayurveda mainly includes (Ushanveerya) and Moon (Sheetveerya)
herbal drugs, in addition to dietetics, surgery,

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PRABHAVA- Action(s) specific to the drug observation of the patient's symptoms and
and independent of other four characteristics temperament.
Action(s) of a drug based upon its 1st four According to Unani practitioners, the failure of
characteristics can perfectly be predicted but the body's ability to maintain its own health,
not the actions based upon its Prabhava may lead to derangement of the normal
characteristic. equilibrium of the body’s humors. Abnormal
humors are believed to lead to pathological
The basis of drug action, as explained; clearly
changes in the tissues at the affected site,
shows that drug can benefit the patient only in
creating the clinical manifestations of illness.
its totality.
The theory postulates the presence of blood,
UNANI (YUNANI) SYSTEM OF phlegm, yellow bile and black bile in the
MEDICINE human body. Each person's unique mixture of
Unani is Perso-Arabic system of medicine and these substances determines
is based on the teachings of the Greek his mizaj (temperament). A predominance of
physicians Hippocrates and Galen. blood gives a sanguine temperament
(Optimistic person); a predominance of phlegm
It was introduced to India by the 13th century
makes one phlegmatic (Unemotional and calm
with the establishment of the Delhi
disposition); yellow bile, bilious or choleric
Sultanate and it took its own course of
(Irritable); and black bile, melancholic (Always
development during the Mughal Empire.
reflecting sadness).
During this time it was greatly influenced by
Indian medical teachings of SHSHUTA and After diagnosing the disease, treatment follows
CHARAKA. In 14th century Alauddin a pattern -
Khalji provided royal patronage to this system ➢ Elimination of cause
and this led to its development in India, and ➢ Normalization of humors
also the creation of Unani literature. ➢ Normalization of tissues/organs
BASICS OF UNANI SYSTEM These therapies include cupping,
The origin of Unani medicine is based on four Aaromatherapy, bloodletting, bathing, exercise,
humours: phlegm (balgham), blood and massaging the body. It may also involve
(dam), yellow bile (ṣafrā) and black the prescription of Unani drugs or surgery.
bile (saudā'). Unani system is based on theory Some medicines traditionally used by Unani
of the presence of the elements in the human practitioners are known to be poisonous. As per
body. According to followers of Unani the scholars of this system, the methods of
medicine, these elements are present in fluids preparation of these medicines are such that
and their balance leads to health and their their poisonous effects get neutralised and even
imbalance leads to illness. the side effects are taken care of. In the light of
Diagnosis and treatment modern pharmacological principles this claim
is doubtful hence rules have been framed that
According to Unani medicine, management of
Unani medicines should pass certain safety
any disease depends upon the diagnosis of
parameters before being allowed to enter
disease. Proper diagnosis depends upon
market.

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HOMEOPATHY by ingesting substances and recording all of
their symptoms. Books thus written are called
Homeopathy or homoeopathy is a system
Materia Medica Pura.
of alternative medicine. It was started in 1796
by Samuel Hahnemann. This system believes As per Hahnemann belief large doses of drugs
that a substance that causes symptoms of a aggravate illness, hence extreme dilutions of
disease in healthy people would cure similar the substances should be used. He devised a
symptoms in sick people; this doctrine is technique for making dilutions that he believed
called "like cures like".[5] Homeopathic would preserve a substance's therapeutic
preparations are termed remedies and are made properties while removing its harmful effects.
using homeopathic dilution. In this process, a Hahnemann believed that this process aroused
chosen substance is repeatedly and thoroughly and enhanced "the spirit-like medicinal powers
diluted. of the crude substances". The process of
dilution and succussion is termed
From its inception, however, homeopathy was
"dynamization" or "potentization" by
criticized by mainstream science as therapeutic
homeopaths. Hahnemann gathered and
claims of homeopathy lack scientific
published a complete overview of his new
justification.
medical system in his book, The Organon of
Historical fact which led to idea of the Healing Art (1810), whose 6th edition,
Homoepathy published in 1921, is still used by homeopaths
Hahnemann rejected the mainstream medicine today.
of the late 18th century as irrational and Homeopathy uses animal, plant, mineral, and
inadvisable because it was largely ineffective synthetic substances in its preparations,
and often harmful. He advocated the use of generally referring to them using Latin or faux-
single drugs at lower doses. The outcome from Latin names. Examples include arsenicum
no treatment and adequate rest was usually album (arsenic oxide), natrum
superior to mainstream medicine as practiced at muriaticum (sodium chloride or table
the time of homeopathy's inception. salt), Lachesis muta (the venom of
Hahnemann's concept the bushmaster snake), opium,
and thyroidinum (thyroid hormone).
Hahnemann conceived of homeopathy; he
ingested some bark specifically to investigate Homopathy has concept of "miasms" as reason
what would happen. He experienced fever, for chronic diseases. As per Homopathy some
shivering and joint pain: symptoms similar to miasm is responsible for specific diseases.
those of malaria itself. From this, Hahnemann Exposure to miasms causes local symptoms,
came to believe that all effective drugs produce such as skin or venereal diseases. If, however,
symptoms in healthy individuals similar to these symptoms were suppressed by
those of the diseases that they treat, medication, the cause went deeper and began to
manifest itself as chronic diseases of the
"Provings"
internal organs.
The procedure of testing effects of substances
Dilutions: Three main logarithmic dilution
in humans, is called "homeopathic proving".
scales are in regular use in homeopathy.
These tests require subjects to test the effects
Hahnemann created the "centesimal" or "C

6
scale", diluting a substance by a factor of 100 Some homeopathic preparations involve
at each stage. There is also a decimal dilution poisons such as Belladonna, arsenic, and
scale (notated as "X" or "D") in which the poison ivy, which are highly diluted in the
preparation is diluted by a factor of 10 at each homeopathic preparation. In rare cases, the
stage.[93] The centesimal scale was favoured by original ingredients are present at detectable
Hahnemann for most of his life. levels. This may be due to improper
preparation or intentional low dilution. Serious
A 2C dilution requires a substance to be diluted
adverse effects such as seizures and death have
to one part in 100, and then some of that
been reported or associated with some
diluted solution diluted by a further factor of
homeopathic preparations.
100. This works out to one part of the original
substance in 10,000 parts of the solution.[94] A During the 19th-century cholera epidemic,
6C dilution repeats this process six times, death rates at the London Homeopathic
ending up with the original substance diluted Hospital were three times lower than at the
by a factor of 100−6=10−12 (one part in one Middlesex Hospital. Homeopathic sugar pills
trillion or 1/1,000,000,000,000). Higher won't do anything against cholera, of course,
dilutions follow the same pattern. In but the reason for homeopathy's success in this
homeopathy, a solution that is more dilute is epidemic is even more interesting than the
described as having a higher "potency", and placebo effect: at the time, nobody could treat
more dilute substances are considered by cholera. So, while hideous medical treatments
homeopaths to be stronger and deeper- such as blood-letting were actively harmful, the
homeopaths' treatments at least did nothing
Adverse effects
either way.

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 2. Various systems of classification of drugs of natural origin.
Classification of drugs
The science of grouping or categorizing the ❖ Chemo taxonomical
members of natural population and then ALPHABETICAL CLASSIFICATION
arranging these groups or categories in some In this system, the drugs are arranged
particular sequence, is known as alphabetically. This system has been used in
classification. It is humanly impossible to study Materia- Medica. In Materia- Medica the drugs
all members of any natural population; hence to were categorized into three sub headings i.e. Plant,
systematize the study of any branch of science, Animal and Mineral drugs and then arranged
its members/items are grouped and then these alphabetically under each division. Advantages of
groups are arranged in some systemic sequence. this system are
The basis for this grouping and sequencing is ❖ It is very simple system.
always-‘similarities amongst members’. ❖ Knowledge of name of drug is sufficient
Advancement of knowledge brings to light, new to classify it.
similarities and the system of classification ❖ This system can arrange even
adopts these similarities as basis. This improves unconnected drugs.
and enriches the science of classification; e.g. the Disadvantage of this system is that it fails to
Aristotle classified the plants on the basis of reveal any character of drug hence no more used
structure of stem i.e. Herbs (soft stem), Shrubs in Pharmacognosy; but still finds favour in
(several woody stems) and Trees (Single woody Encyclopedias, Dictionaries, Pharmacopoeias
trunk). Linnaeus, in 18th century, classified and indexes.
plants; based upon ‘structural similarities’ and MORPHOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
arranged these as ‘order in nature’ i.e. Dr.T.E.Wallis first adopted this system.
Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Dr. Wallis was of firm belief that the
Genera and Species. The modern system of Pharmacognosy is a well-established science;
classification of plants is based upon similarities hence the system of classification should arise
in cellular organization, chromosomal and from pharmacognosy, itself. He started
genetic structure. ‘Morphological system of classification’. In this
While dealing with living beings, the manmade system the drugs are grouped according to the
systems of classification try to arrange parts of plants or animals, these represent.
‘systematically’ the ever changing (for betterment) Various examples are-
nature. Hence no system of classification can ever Roots- Aconite, Ipecac, Senega.
be perfect. Each system has its own merits, Rhizomes- Ginger, Rhubarb, Turmeric.
demerits and limitations. We have to choose one, Leaves- Buchu, Digitalis, Senna.
depending upon our needs and convenience. Barks- Ashoka, Cinchona, Cinnamon.
Various systems of classification; followed in Fruits- Amla, Bael, Black pepper, Fennel,
pharmacognosy are- Psoralea and Senna pod.
Seeds-Isbagol, Mustard, Nux-vomica.
❖ Alphabetical
Organs or Glands- Pituitary, Thyroid, Pancreas
❖ Morphological
and Ox Gall Bladder
❖ Taxonomical or Biological
❖ Chemical
❖ Pharmacological
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 This system is very useful to teach ❖ It becomes difficult to decide the position
Practical Pharmacognosy, but has following of those drugs, which contain chemical
limitations- constituents of different chemical nature.
❖ Fails to classify non-cellular drugs i.e. PHARMACOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
unorganized drugs Each drug has some medicinal effect; hence this
❖ Fails to give proper order to various can form the basis of classification, known as
morphological parts. Pharmacological, Therapeutical or
❖ Commercial form of drug may not Pharmacodynamical classification.
necessarily represent the natural form of Cathartic drugs- Aloe, Cascara, Senna, Jalap,
drug e. g. the powered drugs, hence it Podophyllum and Castor oil.
becomes difficult to know; which part Cardio active drugs- Digitalis, Strophanthus,
this powder represents. Squill and Cinchona.
TAXONOMICAL (BIOLOGICAL) CNS Depressant- Opium, Cannabis and
CLASSIFICATION Cocaine.
Pharmacognosy has been greatly Disadvantages are-
benefited from advances in biological sciences; ❖ Pharmaceutical aids natural origin cannot
knowledge of which is must before starting the be classified.
systemic study of pharmacognosy, hence the ❖ It becomes difficult to decide the position
earlier authors, in pharmacognosy; adopted the of those drugs, which have varied
same system of classification, for drugs, as actions.
followed for plants and animals. This system CHEMOTAXONOMICAL
appears quite appealing, but suffers from the CLASSIFICATION
drawback that drugs are usually the parts of In plants, genes are responsible for production of
plants or animals and rarely the entire organism. chemical constituents; hence the latest thinking
So, from commercial sample of drug it becomes is that the plant constituents and their
very difficult to know the name of plant or relationship with genetic material should form
animal; to which the drug belongs. the basis for classification.
CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION The recent advances in Comparative
Medicinal action(s) of drugs depend(s) upon the Phytochemistry, Cellular Biology and Genetics
chemical constituents present in these. Hence have produced sufficient literature, based upon
even chemical classification of drugs has been which, a system of classification is possible. This
attempted. In this system, the drugs are classified system is named as Chemotaxonomy. This
according to chemical constituents present in system takes into consideration the Chemical
them e.g. Constituents of plants, the Chromosomal
Drugs containing Alkaloids- Opium, Ergot, Number, Genes and Enzyme system responsible
Ephedra, Rauwolfia and Solanaceous plants. for production of these plant constituents.
Drugs containing Glycosides- Senna, Rhubarb, Advantage of this system is, that it takes
Digitalis, Liquorice and Ginseng. into account the genetic material and its
Drugs containing Volatile oils- Clove, translation into chemical constituents, as basis,
Cardamom, Umbeliferous fruits. which are less liable to change compared to
Disadvantages of this system are- somatic characters. The main disadvantage is
❖ Drugs cannot be classified unless their that lot of data is required before attempting this
chemical constituents are known. classification.

9
 3. Adulteration and drug evaluation; significance of
Pharmacopoeial standards.
ADULTERATION AND EVALUATION OF CRUDE DRUGS
ADULTERATION
Adulteration means the admixture or substitution of genuine drug with spurious, defective or sub-
standard material which may be harmless or harmful.
It is also defined as substitution of original drug, partially or wholly, by similar looking substance(s)
which is either free from or inferior in chemical constituents and therapeutic properties.
Adulteration is usually practiced for such drugs which are scarce or highly expensive. It is also
commonly practiced with contraband drugs. Common terms associated with adulteration are-
Admixture- It means the addition of some other article or material in the drug due to ignorance,
carelessness or accidentally.
Sophistication- It means the intentional or deliberate adulteration e.g. addition of Capsicum to ginger
for maintaining its pungency.
Substitution- It means the supply of totally different material in place of genuine drug e.g.
Polyalthea longifolia bark in place of Asoka (Saraca indica) bark.
Inferior or substandard drug- It means the drug with lower quality, irrespective of its cause e.g.
less than 10 % morphine in Opium means that opium is sub-standard. It can be due to faulty
collection like under or over age of the collected plant part.
Deterioration- It means the impairment of quality of drug due to aging, heat, moisture or insect
attack e.g. over roasting of coffee reduces its caffeine content, wormy ginger and the rancid oils and
fats are also its examples.
Spoilage- It means the impairment of quality due to microbial attack e.g. drugs having fungal
growth.
TYPES OF ADUTERATION
➢ Unintentional (un-deliberate) adulteration
➢ Intentional (deliberate) adulteration

I. UNINTENTIONAL (UNDELIBERATE) ADULTERATION

This adulteration is never intended but occurs due to ignorance, negligence and accident. This
adulteration may occur under following circumstances.
Faulty Collection- It means the collection of drug without due consideration to its age, stage of
development, season and attack by microbes. It may also be due to collection of similar looking plant
due to carelessness or ignorance.
Faulty Preparation- It means non-removal of undesirable parts from the genuine drug (Cork from
ginger is to be removed). It may even occur due to faulty drying like excessive fermentation in
Gentian and long wait in Digitalis before drying. Excessive drying of leaves makes them brittle.
Faulty storage- Volatile oils are always stored at cool and dry place in tightly closed containers.
Digitalis and Fixed oils and Fats are always protected from moisture during storage.
Faulty transportation- Faulty transportation means that not protecting the drug from excessive heat,
moisture and light leading to deterioration of quality of drug.

10
Mix up of vernacular names- In different parts of country, the same drug is known by different
vernacular names; while different drugs are known by same vernacular names. This causes confusion
leading to adulteration.
Examples are-
Trianthema portulacastrum (Ficoidaceae) and Boerhaavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae)- both are known
by Common name ‘Punarnava’.
Bacopa monniera (=Bacopa monnieri; Scrophulariaceae) and Centella asiatica (= Hydrocotyl
asiatica; Apiaceae)- both are known as ‘Brahmi’
Following three plants are named as ‘Shankhpushpi’
Evlovulus alsinoides (Convolvulaceae)
Convolvulus microphyllus (C. pluricaulis; Convolvulaceae)
Clitoria ternatea (Leguminosae)
Following plants have ‘Rasana’ as vernacular name
Alpinia officinarum (Zingiberaceae)
Pluchea lanceolata (Asteraceae)
Vanda roxburghii (Orchidaceae)
Vitex negunda (Verbenaceae)
Following three plants are called ‘Bach’
Acorus calamus (Araceae)
Alpinia officinarum (Zingiberaceae)
Anacyclus pyrethrum (Compositae)
From above examples it is clear that Alpinia officinarum (Zingiberaceae) is known by two vernacular
names i.e. ‘Rasna’ and ‘Bach’
II. INTENTIONAL (DELIBERATE) ADULTERATION
This adulteration is intentional and restored to with the motive of making money. It can be of
following types
A) Adulteration with plant material
i) Partial adulteration with other plant material- In this adulteration the genuine drug is mixed
with similar looking plant material. Some examples are-
Drug Genuine source Adulterant
Aloe Dried juice of Aloe vera Black catechu
Belladona leaves Atropa belladonna/A. acuminata Ailanthus leaves (A. glandulosa)
Chirata herb Swertia chirata Swertia angustifolia
Cinnamon bark Cinnamomum zeylanicum Cinnamomum cassia
Digitalis leaves Digitalis purpurea Digitalis thapsi
Stramonium leaves Datura stramonium Xanthium leaves
ii) Gross substitution with other plant material- In this adulteration, the similar looking material
form some different source is supplied in place of the genuine drug.
Drug Genuine source Adulterant
Asoka bark Saraca indica Polyalthea longifolia and Trema
orientalis
Kurchi bark Hollarrhna antidysenterica Wrightia tinctoria
Rauwolfia root Rauwolfia serpentina Rauwolfia canescens

11
Senna leaves Cassia angustifolia and C. acutifolia Cassia auriculata
iii) Substitution with exhausted drug- Here the drug is mixed with the drug sample from which
the active constituents have been removed e.g. the volatile oil containing drugs (Fennel, Dill,
Coriander) are adulterated with sample from which the volatile oil has been distilled by use of steam.
Powder of Ginger and Liquorice is adulterated in the same way.

B) Adulteration with non-plant material- It means that drug is adulterated with imitations, which
are not of plant origin. Sometimes this adulteration is of very serious consequences. Some examples
are-
Drug Adulterant
Clove, Ergot and Nutmeg Imitations of clay and wood
Asafoetida Mixed with limestone & Artificial imitations from gummy materials.
Tolu balsam Resinous base with Vanillin & esters of Benzoic acid and Cinnamic
acid
Fixed oil Mineral oil
Cocoa butter Soft paraffin
Opium Lead shots
Cardamom Rodent faecal matter

12
EVALUATION drug can be measured in mm or cm or any
Evaluation of drug means the confirmation other convenient unit.
of its Identity, Purity and Quality. Shape- Each drug has specific shape
Identity means the origin or biological source depending upon the part of plant, it represents.
of drug. It can be confirmed by comparing the In case of leaves the shape of lamina is
characters of drug with an authentic sample or important Fruits are usually Globular, Oblong
with description provided in authentic and Ellipsoidal. Seeds are Globular, Oval,
literature or by collecting the drug from a Reniform, Plano-convex and Spherical.
positively identified plant or animal. Underground parts are Roots, Rhizomes,
Purity means the freedom from undesirable Bulbs, Corms and Tubers. These can be
material. For confirming purity the allowable Cylindrical (Sarsaparilla), Sub-cylindrical,
extraneous material is separated, weighed, its cylindraceous or nearly cylindrical
percentage is calculated and compared with (Podophyllum), Conical (Aconite), Disc
official limit. shaped (Calumba).
Quality refers to the amount or quantity of Barks have the following shapes
active constituents. It refers to the intrinsic ➢ Flat (Arjuna, Quillaia)
value of the drug. Quality is confirmed by ➢ Curved (Wild cherry)
following means- ➢ Recurved (Kurchi)
➢ Organoleptic evaluation ➢ Channelled (Asoka)
➢ Microscopic evaluation ➢ Quilled (Cascara)
➢ Physical evaluation ➢ Double quilled (Cinnamon)
➢ Chemical evaluation ➢ Compound Quill (Cinnamon)
➢ Biologic evaluation
COLOUR AND EXTERNAL MARKINGS
ORGANOLEPTIC EVALUATION Colour- Colour name consists of ‘hue’ name
It means the evaluation of dug using our sense along with one or two modifiers which
organs. In Organoleptic evaluation, shape, indicate the intensity, dullness or shade of the
size, colour, odour, taste and special features ‘hue’.
like touch, texture and the sound or ‘snap’ of External markings- External markings refer
its fracture, is studied. to the ‘marks’ present on the surface of the
For convenience, the organoleptic evaluation drugs. These are formed due to shrinkage of
is divided into following parts- underlying tissues. These are-
➢ Shape and size Furrows- Alternating ridges & valleys e.g.
➢ Colour and external markings Calamus, Jalap, Nutmeg
➢ Fracture and internal surface Wrinkles- Fine or delicate furrows e.g. Black
➢ Odour and Taste pepper and Liquorice
Size and Shape Annulations- Transverse ring like markings
Size- All possible dimensions like Length, Ipecac and Galanga
Breadth, Thickness and Diameter, are Fissures- Splits extending into tissues
measured. Small structures like seeds are Cinchona
measured by aligning 10 seeds on a sheet of Nodules- Rounded outgrowth on the surface
calibrated paper (mm graph paper). Size of Projections- Remains of root bases, stem
bases and buds Withania, Senega, Male fern

13
Scar- Marks left by removal of stem, leaf, Sour, Saline, Sweet, Bitter and Alkaline.
roots and buds Turmeric, Podophyllum, Taste due to odour- Agreeable tastes are-
Cinnamon Aromatic, Balsamic and Spicy. Non agreeable
tastes are- Alliaceous, Camphoraceous and
FRACTURE Terebinthinate.
Fracture- It refers to the way the plant part Taste due to distinct sensations on tongue
breaks, upon being subjected to the pressure. which are named as taste-
The various terms used are- Mucilaginous- Soft slimy feeling e.g. Gum
Weak- Breaking easily acacia, Bael and Agar
Tough- Breaking with difficulty e.g. Moist Oily- Bland smooth feeling
Gentian Astringent- Contraction of tissue; puckering
Complete- Breaking clean across e.g. Bees feeling
wax Pungent- Warm biting sensation
Incomplete- Breaking only part way across Acrid- Unpleasant irritating tingling sensation
e.g. Liquorice e.g. Squill, Honey (after taste)
Short- Clean break with quick ‘snap’ e.g. Nauseous- The taste which excites vomiting
Colchicum, Ginger, Black catechu Insipid or no taste- All those drugs which are
Fibrous- Fractured surface having projections insoluble in saliva
of the fibres e.g. Ginger, Bark of Liquorice
Splintery- Breaking irregularly in pieces with MICROSCOPIC EVALUATION
larger and smaller projecting edges and For microscopic evaluation, sections (T.S.,
splinters e.g. Quillaia, Wood region of L.S.) and Powdered drug (# not more than 40)
Glycyrrhiza is examined under the compound microscope.
Brittle- Easily breaking into many pieces Plant parts are made up of tissues. Each tissue
upon dropping on a hard surface e.g. performs a definite function hence each one
Colophony has the specific structure. During microscopic
evaluation the structure and arrangement of
ODOUR AND TASTE tissues, is studied.
Odour is the perception received when volatile
molecule present in the inhaled air, binds to During microscopic evaluation even the
olfactory receptors present in the nostrils. It Ergastic substances (like Starch grains,
can be ‘distinct’ or ‘indistinct’. It can also be Aleuronic grains and the various crystals) are
agreeable or non-agreeable, Agreeable odours studied. Their presence/absence, shape, size
are- Aromatic, Balsamic and Spicy. Non and frequency of occurrence are of diagnostic
agreeable odours are- Alliaceous, value. This helps in establishing the identity of
Camphoraceous and Terebinthinate. genuine drug or that of adulterant, if present.
Taste- This means the perception by taste Lycopodium spore method of Quantitative
buds present on the tongue. The taste can be- microscopy is used to determine the %age of
➢ ‘True taste’ adulterant in the powdered drug.
➢ ‘Taste due to odour’ PHYSICAL EVALUATION
➢ ‘Taste due to distinct sensation on In this method the quality of drug is evaluated
tongue’ by application of various physical constants to
True tastes these are- the drug. These are-

14
Specific gravity- It means the wt. per unit ❖ Use of Acid-base titration and Non-
volume. Good quality Nutgalls sink in water. aqueous titration for assay of many drugs
Jalap also has sp. gr. higher than that of water.
Sp. gr. is important even for Fixed oils and BIOLOGIC EVALUATION
Volatile oils. In biologic evaluation, living animals and the
Optical rotation- It is more important for intact or excised organs are used for evaluation
Volatile oils. and standardization of drugs. This evaluation
Refractive index- It is important for Fixed is preferred when chemical evaluation fails to
oils and Volatile oils. distinguish the active isomer of a compound
Melting point- It is more important for solid from less active or inactive isomer e.g.
lipids and certain alkaloids. digitalis. Some common examples are-
Fluorescence- It is behaviour of drug towards ❖ Use of bacteria for evaluating the
filtered UV light. Rhapontic rhubarb shows Antiseptic potential of products and the
marked fluorescence whereas genuine Indian assay of Vitamins and Antibiotics
and Chinese rhubarbs do not show the ❖ Use of frogs to standardize Digitalis.
fluorescence. Similarly the acidic solution of Now pigeons are used for this purpose
Quinine shows marked fluorescence.
Solubility- It is expressed as g/ml of the ❖ Use of guinea pigs for testing toxicity
solvent’. and anti-genicity of biological products
Congealing point, Ash values and
❖ Standardization of Posterior Pituitary
Spectroscopic analysis are other important
injection using chicken
parameters of physical evaluation.
❖ Use of rabbits for testing pyrogens and
CHEMICAL EVALUATION muscle relaxants
Each drug has some active constituents. These
constituents react with various reagents to ❖ Use of dogs for testing drugs having
produce specific colours or precipitates. This pressor activity
forms the basis of chemical evaluation. This
❖ Use of earthworms to evaluate the
includes the qualitative tests and quantitative
Anthelmintic drugs.
assays for specific constituents. Some
common examples are-

❖ Chemical tests for Carbohydrates.

❖ Chemical tests for proteins. SIGNIFICANCE OF

PHARMACOPOEIAL STANDARDS
❖ Chemical tests for Alkaloids. It is must that we should be absolutely sure
about the identity and purity of crude drugs
❖ Borntrages’s test for Anthraquinones
being used for various formulations. To ensure
❖ Determination of Acid value, Iodine value same IP prescribes test under headings
and Saponification value for fixed oils ‘IDENTITY’ and ‘MINIMUM QUALITY
STANDARDS’
❖ Determination of Methoxyl value and Identity tests are based on ‘classical
Volatile acidity for gums pharmacognosy assessment methods’ like

15
Organoleptic, Physical, Chemical, Biological Other Specifications like %age of Alkaloids,
and Microscopical methods. The tests prove Volatile oil or a specific chemical constituent.
the identity of the drug sample. Sometimes classical standards are prescribed
Minimum Quality Standards are like Swelling factor (Isapgol) Bitterness value
Moisture content (Gentian) and certain coloured reactions.
Foreign matter It is must that drug complies with all the tests
Ash value (Ash left after ignition of drug) prescribed. This leaves no doubt about the
Extractive values (Alcohol extractive, water identity and purity of drug sample being used.
extractive)

16
 4. Brief outline of occurrence, distribution, outline of isolation,
identification tests, therapeutic effects and pharmaceutical
applications of alkaloids, terpenoids, glycosides, volatile oils,
tannins and resins.

ACTIVE CONSTITUENTS OF
PLANT DRUGS
R - OH + HO - X R - OX + HOH
Each plant drug has organic constituents in it. Glycoside Water
Sugar Aglycone
These are known as phyto-constituents or plant
constituents or constituents. These are
produced in plants, due to activity of many
enzymes by a process called biogenesis or
biosynthesis. These constituents may be inert CH2 - O H HO - C6H11O5
constituents like cellulose, lignin, suberin and OH
cutin. These inert constituents are mainly the +
Glucose
structural part of cells of plants. Other Salicyl alcohol (Sugar)
constituents which have some pharmacological (Aglycone)
or therapeutic activity are known as active
CH2 - OH
constituents. Anthraquinones in Senna, + HOH
O - C6H11O5
Reserpine in Rauwolfia, Anethol and Fenchone
in Fennel, Tannic acid in Catechu and Gingerol Water
Salicin
in Ginger are examples of active constituents. (Glycoside)
Followings are various classes of such
constituents- When numbers of sugar molecules are more than
Primary metabolites one, then these are usually attached as di-, tri-,
Carbohydrates and tetra- saccharides though all sugars may be
Lipids attached as separate linkages.
Secondary metabolites
Glycosides CLASSIFICATION
Alkaloids Glycosides are classified depending upon the
Volatile oils chemical nature of aglycone coupled with
Resins & resin combinations pharmacological activity. Various classes are-
Tannins and phenolic substances ❖ Anthracene glycosides
SECONDARY METABOLITES ❖ Saponin glycosides
GLYCOSIDES ❖ Cardiac glycosides
Glycosides are non-reducing secondary
❖ Cyanogenetic (Cyanophoric) glycosides
plant metabolites. These upon enzymatic or acid
hydrolysis, yield one or more sugar(s) along with ❖ Iso-thiocyanate (glucoisinolate) glycosides
a non-sugar part known as aglycone or genin. ❖ Flavonoid glycosides
The sugar and aglycone parts are usually ❖ Coumarin and Furano-coumarin glycosides
attached by O-linkage though S-, N-, and C- ❖ Aldehyde glycosides
linkage are also found. ❖ Phenol glycosides

17
❖ Steroidal glyco-alkaloids 29
30

❖ Bitter glycosides (Glycosidal bitters) 19 20 21

❖ Miscellaneous glycosides 12 18
22
ANTHRACENE GLYCOSIDES- These are 23
11
13 17
phenolic in nature. These contain 1 28
14
Anthraquinone, Anthrone, Oxanthrone and 2
9 16
10 8
Anthranol as aglycone- 27 15
3 4
These show Purgative and Cathartic activities, 7 26
5
6
only in combination with sugar e.g. Aloe
24 25
Cascara sagrada (Rhamnus purshiana bark),
Frangula (Rhamnus frangula bark), Rhubarb and
Senna. Triterpenoidal

H H The steroidal type saponins have importance due

to their relation ship with Sex hormones,
Cortisone, Vitamin-D and Cardiac glycosides
OH
e.g. Agave, Dioscorea, Sarsaparilla, Strophathus,
O
Anthranol
Thevetia and Yucca sps.
Anthrone Example of Triterpenoidal types are- Aralia,
O
H OH Calendula, Glycyrrhiza, Primula, Quillaia,
Senega and Thymus sps.
Ginseng has both Steroidal and Triterpenoidal
saponins.
O O
CARDIAC GLYCOSIDES- These glycosides
Oxanthrone Anthraqunone
strengthen the weakened heart. In past, these
have been used as arrow poisons. The basic
SAPONIN GLYCOSIDES- Up on shaking with structure is Cyclopentano-per-hydro-
water, these produce soap like foam and also phenanthrene. These glycosides can be of two
show Haemolytic activity. These may have types.
steroidal or triterpenoidal aglycone. The Cardenolides- These have five membered
aglycone may even be attached to Uronic acid. lactone ring at C-17 of steroid nucleus e.g.
Digitalis, Strophanthus, Thevetia and Nerium.
23 Bufadienolide- These have six membered
18 20
12 17
lactone ring at C-17 of steroid nucleus e.g.
25
11
16
Helleborus and Squill.
19 13 27
1
15
2 9 14
10 8

3 7
5
6

Steroidal

18
 O CH2 = CH - CH2 - C - S - glu
O
23 N - O - SO3K
22
20 S in ig r in
21
12 18
11 17
19 16
1 13
15 HO - CH2 - C - S - glu
2 9 14
10 8
N - O - SO3K
3 7
5
4 6
S in a lb in
Cardenolide FLAVONOID GLYCOSIDES- Aglycone of
O
23 these glycosides has Flavonoid structure. Silybin
24 (Hepato-protective) from Silybum marianum and
22 20 O
Hesperidin (prevents capillary fragility) from
18 21
12 17 Citrus fruits- are important examples.
11
19 16
1 13
9 14
15 OMe
2 10 8
O
3
5
7 Rham - Glu - O - OH
4 6

Bufadienolid

OH O
CYANOGENETIC (CYANOPHORIC)
GLYCOSIDES- Upon hydrolysis these give Hesperidin
Hydrocyanic acid (HCN). These are abundantly COUMARINS AND
found in family Rosaceae. Some important FURANOCOUMARINS- These are derivatives
examples are- Amygdalin in Bitter almond, of Benzo-α- pyrone. Important drugs are Ammi
Prunasin in Prunus sps. and Linamarin in visnaga (Smooth muscle relaxant and coronary
Linseed. vasodilator) Ammi majus (treatment of vitiligo)
Psoralea corylifolia (Leucoderma) and
- CH - O - Glu - Glu Cantharides (Rubefacient and Counter-irritant).
C N - CH - O - Glu

C N
O O O O O
Prunasin
Coumarin Furanocoumarin
C N ALDEHYDE GLYCOSIDES- These have
H3C
C aldehyde group in aglycone part. Example is
H3C O - Glu Vanilla pod containing Vanillin (Flavouring
Linamarin agent).
CHO
ISO-THIOCYANATE (GLUCOISINOLATE)
GLYCOSIDES- These glycosides contain Iso-
thiocyanate (-NCS) gp. in their aglycone part. OMe
These are mainly present in family Cruciferae.
OH
Examples are- Sinigrin from black mustard and
Sinalbin from white mustard. Vanillin
PHENOL GLYCOSIDES- Example is-
Arbutin, present in Bearberry (Uvaursi) known
as Aristostaphylos uvaursi; (Dried leaves;
Ericaceae) used as diuretic even in urethritis.
19
 O - Glu The glycosides can be obtained in pure state
using techniques like Fractional crystallization,
Fractional Solubility and Chromatography.

ALKALOIDS
OH
Alkaloids (from alkali like) are widely
Arbutin distributed (nearly 6500 alkaloids known) basic
STEROIDAL GLYCOALKALOID- These constituents of plants, which have nitrogen atom
have steroidal structure and find use in synthesis in their hetero- cyclic ring and have marked
of steroidal compound. The example is fruits of physiological action in humans and animals.
Solanum (Solanum khasianum; Solanaceae). Most alkaloids are colourless crystalline solid.
Their basic form is soluble in organic solvents
H
while salts are soluble in water. These are
N
usually present in various mature parts of plants.
O
Families rich in alkaloid bearing plants are-
Apocynaceae,
Legumonosae
D-glu - D -galac - O - Paaveraceae
Ranunculaceae
L -Rham
Rubiaceae
GLYCOSIDAL BITTERS- These are mainly Solanaceae
used to improve appetite and examples are dried EXTRACTION
roots of Gentian (Gentiana lutea; Gentianaceae), From plants the alkaloids can be separated by
whole plant of Chirata (Swertia chirata; any one of following two methods-
Gentianaceae), wood of Quassia (Picrasma
excelsa; Simarubaceae), rhizomes of Picrorrhiza Method A
(Picrorrhiza kurroa; Scrophulariaceae) and Powdered drug is moistened with water and
leaves of Kalmegh (Andrographis paniculata; mixed with lime. Lime combines with plant
Acathaceae). acids and the tannins and phenolic substances.
MISCELLANEOUS GLYCOSIDES- Example The lime also releases or sets free the alkaloids
in this class are leaves of Gymnema (Gymnema in their base form. Material is now extracted
sylvestre; Asclepiadaceae) used as Anti-diabetic with organic solvent like pet ether. Organic layer
and leaves of Henna (Lawsonia inermis; is separated and concentrated. It is now shaken
Lythraceae) used as Anti-bacterial and Anti- with an aqueous acidified layer. Alkaloids
fungal. convert into salt form and come in the aqueous
EXTRACTION OF GLYCOSIDES acidified layer. The impurities remain behind in
The crude drug is dried and powdered. It is now the organic layer.
extracted by Soxhlation process using alcohol as Method B
solvent. The temperature is kept below 450 C if The powdered drug is extracted with acidified
constituents are thermo-labile. The various water or the acidified alcohol. From this layer,
enzymes present, get inactivated due to heat. The the pigments and other impurities are removed
extract is separated and from it the Tannins and by shaking this layer with organic solvents like
Non-glycosidal impurities are removed by ether and chloroform. Now NaHCO3 solution or
adding the solution of Lead acetate. The excess NH3 solution is added to the aqueous layer to
Lead acetate is removed by passing H2S gas. precipitate the alkaloids in their basic form.
Precipitates of Lead sulphide (PbS) are removed Alkaloids are recovered in some organic solvent.
by filtration and the filtrate is concentrated to get Basic nucleus in alkaloids-
the mixture of crude glycosides.

20
 N N N
N
H H
Pyrrole Pyrollidine Pyridine Piperidine

N
H N N

Tropane Quinoline Iso-quinoline

N N N H

N N N N
H H

Indole Imidazole Purine

Drugs containing various types of alkaloids-
I) Non-Heterocyclic alkaloids- These
alkaloids contain the nitrogen atom in the side
chain. Examples are-
Ephedra (Ephedrine), Colchicum (Colchicine)
Lophophora sps. (Mescaline) Streptomyces
erythrens (Erythromycin antibiotic)

21
 - CH(OH) - CH - CH3

NH - CH3
Ephedrine
MeO

MeO - CH2 - CH2 - NH2

MeO
Mescaline

II) Heterocyclic alkaloids

Class Name of alkaloid
Source
Pyrrole and Hygrine Coca sps.
Pyrrolidine
alkaloids

Pyridine and Trigonelline Fenugreek

Piperidine Coniine Conium macularum
alkaloids Arecholine Areca catechu
Nicotine Nicotiana tabacum
Anabasine Nicotiana glauca
Piperine Piper sps.

Tropane Hyoscyamine, Atropine and Sps. of Atropa, Datura, Hyoscyamus,

alkaloids Hoscine Duboisia and Scopolia

Cocaine Coca sps.

Quinoline Quinine, Quinidine, Cinchonine, Cinchona sps.

alkaloids Cinchonidine Remijia sps.

Cusparine Cusparia bark

Isoquinoline Morphine, Codeine, Papaverine, Papaver somniferum

alkaloids Narcotine and Narceine
Various genera of Berberis
Berberine

Emetine and Cephaeline Cephaelis sps. (Ipecac)

Indole Ergotamine & Ergometrine Claviceps sps.
alkaloids
Physostgmine Physostima venenosum

Almaline, Serpentine & Reserpine Rauwolfia sps.

Vincristine & Vinblastine Catharanthus roseus

Strychnine & Brucine Strychnous nux-vomica

Imidazole Pilocarpine Pilocarpus sps.
alkaloids
Purine Caffeine Thea sinensis (Tea), Coffea arabica
22
alkaloids (Coffee) & Cola vera ( Cola nuts)
Theobromine Theobroma cacao
Steroidal Solanidine Shoots of Potato
alkaloids Veratrum Veratrum sps.
Conessine Holarrhena antidysenterica.
Funtumine Funtumia elastica
Terpenoid Aconite, atisine and Lyctonine Aconitum and Delphinium sps.
alkaloids

VOLATILE OILS Peroxides

Volatile oil, ethereal oil or essential oils are
odorous principles of plant which, even at Chenopodium
room temperature, evaporate upon exposure to Uses
air. These can be present in any part of plant Antiseptic
like petals, fruits, fruit rind, bark and leaves. In Analgesic
plants, these are present in special secretory Anthelmintic
structures. These are obtained by distillation or Carminative
expression processes. Flavouring agent.
Fresh and pure volatile oils are usually Extraction process-
colourless liquids while few are crystalline or
amorphous solids. These become darker upon Mainly Hydro-distillation.
storage especially in presence of light. Due to
this reason these are stored in amber coloured RESINS AND RESIN COMBINATIONS
bottles. Resins are plant exudates of complex chemical
These are slightly soluble in water but soluble mixture, which may be physiological product
in organic solvents like ether and alcohol. In (Asafoetida, Copaiba) or Abnormal
plants these are produced from isoprene (Pathological) product (Tolu balsam, Peru
(C5H8) units. Chemically these are balsam, Benzoin and Storax).
Hydrocarbons, Alcohols, Esters, Ketones, In plants the resins are present in following
Aldehydes, Phenols, Ethers and oxides. threr forms
Hydrocarbons Oleo-resins- These resins are usually present
as homogeneous mixture with volatile oils e.g.
Pinus sps. (Sesquiterpenoids)
Capsicum, Ginger and Male fern.
Alcohols Oleo-gum-resin- these resins are present in
Coriander and Sandalwood combination with volatile oil and gums e.g.
Myrrh and Asafoetida.
Esters and alcohols Balsams- Resins containing
Lavandula, Rosemary and Pippermint Benzoic/Cinnamic acid and/or their esters, are
Aldehydes known as balsams or balsamic resins e.g. Tolu
balsam, Peru balsam, Benzoin and Storax.
Lemon, Lemon grass, Cinnamon bark and Glycosidal resins- The resins present in
Eucalyptus citriodora combination with glycosides are known as
Ketones Glycosidal resins or Glycoresins e.g. Jalap and
Scammony, Ipomoea and Podophyllum.
Spearmint, caraway and Dill
Characters-Physically, resins are amorphous,
Phenols transparent or translucent solids, semi-solids or
Cinnamon leaf, clove, ajowain liquids. These soften upon heating and finally
melt to produce clear adhesive fluids. These
Ethers are heavier than water, insoluble in water but
Anise, Fennel, Euclyptus, Indian dill and soluble in organic solvents like alcohol,
Nutmeg acetone, carbon disulphide, fixed oils, ether,
volatile oils and solution of chloral hydrate.
23
 OH
USES COOH
OH
Antiseptic
Carminative, HOOC OH
Cathartic HO OH
HO COOH
OH
Diuretic
Expectorant Gallic acid HO
HO
Purgative OH
Stomachic OH Hexa hydroxy
diphenic acid
Anti-tumour. O O

TANNINS AND PHENOLIC O O

COMPOUNDS HO
These are those plant substances which have OH
molecular weight between 1000-5000 and
Ellagic acid
combine with protein of animal hide to prevent
its putrefaction and change it into leather. Condensed tannins- These are true tannins
Tannins derive this property from presence of and are resistant to acid or enzymatic
large number of phenolic groups (1-2 per 100 hydrolysis. Upon treatment with acid or
molecular weight). These phenolic groups are enzyme, these decompose to red coloured
present as O-dihydroxy or O-trihydroxy insoluble compounds called Phlobaphenes.
groups. These produce green colour with solution of
Term tannin was 1st applied by Seguin in Ferric chloride. Cinnamon bark, Cinchona
1796. To be effective for tannage, the bark, Wild cherry bark, Acacia bark, Oak bark,
molecule must not be very large otherwise it Male fern root, Cocoa seeds, Areca seeds, Tea
will not be able to enter the interstices of leaves and Catechu.
collagen fibrils. It should not be very small TESTS FOR TANNINS
otherwise it will not be able to cross-link the ❖ These precipitate the solution of Gelatin.
protein molecules of adjacent fibrils. ❖ These precipitate the solution of Alkaloids
Tannins are soluble in water and ❖ Salts of Copper, Tin and Lead precipitate
alcohol. These are classified based upon ease the solution of Tannins.
of hydrolysis. ❖ Solutions of tannins form precipitate with
Hydrolysable tannins- These can easily be strong solution of Pot. Dichromate.
hydrolyzed using acid or enzyme. These are
❖ These form ppt. with Chromic acid.
formed from several molecules of phenolic
acids like Gallic and Ellagic acids. These ❖ These give bluish black to Brownish green
tannins produce blue colour with Ferric colour with Ferric chloride solution.
chloride e.g. Clove, Chestnut, Pomegranate ❖ These produce deep red colour with Pot.
rind and bark, red rose petals and Rhubarb. Ferri-cyanide and Ammonia solution.
❖ These produce brown to black colour with
Gold beater skin. (Ox intestine is treated
with HCl and washed with water. It is then
placed in tannin solution for 5 minutes. It
is washed with water and dipped in
Ferrous sulphate solution to get the
colour).

24
 5. Occurrence, distribution, organoleptic evaluation, chemical
constituents including tests wherever applicable and
therapeutic efficacy of following categories of drugs.
LAXATIVES
Laxatives are the drugs which make the stool CHARACTERS
soft and usually used to treat acute or chronic Appearance: Masses of variable size and
constipation. These are also useful during piles shape
and also for preparing patients for
colonoscopy. Constipation is a common Colour: Yellowish Brown or Chocolate
problem of old age and pregnancy. Laxatives Odour: Characteristic and sour
have the effects on GIT and help relieving
constipation by turning stool soft and Taste: Bitter and Unpleasant
improving peristaltic movements due to their CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
irritant effects. Depending upon degree of
effects these are classified as Lubricant, Aloe contains 30% Aloin. Aloin consists of
Laxatives, Purgative, Cathartics and Violent Anthraquinone Glycosides. It also contains
Cathartics. Violent Cathartics can even lead to Aloe resin A and Aloe Resin B.
presence of blood stains in the stool hence
should always be used with utmost care. OH O OH
ALOES
Botanical Source - Aloes is dried juice,
collected by giving incision to the bases of
CH2 OH
leaves of various species of Aloe like Aloe
vera, A. barbadensis, A. ferox, A. africana, A.
spicata and A. perryi Glucosyl

Family- Liliaceae Aloin (C-Glycoside)

Geographical Source – Zanzibar, North USES

Africa, South Africa and India Used as Purgative; it causes griping action
hence prescribed with Carminatives or
Antispasmodics (Belladona)
Gel from plant is used in Sun burns, Thermal
burns, Radiation burns Skin irritation and
Abrasions.

RHUBARB
Botanical Source: Rhubarb consists of dried
rhizomes and roots of Rheum palmatum and
Rheum officinale. Indian rhubarb comes from
Rheum emodi and Rheum webianum
Family: Polygonaceae
Geographical Source: America, Tibet, China
Nepal, India and Siberia

25
 O
OH O OH

HO CH3
O O
Anthraquinone Emodin

OH O OH

R
MACROSCOPICAL CHARACTERS O

Appearance: Occurs as compact & firm R = CH3, Chrysophanol

pieces of rhizomes and roots
R = CH2OH, Aloe-emodin
Shape: Cylindrical, conical or barrel shaped
R = COOH, Rhein
Size: 2.0 to 20 cm long; 3 to 8 cm in diameter
USES: Normally laxative, but large doses can
Colour: Yellowish brown to reddish brown
act as purgative.
External surface: Usually show longitudinal
wrinkles, furrows or ridges. Some pieces may
show transverse wrinkles CASTOR OIL
Botanical source: Castor oil is obtained from
Fracture: Uneven and granular the ripe seeds of Ricinus communis (Ricinus-
Odour: Faint and characteristic A Latin word meaning ‘bug’ due to
resemblance of shape and markings present on
Taste: Bitter and astringent seeds).
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENT: Rhubarb Family: Euphorbiaceae
contains 2.5 to 4.5% of Anthraquinone Geographical Source: This tree is native of
glycosides and free anthraquinone. Important India. Now it is widely cultivated in India,
are- Chrysophnol, Aloe-emodin, Emodin and Africa, Brazil East and West Indies and United
Rhein. It also has Starch, Tannins and rosette States.
crystals of Calcium oxalate. (Its seeds have also been found in Egyptian
tomb)
O
Collection and Preparation: Seeds of Castor
has large variation in size (Length 8 to 18 mm,
Width 4 to 12 mm). Testa of seeds is cracked
H H in grooved rollers and fanned away using
Anthacene Anthrone current of air. Kernel is pressed to express the
oil. Oil is filtered and then steamed between
80 to 1000 C to coagulate proteins Ricin and
Lipase and again filtered.
Remaining oil is extracted by heating
the cake, with steam, to 400 C and then
pressing hard. Residual oil is removed by

26
using solvent extraction method (Benzene or USES
Carbon-di-sulphide). ➢ Purgative & Cathartic (In duodenum, the
Cake is unfit as cattle feed. It is used as source duodenal lipase hydrolyses it to ricinoleic
of enzyme Lipase, which is used to split non- acid which has purgative and cathartic
edible fixed oils into fatty acids and Glycerol
action).
and the Ricin, which has anti-tumour activity.
(Cake contains extremely poisonous toxins ➢ From castor oil, UNDECYLENIC ACID
called RICINS. These are protein in nature and (CH2= CH- (CH2)8 - COOH) is prepared.
in human body these induce the formation of This acid and its zinc salt are used as
antibodies. RICIN-D is sugar-protein having fungi-static.
23 sugar molecules and 493 amino acids. It
has anti-tumour activity. Cake also contains ➢ Castro oil is reacted with Ethylene oxide to
enzyme LIPASE and crystalline alkaloid produce a non-ionic surfactant which is
RICININE, which resembles Nicotinamide used to dissolve the low water soluble
and is not markedly toxic). drugs for intravenous use
CHARACTERS ➢ It is constituent of FLEXIBLE
Appearance: Colourless to Pale yellow highly COLLODION (It is solution of Cellulose
viscous transparent liquid. nitrate (Pyroxylin) with resin and castor
Odour: Faint. oil. It forms a flexible film on skin and
used as protective dressing).
Taste: Bland, slightly acrid with nauseating
after taste. ➢ Castor oil is also used to manufacture
Soaps. Paints, Varnish, Plasticizers and
Specific gravity: 0.961 to 0.963 at 15.50 C
Lubricants.
Refractive index: 1.473 at 1.477
Other Characters: Castor oil has excellent ISPHAGHULA (Synonym- Isabgol)
keeping quality. It becomes rancid only upon
excessive heating. Botanical Source: Isphaghula consists of
Chemical Constituents: It contains tri- dried ripe seeds of Plantago ovata
glycerides of – Family: Plantaginaceae
Ricinoleic acid (87%)
Geographical Source: Punjab, Persia and
Oleic acid (7%) Sind. Seeds are grown extensively around
Linoleic acid (3%) Sidhpur of Gujarat.
Palmitic acid (2%)
Stearic acid (1%)
Di-hydroxysteraic acid (traces)
About 75% of castor oil is TRI-
RICINOLEIN. Remaining oil is DI-
RICINOLEO glycerides with third fatty acid
being any one of the five mentioned above.

OH
CH3-(CH2)4-CH-CH2-CH=CH-(CH2)7-COOH

Ricinoleic Acid

27
 ISPHAGHULA HUSK
MACROSCOPICAL CHARACTERS It consists of dry seed coats of seeds of
Plantago ovata. These are obtained by
Appearance: Occurs as small seeds
crushing and winnowing process.
Shape: Boat shaped
Husk is translucent or white, thin, boat shaped
Size: 2.0 to 3.5 mm long; 1.5 to 1.75 mm structures, length 2 to 3 mm and width 0.5 to
broad 1.0 mm, odourless with bland and
Colour: Pale greyish brown with pinkish mucilaginous taste.
tinge. A small, elongated, shinning, reddish Husk is used in the same way as seeds it is
brown spot is present in the centre of dorsal or preferred over seeds as dose is less.
convex surface. A cavity; having Hilum in its
centre, is present on the ventral or concave
surface. Hilum is covered with a thin, whitish SENNA
membrane Botanical Source: Senna consists of dried
Odour: Odourless leaflets of Cassia acutifolia (Cassia senna)
known as Alexandrian senna and leaflets of
Taste: Bland and mucilaginous
Cassia angustifolia known as Tinnevelly
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENT: Epidermis senna.
of seed contains 10% mucilage. Seeds also
Family: Leguminosae
contain Proteins and Fixed oils. Mucilage is
constituted from Pentosans and Aldibionic Geographical Source: Alexandrian senna in
acid Egypt & Tinnevelly senna in Arabia, Somalia
and South India.
USES: Mucilage is not acted upon digestive
enzymes and intestinal bacteria. It can absorb
irritating substances, bacteria & bacterial
toxins, hence used in Amoebic & Bacillary
dysentery, Diarrhoea, Gonorrhoea, Duodenal
ulcer, Piles and habitual constipation. Sticks
prepared from mucilage are used in Medical
Termination of Pregnancy (MTP)

MACROSCOPICAL CHARACTERS
Alexandrian senna Tinnevelly senna
Appearance: Less entire & more broken Entire & less broken
Shape: Ovate-lanceolate Lanceolate
Size: 2 to 4 cm. long, 7 to 12 mm wide 2.5 to 6.0 cm. long, 7 to 8 mm wide
28
Colour: Pale, Greyish green Green
Margin: Entire & curled Entire
Apex: Acute with sharp spine at apex Less acute with sharp spine at apex
Base: More Asymmetrical Less Asymmetrical
Surface: More Pubescent Less pubescent with pressure marking
Venation: Pinnate veins anastomosing Pinnate veins anastomosing
towards margin towards margin
Texture: Thin, brittle Firm, flexible
Odour: Faint Faint
Taste: Mucilaginous, Slightly bitter & Mucilaginous, Slightly bitter & unpleasant
unpleasant

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENT O

Senna has 2 to 3 % Sennosides A, B, C & D.

10
Senna also contains free Chrysophanol, Aloe-
emodin,Rheinand their glycosides. Mucilage is
also present. 10'

O
Glu - O O OH Dianthrone

10
USES: Cathartic and Purgative. Due to its
R
gripping action it is usually prescribed with
COOH Carminatives
10'

O OH
Glu - O

R = COOH, 10 - 10' trans

Sennoside A

R = COOH, 10 - 10' meso

Sennoside B

R = CH2OH, 10 - 10' trans

Sennoside C

R = CH2OH, 10 - 10' meso

Sennoside D
.

29
CARDIOTONICS
Muscle of heart is termed as Myocardium. In Base: Tapering with de-current lamina
failing heart disease, myocardium is not able
to contract properly hence all cells of body fail Upper Surface: Dark green, slightly
to get proper supply of blood. Less supply of pubescent
blood leads to less oxygen availability to all Lower surface: Greyish green, very pubescent
cells. Cardiotonics bring about positive
changes in heart muscles and muscles are able Venation: Pinnate, mid-rib, lateral veins &
to contract slower but forcefully. This veinlets are prominent on lower surface of
improves the blood and oxygen supply to leaf: main veins anastomise repeatedly
every cell of body.
Petiole: Winged, 2.5 to 10 cm long
DIGITALIS (Synonym- Foxglove)
Odour: Faint and Characteristic
Botanical Source: Digitalis consists of dried
leaves of Digitalis purpurea, containing Not Taste: Distinctly bitter
More than (NMT) 6% moisture; the leaves CHEMICAL CONSTITUENT: Fresh leaves
being dried immediately after collection and contain primary glycosides Purpurea glycoside
stored in moisture proof containers. A and Purpurea glycoside B and Gluco-
Family: Scrophulariaceae gitaloxin. During drying, these get converted
to secondary glycosides Digitoxin, Gitoxin and
Geographical Source: England, European
Gitaloxin respectively.
Countries, France, Germany, North America & O
Kashmir.
O

OH

OH
HO

Gitoxigenin
O

OH
HO
MACROSCOPICAL CHARACTERS
Appearance: Usually broken and crumbled Digitoxogenin
leaves
Shape: Ovate lanceolate or broadly ovate
Size: 10 to 30 cm long; 4 to 10 cm wide
Margin: Crenate to dentate
Apex: Sub-acute to rounded

30
 Shape: Usually flat but sometimes slightly
curved
Size: Usually variable size up to 15 cm long,
up to 10 cm wide and up to 1.0 cm thick
Colour: Externally dark greyish brown;
internally reddish brown to brown
External Surface: Dark greyish brown;
O smooth
O Internal Surface: Reddish brown to brown
with fine longitudinal striations
O-C-H
Fracture: Short.
O
Odour: Odourless
OH
HO
Taste: Astringent

\
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENT
Gitaloxigenin
Arjuna bark contains 15 to 20% tannins along
with Triterpenoid saponins. It also has arjunic
USES: Cardio-tonic and Diuretic. Used in acid arjunolic acid and arjunone. Other
Congestive heart failure, Atrial flutter and constituents’ are- Calcium salts, colouring
Atrial fibrillation. matter and sugars.

HO

ARJUNA
Botanical Source: Arjuna consists of dried COOH
HO
stem bark of Terminalia arjuna
HO
Family: Combretaceae
Geographical Source: Common throughout Arjunic Acid
India on the sides of streams.

HO

COOH
HO
HO
HOH2 C
Arjunolic acid

MACROSCOPICAL CHARACTERS
Appearance: Flat and thick pieces of stem
bark
31
 O-CH3 USES
H3 C-O O Cardio-tonic, diuretic and astringent. It is used
to reduce blood pressure and heart rate.
O-CH3

H3C-O O

Arjunone

CARMINATIVES and GIT REGULATORS

Carminatives are the drugs which help the
digestive system to work properly. These have
soothing effect, help preventing gripping (pain
due to contraction of muscles) and also
prevent formation of gas. These also help in
expelling of gas from GIT (Flatulence).
GIT regulators are those drug which help in
maintaining the normal functioning of GIT.
These mainly act by regulating the motility of
intestine and also by their Anti-inflammatory
action. Various actions of GIT regulators are-
Appetizer (Stimulating hunger), Stomachic
(Improving digestion), Anti-emetics
(preventing vomiting), Sialagogues (increasing
secretion of saliva) and Cholagogue
(increasing flow of Bile juice) and Aromatics MACROSCOPICAL CHARACTERS
(Drugs given along with certain purgative to Appearance: Occurs as cremocarp and
avoid griping).
separated mericarp
CORIANDER
Shape: Sub-globular
Botanical Source: Coriander consists of dried
Size: 3 to 5 mm in diameter
ripe fruits of Coriandrum sativum.
Colour: Yellowish brown to brown
Family: Umbelliferae
Odour: Aromatic
Geographical Source: Cultivated throughout
European countries like Holland, Hungary and Taste: Spicy and characteristic
Russia. Cultivated also in India External surface: Each cremocarp has 10
wavy and inconspicuous primary ridges
separated by 8 straight secondary ridges,
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENT: Coriander
has 0.3 to 1.0% volatile oil, 13% fixed oil and
20% protein. Volatile oil contains Coriandrol,
Coriandryl acetate and Pinene.
Leaves of coriander are very rich source of
Vitamin A

32
 O
CH3
OH CH3
O-C-CH3

CH2
CH2

H3C CH3
H3C CH3

Coriandrol Coriandrol Acetate Pinene

CH3 CH3
H3C CH3
CH2OH

CH3 MACROSCOPICAL CHARACTERS

Vitamin A (Retinol)
Appearance: Mainly cremocarp, rarely
USES: Coriander helps to lowers Blood mericarp
pressure and Blood glucose level
Shape: Oval, slightly curved
It is useful in Digestive discomforts and Food
Size: 0.5 to 1.0 cm long, 2 to 4 mm broad
poisoning.
Colour: Greenish brown
It decreases bad cholesterol (LDL) and
increases good cholesterol (HDL) Odour: Aromatic

It helps treating Urinary tract infections and Taste: Sweet and aromatic
Neurological inflammation. External surface: Glabrous with five
prominent straw coloured straight primary
ridges on each mericarp. Apex has bifid
stylopod.
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENT: Fennel
contains 2.0 to 6.5% of Volatile oil and nearly
12 to 18% Fixed oil. Volatile oil contains 50 to
60% of phenolic ether called Anethole (Sweet
FENNEL in taste) and 18 to 20% ketone called
Botanical Source: Fennel consists of dried Fenchone (Pungent in taste). Terpenes are- α-
ripe fruits of Foeniculum vulgare pinene, dipentene and limonene. It also
contains aleurone grains.
Family: Umbelliferae
CH=CH-CH3
Geographical Source: Fennel is mainly CH3
grown in France, India, Japan and Russia.
O
CH3
O-CH3 CH3
Anethole Fenchone

33
 CH2
OH
CH3
CH3
Pinene Camphene Limonene Thymol
USES: Aromatic, stomachic, carminative and USES
expectorant
Antispasmodic, Stimulant and Carminative
Flavouring agent for mouth and dental Used in Sore throat and Bronchitis
preparations
Oil is Antiseptic, Anti-fungal, Insecticide and
Anthelmintic
AJOWAIN (BISHOP’S WEED) It is useful in Rheumatic pain.
Bot. Source – Ajowain consists of dried ripe
fruits of Tachyspermum ammi.
CARDAMOM (Synonym- Chotti-Elaichi)
Family- Umbelliferae
Botanical Source: Cardamom consists of
Geographical Source – Native of Egypt. dried ripe fruits of Elettaria cardamomum var.
Cultivated in Iraq, Iran, India and Pakistan
miniscula
Family: Zingiberaceae
Geographical Source: Native to Sri-Lanka
and Malaysia. Extensively grown in various
states of south India.

CHARACTERS
Appearance: Cremocarp or separated
Mericarps
Colour: Yellowish brown
Odour: Agrreable
Taste: Aromatic and warm MACROSCOPICAL CHARACTERS
Size: 1.7 to 3 mm long, 1.5 to 2.4 mm wide Appearance: Three sided capsule with fibrous
and 0.5 to 1.5 mm thick
and papery pericarp
Surface: Each mericarp has 05 light coloured
ridges on its surface. Shape: Oblong-ovoid
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS Size: 8 to 15 mm long; 5 to 10 mm in
Ajowain contains Volatile oil (2 – 4%), thickness
Protein (16 – 17%), Fat (21 – 22%) and Apex: Shortly beaked
Carbohydrate (25%). Volatile oil contains
mainly Thymol. Base: Rounded with remain of stalk
34
Colour: Green to Pale buff Australia, India and Jamaica. India produces
35% of total world production.
External Surface:Longitudinally striated
Odour: Aromatic
Taste: Aromatic, pleasant
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENT: Seeds of
Cardamom contain 3 to 6% Volatile oil. The
main constituent of vol. oil is Cineole. Its other
constituents are- α-terpinyl acetate, Borneol &
Limonene. Seeds also contain fixed oil, starch
and protein.

MACROSCOPICAL CHARACTERS
O
O Appearance: Horizontal rhizomes with
O-C-CH3 sympodial branching. These rhizomes are
called ‘Hands” or ‘Races’
Cineole Terpinyl Acetate
Shape: Lateral sides are flat. From upper side
short and oblique branches arise. These
branches are called fingers.
OH
Size: 5.0 to 15 cm long; 3 to 6 cm wide and
0.5 to 1.5 cm thick
Colour: Buff coloured
Borneol Limonene
Odour: Aromatic and agreeable
USES: Carminative, Stimulant and flavouring
agent. Taste: Pungent and agreeable
BADI ELAICHI External surface: Surface has longitudinal
striations with occasional projecting fibres.
Botanical Source: Fruits of Amomum
aromaticum are known as Badi Ealichi. CHEMICAL CONSTITUENT: Ginger
contains 1.0 to 2.0% volatile oil, 5 to 8% resin
Family: Zingiberaceae
along with starch and mucilage. Important
Its seeds are less aromatic and often used as constituents of vol. oil are Cineole, Citral,
adulterant for cardamom. Borneol and Zingeberene
Resinous matter is called Gingerol. It is oily
GINGER liquid having homologous phenols.
Botanical Source: Ginger consists of dried
rhizomes of Zingiber officinale; the rhizome
being dried after scrapping its cork or skin.
Family: Zingiberaceae
Geographical Source: Ginger is native of
South East Asia. It is cultivated in Africa,

35
 CHARACTERS
H
Shape; Globular
O CHO
Size: 03 to 06 mm in diameter.
Colour: Blackish brown to greenish black
Geranial
Cineole (Citral) Surface: The surface is coarsely reticulately
wrinkled and the pericarp is thin.
Odour: Aromatic
OH Taste: Pungent
Other Characters: Central part of the fruit is
hollow

Borneol Zingiberene CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

Black pepper contains an alkaloid Piperine (5
– 9%), yellow coloured volatile oil (01 –
H3C-O
O
2.5%) and a resin. Piperine is Piperidine amide
OH
of Piperic acid. Pungency is due to presence of
HO CH2-CH2-C-CH2-CH-(CH2)n-CH3
Piperine and Resin.

Gingerols (n = 3,4 or 5)
O
USES: Stomachic, Stimulant and Carminative
O
Anti-emetic N

Used as an important condiment O

Piperine

O
BLACK PEPPER
Bot. Source: Black pepper is the dried unripe O
OH
fruits of a perennial climbing vine called Piper
nigrum. O
Family: Piperaceae Piperic Acid

Geographical Source: Indonesia, Brazil, USES

Malaya, Sri-Lanka and India Aromatic, Stimulant, Stomachic and
Carminative
Used as Spice and Condiments
It increases the formation of gastric juice and
bio-availability of many drugs.
It is a safe and very effective insecticide
against house flies.

ASAFOETIDA (Synonym- Heeng; Devil’s

dung)

36
Botanical Source: Asafoetida is the resinolferulate, free ferulic acid and Asa-
physiological Oleo-gum-resin, obtained by resene.
giving incisions to the living roots & rhizomes
of Ferula foetida, Ferula asafoetida, Ferula
CH = CH - COOH
rubricaulis and other sps of Ferula.
Family: Umbelliferae
Geographical Source: Afghanistan, Iran
OMe
S
S OH

Isobutyl propyl disulphide Ferulic Acid

USES
Carminative (In-flatulence), Anti-spasmodic,
Laxative and Expectorant
Asafoetida is Nervine stimulant, hence
used in nervous disorders like Hysteria

MACROSCOPICAL CHARACTERS NUTMEG (Synonym- Jaiphal)

Asafoetida occurs mainly in two forms i.e. Botanical Source: Nutmeg consists of dried
Tears and Mass or Lump or Block kernels of the seeds of Myristica fragrans
TEARS: These are rounded or flattened Family: Myristicaceae
structures, 5 to 30 mm in diameter having
Geographical Source: Nutmeg is indigenous
Greyish white of dull yellow colour. With
to Molucca and neighboring islands (in
aging these may become reddish brown.
Malaysia). It is cultivated in Indonesia, West
MASS or LUMP or BLOCK: These consist Indies and India (Tamil Nadu & Kerala)
of tears agglutinated together. Masses are
usually mixed with fruits, fragments of roots,
soil, stone and even Ca. carbonate. In market,
usually masses are available
Odour: Intense, Alliaceous, penetrating and
persistent
Taste: Bitter, acrid, Alliaceous
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENT
Asafotida contains Volatile oil (4 to 20%)
Resin (40 to 60%) and Gum (about 25%) MACROSCOPICAL CHARACTERS
along with impurities
Appearance:
Volatile oil contains mainly Isobutyl-propyl-
disulphide. It is responsible for alliaceous Shape: Ovoid or broadly elongated
odour. Other related organic disulphides are Size: 2 to 3 cm long & 1.5 to 2.0 cm in
also present. Resin consists of Asa- diameter
Colour: Brown to Greyish brown
37
External Surface: Rough, with reticulate
furrow; one end has radicle of embryo while
other end has chalaza; in between two, is
present the raphe
Odour: Strong aromatic
Taste: Pungent & slightly bitter
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENT
Nutmeg contains5 to 15% Volatile oil and
about 30% fat, known as Nutmeg butter
Volatile oil contains Myristicin, Elemicin,
CHARACTERS
Safrole, Geraniol & Eugenol; terpenes in oil
are- Pinene ,Dipentene & Camphene. Eugenol Shape: Compound quill
is present as free Eugenol, Iso-eugenol, Size: Up to 01 meter in length, 01 cm in
Methyl- eugenol, Methoxy-eugenol& diameter and 0.5 mm thick.
Methoxy-isoeugenol. Colour: Outer surface is dull yellowish brown
CH2 - CH = CH2 CH2 - CH = CH2 and the inner surface is yellowish brown
Surface: The outer surface has wavy
longitudinal striations and holes and scars of
O O O-CH3 branches while inner surface has longitudinal
O
striations.
O
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
Safrole Myristin
The bark has Volatile oil and Phloba-tannins,
CH2-CH=CH2 Calcium oxalate crystals, starch and mucilage.
CH2 - CH = CH2
The main constituents present in volatile oil
are- Cinnamaldehyde and Eugenol.
O-CH3 H3CO- O-CH3
OH O-CH3 CH=CH-CHO CH2-CH=CH2
Eugenol Elimicin

USES
Carminative, flavouring agent, Anti- O-CH3
inflammatory and Anti-rheumatic & Hair Cinnamon OH
tonic. aldehyde Eugenol

USES
Carminative, Stomachic, Flavouring agent,
CINNAMON
Anti-bacterial and Anti-fungal.
Bot. Source: Cinnamon is dried inner bark of
Useful in diabetes, weight loss and healing of
coppiced tree of Cinnamomum zeylanicum
wounds
Family: Lauraceae
Geographical Source: Sri-Lanka, Brazil
India.

CLOVE

38
Botanical Source: Clove consists of dried Taste: Pungent and aromatic followed by
flower buds of Eugenia caryophyllus numbness
Family: Myrtaceae CHEMICAL CONSTITUENT: Clove
contains 15 to 20% Volatile oil along with 10
Geographical Source: Clove is Native to
to 13% tannins. Volatile oil contains mainly
Moluccaisland. It is cultivated in Zangibar,
Eugenol (70 to 90%) along with Eugenol
Madagaskar, Srilanka and India (Tamil Nadu
acetate and Caryophyllene.
and Kerala)
CH2 - CH = CH2
CH2 - CH = CH2

O-CH3
O-CH3 O-C-CH3
OH
O
Eugenol Eugenol Acetate

CH3

MACROSCOPICAL CHARACTERS H2C

CH3
Appearance: Occurs as nearly 18 mm long
bud with lower 2/3rd stalk like Hypanthium CH3
and upper 1/3rd dome shaped Crown. Caryophyllene

Shape: Hypathium is tapering downward. USES: Clove is useful in Aerophagia

Above hypanthium spreading sepals are (Flatulence), difficult digestion, Lack of
present. Inside the sepal is present the dome appetite, Diarrhoea and Intestinal worms.
shaped unopened corolla, which enclose
It is valuable in Cold, Cough and Bronchitis.
numerous stamens and single stiff style.
Clove oil is used in toothache, mouth and
Size: Up to 18 mm long 4 mm wide and 2 mm
dental preparations
thick
Clove oil is mounting medium in microscopic
Colour: Crimson to dark brown
work
Odour: Aromatic

39
ASTRINGENTS
Astringents are the drugs which react with Appearance: cubes, lumps or masses
proteins and cause their precipitation. In this Colour: Dark brown or Black
way these lead to contraction of body cells and
tissues. These are usually applied to skin to Odour: slight but not characteristic
reduce bleeding from minor abrasions. These Taste: Bitter in beginning but turning
help in reducing inflammation and also have astringent afterwards
Anti-bacterial effects. These may be used as
Lozenges for their local effect in mouth and Surface: Firm, glossy and porous
throat. Chemical Constituents: Contains 4 – 12%
BLACK CATECHU; (KATTHA) Acacia Catechin or Acacatechin, 25 – 30%
Botanical Source: Black catechu is dried Catechu tannic acid, 25 – 30% gummy matter
aqueous extract, prepared from the heartwood along with flavonoids and moisture.
of Acacia catechu. OH

Family: Leguminosae HO O OH
Geographical Source:
OH
OH
Catechin

USES – Used for cleaning of mouth and gums

Used as Astringent in diarrhoea
Used in dyeing and tanning industry
Used for calco printing
In India it is added to betel leaves.
Kattha is regarded as astringent, cooling and
CHARACTERS digestive.it is used for relaxed conditions of
40
throat, mouth and gums. It is used in cough
and diarrhoea. Externally it is employed as
astringent and cooling application to ulcers,
boils and eruptions of skin.
It is also reported to be Anti-leprotic and
highly efficient Anti-oxidant; so used in oils
and fat where it doubles their shelf life.

DRUGS ACTING ON NERVOUS SYSTEM

Nervous system controls all activities of body. Family: Solanaceae
It consists of CNS (Central nervous System- Geographical Source: Indigenous to Europe,
Brain and Spinal Cord) and PNS (Peripheral Western Asia & Northern Africa. Cultivated in
Nervous System Nerves from CNS). The PNS Belgium, England, Germany and India
get further divided into Somatic Nervous
System (SNS) and Automatic Nervous System Hyoscyamus is a biennial herb. During 1st year
(ANS). Somatic system controls the movement it produces small stem and petiolated leaves.
of voluntary or skeletal muscles while ANS These leaves are collected; hence the 1st year
controls the movement of Involuntary or drug has only leaves. During 2nd year the stem
smooth muscles. ANS is further divided into gets elongated, branched, produces sessile
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous leaves and flowers. The 2nd year drug hag
systems. Sympathetic nervous system leaves, stem and flowering tops.
predominates when body is active and keeps it
alert by increasing the consumption of body
reserves.
Parasympathetic Nervous System is active
while body is at rest and helps conserving the
body reserves.
Drugs acting on Nervous system are those
which have CNS stimulant, Anti-convulsant,
Anti-anxiety, Sedative, Muscle relaxant,
Narcotic analgesic and Bronchodilator effects.
HYOSCYMUS (Synonym- Henbane)
Botanical Source: Hyoscyamus consists of
dried leaves or the leaves, stem and flowering
tops of Hyoscyamus niger

41
 Important alkaloids are- Hyoscyamine and
Hyoscine. It also contains Volatile oil and Cal.
Oxalate crystals.

CH2OH

N-CH3 - O - C - CH -
O

Hyoscyamine

CH2OH

O N-CH3 - O - C - CH -
O

Scolopamine

MACROSCOPICAL CHARACTERS
USES
1st year drug (Only leaves)
Hyoscyamus is used along with purgatives to
Appearance: Usually broken and crumbled prevent gripping
leaves
It is used to relieve spasms of urinary tract.
Shape: Entire leaves are Ovate to lanceolate
It is used to control secretion of Saliva, as
Size: 20 to 30 cm long; 7 to 10 cm wide Anti-spasmodic, Anti-asthmatic and Sedative
Petiole: Up to 5 cm long
Margin: Irregularly dentate BELLADONA
Apex: Tapering (Synonym- Deadly night shade)
Base: Tapering Botanical Source: Belladona consists of dried
Mid-rib: Prominent leaves, flowering and fruiting tops of Atropa
belladona
Taste: Bitter
Family: Solanaceae
2nd year drug (Leaves, Stem & Flowering
Tops) Geographical Source: Indigenous to Central
& Southern Europe. Cultivated in England,
Stem: Hollow, Sub-cylindrical, covered with
Germany, United States and India (J&K)
hair, pale green with alternate leaves
Flowers: 2 to 3 cm long, pedicle 4 mm, Calyx-
five lobed, broadly bell shaped, hairy, spiny,
pointed & persistent; Corolla- five lobed,
funnel shaped, yellowish with purple veins;
Stamens- five; Stigma- capitate, two lobed;
Fruit- capsule, about 1.3 cm in diameter.
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENT Hyoscyamus
contains about 0.045 to 0.15% Alkaloids.
42
 lobed, bell shaped, purplish or yellowish
brown; Stamens- five, epipetalous; Ovary-
superior, bilocular with numerous ovules;
Fruit- globular-berry, green to brown , about
12 mm in diameter with numerous, flattened,
sub-reniform brown coloured seeds.
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENT
Belladona contains about 0.3 to 0.6%
Alkaloids. Important alkaloid is-
Hyoscyamine. Other alkaloids are Hyoscine&
Atropine leaves also contain a fluorescent
substance called β-methylaesculetin and
crystals of Calcium oxalate.

CH2OH

N-CH3 - O - C - CH -
O

Hyoscyamine

USES: Belladona is Parasympatholytic with

Anti-cholinergic actions, hence used to reduce
Salivary, Sweat and Gastric secretions
MACROSCOPICAL CHARACTERS Belladona is used along with purgatives to
prevent gripping
1st year drug (Only leaves)
It is used to relieve spasms of urinary tract.
Appearance: Thin and brittle leaves. Leaves
are present in pairs, one is large and other It is also used as Anti-dote for Opium and
small Chloral hydrate poisoning
Shape: Ovate lanceolate to broadly ovate
Size: 5 to 25 cm long; 2.5 to 12 cm wide ACONITE
Margin: Entire (Synonym- Meetha-zahar)
Apex: Acuminate Botanical Source: Aconite consists of dried
tuberous roots of Aconitum napellus
Surface: Upper surface is darker than lower
surface Family: Ranunculaceae
Colour: Brownish green Geographical Source: Native to Germany,
Hungry, Spain, and Switzerland. It is
Odour: Characteristic
Cultivated in England and India. In India it
Taste: Bitter & Acrid grows even in wild state.
Flowers: Solitary, shortly stalked, dropping,
about 2.5 cm long; Calyx- broadly bell shaped,
deeply five lobed, persistent; Corolla- five

43
 ASHWAGANDHA
(Synonym- Withania root, Asgandh)
Botanical Source: Ashwagandha consists of
dried roots and stem bases of Withania
somnifera
Family: Solanaceae
Geographical Source: Afghanistan, Congo,
Egypt, India (M.P., U.P., Punjab, Gujarat,
Rajasthan), Jordan Pakistan
MACROSCOPICAL CHARACTERS
Appearance: Usually occurs as parent and
daughter roots; the daughter root being
attached as side branch near the crown
Shape: Conical, being wide at crown and
tapering downwards
Size: 4 to 10 cm long and 2 to 3cm in
diameter near crown
Colour: Dark brown to almost black
External Surface: Slightly twisted with
longitudinal wrinkles and numerous thin wiry MACROSCOPICAL CHARACTERS
rootlets or their scar
Appearance: Occurs as un-branched pieces.
Fracture: Short, horny & starchy Some root pieces may bear crown
Odour: Slight Shape: Cylindrical, usually tapering
Taste: Burning with tingling sensation Size: 10 to 18 cm long; 6 to 12 mm in
followed by numbness diameter
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENT Colour: Externally light brown, internally
Aconite contains 0.3 to 1.2% alkaloids. The creamy
main alkaloid is Aconitine. It also has other External Surface: Smooth and longitudinally
alkaloids like Neopelline, Napelline and wrinkled. Pieces having crown usually possess
Neoline. Aconitic acid and Starch are also number of bud scars.
present.
Fracture:Short, smooth and mealy
USES
Odour: Strong and characteristic
Aconitine is a highly poisonous alkaloid. Even
Taste: Mucilaginous, bitter and acrid
small dose can cause heart and respiratory
failure; hence aconite is not used on wounded Leaves: Leaves are present at nodes in whorls
skin. It finds use as external analgesic in of two as decussate, triangular, scarious
Neuralgia toothache, rheumatism and sheath. These are much reduced being only 2
inflammation to 4 mm long, lamina is whitish but base is

44
reddish brown. These fall immediately after
getting dried.
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENT
Ashwagandha contains alkaloids and Steroidal
lactone called Withanolides important
alkaloids are- Somniferine, Withanine, Peudo-
withanine, Tropine, Pseudo-tropine, Anaferine
and Anahygrine. Important withanolide is-
Withaferin A.
MACROSCOPICAL CHARACTERS
Appearance: Occurs as long, slender,
O H branched stem
H
N CH2 - C - CH2 N Shape: Cylindrical
Size: Up to 2 mm in diameter with variable
Anaferine length
Colour: Grayish green
USES External Surface: Rough, with many fine
Tonic and Aphrodisiac. longitudinal ridges and nodes and 3 to 6 cm
inter-nodes
In insomnia, it is used as sedative.
Fracture: Fibrous
It is Immuno-modulatory and adaptogenic
hence used as geriatric medicine to promote Odour: Aromatic or odourless
vigour. Also used as anti-bacterial and anti- Taste: Astringent, bitter
tumour.
Leaves: Leaves are present at nodes in whorls
of two as decussate, triangular, scarious
EPHEDRA sheath. These are much reduced being only 2
to 4 mm long, lamina is whitish but base is
(Synonym- Ma-huang)
reddish brown. These fall immediately after
Botanical Source: Ephedra consists of entire getting dried.
plant or over-ground portion of Ephedra sinica
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENT
and E. equisetina (both Chinese species).
Indian and Pakistan species are- E geradiana It contains 0.5 to 2.0% alkaloids. The main
and E nebrodensis. Another sps is E. alkaloid is Ephedrine. Even pseudo-ephedrine,
distachya. Nor-ephedrine and Methyl ephedrine are also
present.
Family: Gnetaceae (Ephedraceae)
OH NH2
Geographical Source: Sea coast in Southern -CH -- CH -- CH3
China. North-western region of India and
Pakistan. Nor-Ephedrine

45
 OH NH - CH 3
-CH -- CH -- CH 3

Ephedrine

CH3
OH NH - CH3
-CH -- CH -- CH3

Methyl Ephedrine

USES
Ephedrine is adrenergic (Sympathomimetic)
drug having broncho-dilator effect.
It is used in Asthma, Hay-fever, Rhinitis and CHARACTERS
Whooping cough. Indian opium is available in four categories
It increases Blood pressure, causes Cardiac Export Opium: Good quality opium available
stimulation and Mydriasis. in blocks of 5 kg each, meant for export.
OPIUM Medicinal Opium: This category is meant for
preparation of Tinctures, Pills and Powders
(Syn: Afeem)
Opium for alkaloid production: Drug for
Bot. Source: Opium is air dried latex (Milky
extraction of Morphine, Codeine, Papaverine
exudates) obtained by giving incisions to the
and Thebaine
unripe capsules of Papaver somniferum.
Excise opium: This category is meant for
Family: Papaveraceae
issue to registered addicts
Geographical Source: Native to Turkey:
Appearance: Indian opium is available in
grown in Yugoslavia, India, Iran, Pakistan and
form of cubes, each wrapped in tissue paper.
Russia
Colour: Dark brown
Odour: Strong and Characteristic
Taste: Bitter
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
Opium contains about 25 alkaloids. These
belong to following two categories.
Phenanthrene nucleus alkaloids: These are
Morphine (8 – 20%), Codeine (1 – 4%) and
Thebaine
Benzyl Iso-quinoline nucleus alkaloids: These
are Papaverine (1.0%), Narcotine, also called
Noscapine (6.0%) and Narceine
These alkaloids are present in combination
with Meconic acid (Dibasic acid). Opium also
contains Sugars, Wax, mucilage and salts of
Calcium, Magnesium and Potassium.
46
 CH3

N CANNABIS
O
OH (Synonym- Hashish, Bhang, Ganja & Charas)
Botanical Source: Cannabis consists of dried
HOOC O COOH O flowering and fruiting tops of pistillate plants
HO OH
of Cannabis sativa
Meconic Acid Morphine
Family: Cannabinaceae
CH3 Geographical Source: Africa, America &
N India (North India, Maharashtra & Bengal)

H3C-O O OH

Codeine
CH3

H3C-O O O-CH3

Thebaine.
H3C-O

N
H3C-O

O-CH3

O-CH3
Papaverine
USES
Analgesic, Sedative and Hypnotic. Opium is
habit forming hence used only in severe burn,
injury and pain.
Also used in combination with other
analgesics to increase their action MACROSCOPICAL CHARACTERS
Used in diarrhoea, dysentery and cough
Appearance: Matted or compact masses of
Papaverine is spasmolytic and Narcotine is much branched flowering & fruiting tops
anti-tussive.
Shape: Flat or Cylindrical
Synthetic compounds have been synthesized,
which have structural similarity to Morphine. Colour: Dull dusky green
These have medicinal action of Morphine but
are not habit forming. These are called External Surface: Uneven, rough, resinous
OPIOIDS. and harsh to touch
47
The stem bears bracts, bracteoles, flowers,
fruits and few leaves. Bracts are about 1.5 cm NUX- VOMICA
long; bracteoles are in pairs, boat shaped with
acute apex; flowers have hairy perianth, ovary (Syn: kuchla)
with brownish red style and the fruit is 5 to 6 Bot. Source: Nux-vomica consists of dried
mm long, 4 mm wide, ovoid, glossy, single ripe seeds of Strychnos nux-vomica
seeded Family: Loganiaceae
Geographical Source: Australia, East Indies,
India and Sri-lanka
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENT
Cannabis contains 2.5 to 20 % resin (Indian
cannabis has 15 to 20% resin). It contains over
60 compounds called Cannabinoids. Important
Cannabinoids are- Cannabinol, Cannabidiol,
Cannabidiol-carboxylic acid and
Cannabigerol. Cannabis also has Volatile oil,
Alkaloid, flavonoids and Calcium carbonate.

OH OH

O C5H11 O C5H11

Cannabinol Tetra hydro cannabinol

OH

C5H11
OH

Cannabidiol

USES
Cannabis is Sedative, Hypnotic, Analgesic,
Anti-convulsant, Anti-anxiety & Anti-
tussive.
CHARACTERS
It has Psychotropic activities similar to LSD & Shape: Disc shaped, flat, concavo-convex or
Mescaline. In the beginning it causes euphoria irregularly bent
followed by mental disturbance and Size: Dia 1 to 3 cm, thickness 4 to 6 mm
depression. Due to this reason, it is no more
Edges: Rounded or acute
used in medicine.
Colour: Greenish grey or grey
Recently a Tetra hydro cannabinol has been
found to be useful to relieve the nausea and Surface: Very hard, the testa is covered with
silky, closely oppressed hair, which radiate
vomiting caused by chemotherapy of cancer.
from centre.
48
Centre of one flattened side has distinct hilum. Caffeotannic acid (Chlorogenic acid), Loganin
On the circumference is present micropyle, as (A glycoside), fixed oil and aleurone grains
a small projection. The micropyle and hilum USES
are joined by a radial ridge.
Bitter stomachic
Odour: None
Stimulant for Respiratory and Cardio-vascular
Taste: Very bitter system
Used to improve Reflux action
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS Nerve and sex tonic
Nux-vomica contains mainly Strychnine Strychnine is used as rodent killer
(1.25%) and Brucine (1.5%). Brucine is
actually dimethoxy strychnine. Brucine (Four times as bitter as Strychnine) is
used as denaturant for Alcohol and non-edible
Minor alkaloids are Vomicine and Pseudo-
fat and as dog poison.
strychnine. Other constituents’ are-

ANTIHYPERTENSIVES
Hypertension (HTN or HT), also known as (Synonym- Sarpgandha, Pagal-ki-dawa)
high blood pressure (HBP), is a long-term
medical condition in which the blood pressure Botanical Source: Rauwolfia consists of dried
in the arteries is persistently elevated roots and rhizomes of 3 to 4 yrs old plants
Rauwolfia serpentine; collected in autumn
Normal blood pressure is 120/80 mm Hg.
with bark intact
Usually blood pressure above 140/90 is
considered HYPERTENSION and is Family: Apocynaceaee
considered severe if the pressure is above Geographical Source: Burma, India, Java,
180/120.
Pakistan and Thailand.
Drugs which can bring down the elevated
blood pressure are called ANTI-
HYPERTENSIVES. These mainly bring down
the elevated blood pressure by relaxing the
circular smooth muscles of the blood vessels.
Diuretics also bring down the hypertension by
excreting the water from body hence reducing
the blood volume.

RAUWOLFIA
49
 H3C-O N
N
H O-CH3
O
O-C O-CH3
H3COOC
O-CH3 O-CH3

Reserpine

H3C-O N
MACROSCOPICAL CHARACTERS N
H O-CH3
Appearance: Pieces of root and rhizomes, O
rarely branched O - C - CH = CH O-CH3
H3COOC
Shape: Cylindrical or sub-cylindrical or
O-CH3 O-CH3
slightly tapering tortuous pieces
Size: Usually 8 to 15 cm in length, 0.5 to 1.0
Rescinnamine
cm thick; some pieces may be up to 40 cm
long and 2.0 cm thick
Colour: Dull with grayish yellow to light USES: Anti-hypertensive and Tranquilizer. It
brown to brown is used to treat essential hypertension and
neuro-psychiatric disorders. Ajmaline is used
External Surface: Young pieces have slight in cardiac arrhythmia.
wrinkles while older pieces have longitudinal
ridges. Bark exfoliates easily especially in
older pieces. Some pieces may show mould on
their surface.
Fracture: Easy and short. Fractured surface
shows narrow yellowish brown bark and wide,
dense pale yellow wood. Both are starchy
Odour: Odourless
Taste: Bitter
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENT: Rauwolfia
contains 0.7 to 2.4% of total alkaloids. More
than 30 alkaloids have been reported.
Important indole alkaloids are- Reserpine
Rescinnamine, Ajmaline and Ajmalicine.
Rauwolfia also contains Phytosterols, fatty
acids, unsaturated alcohols and sugars.

50
ANTITUSSIVE DRUGS
Cough is a protective reflex mechanism which
helps in expelling the foreign particles and
secretions from the respiratory tract. It is
controlled by cough centre present in brain.
Unnecessary coughing due to hyper activity of
cough centre becomes irritating. Anti tussives
are the drugs which act by subduing
(depressing) the cough centre so that patient
can be spared of the unnecessary coughing.

VASAKA (Adhatoda, Adusa)

Vasaka is a small evergreen shrub growing in
dry climate and dry soil. It can grow in plains
and foothills of Himalaya. Almost all parts of
this herb are used but its leaves have value in
providing support to lungs and respiratory
system. Bot. Source: Vasaka consists of fresh and
dried leaves of Adhatoda vesica.
51
Family: Acanthaceae From the structure of vasicine; Bromhexine
HCl, has been derived which helps in reducing
Geographical Source: Vasaka is native to
viscosity of Sputum hence its easy removal.
India. It is also found in Myanmar, Malaya ans
Sri-Lanka. BALSAM OF TOLU
CHARACTERS
(Synonym: Tolu Balsam)
Appearance: Entire or crumbled leaves
Botanical Source: It is Pathological Balsamic,
Shape: Petiolated, exstipulated with lanceolate ester resin obtained by giving incisions to the
shape. stem of Myroxylon balsamum and Myroxylon
Size: 10 to 30 cm long; 04 to 10 cm wide. toluifera
Margin: Crenate (Tolu is a small place near Cartagena; on the
Apex: Acuminate North coast of Columbia where it was once
exclusively produced).
Venation: 08 to 10 pairs of lateral veins
Family: Leguminosae
Odour: Characteristics
Geographical Source: Columbia, Cuba and
Taste: Bitter and unpleasant West Indies
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
Vasaka contains alkaloids. These are Vasicine,
Collection and Preparation
Vasicinone and 6-hydroxy vasicine. It also has V shaped incisions are made in the stem of
Volatile oil and Adhatodic Acid. Tree. Resin is collected in special cups and
then transferred to tins and exported.
HO
N N CHARACTERS
N N Appearance: Freshly imported drug is soft,
OH OH
tenacious yellowish brown resinous mass.
Vasicine 6-Hydroxy Vasicine
Upon keeping it hardens to brownish or
yellowish brown brittle thin layers, which
O
soften upon heating.
Taste: Aromatic, slightly pungent.
N
Odour: Faint, agreeable and aromatic
N
OH NOTE: Upon chewing it sticks to teeth.
Vasicinone
Br
CHEMICAL
N CONSTITUENTS
Br
NH2 It contains mainly resin esters (70 to
80%) like Tolu-resinatannolcinnamate and
Bromhexine traces of Toluresinatannol benzoate.
USES It also contains 12 to 15% free Cinnamic acid
Expectorant and Bronchodilator and nearly 8% Benzoic acid along with 7.5%
Cinnamein which is mixture of Benzyl
Higher doses cause Vomitting and diarrhoea benzoate and Benzyl cinnamate and small
It has oxytocic property hence Abortifacient. percentage of Styrol and Vanillin.

52
 CHO Shape: Ovate or Elliptical
CH = CH-COOH Size: Up to 05 cms
Margin: Slightly Toothed
.OCH3
OH Phyllotaxy: Decussate

Vanillin Cinnamic acid Odour: Strong and aromatic

Taste: Characteristic, Aromatic, Agreeable
C6H5 - CH = CH - COO - CH2 - C6H5 Stem: Erect, herbaceous, hairy, much
branched and quadrangular.
Benzyl cinnamate
Flowers: Crimson and purple in colour
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
Total balsamic acids present are- 35 to 50%
(free and combined). Leaves and flowering tops have 0.1 to 0.9%
volatile oil. The volatile oil is bright yellow
USES coloured having aromatic odour. Volatile oil
contains Eugenol, Methyl eugenol, Carvacrol
Externally: Anti-septic and Expectorant and Caryophyllene. Seeds have fixed oil along
Also used as Flavouring agent in with Glycosides, Alkaloids, Saponins, Tannins
Confectionary items, Chewing gums and and Vitamin C. Tulsi also has Ursolic Acid.
perfumes. CH2-CH=CH2 CH2-CH=CH2

TULSI (Holy Basil)

Tulsi is herbaceous, much branched, annual
under shrub, grown for its leaves and O-CH3 O-CH3
extensively used as herbal tea. OH OMe
Eugenol Methyl Eugenol

CH 3

OH

H 2C
CH 3
CH 3
Bot. Source: It consists of dried leaves of
Ocimum sanctum. Carvacrol Caryophyllene

Family: Labiatae (Lamiaceae)

Geographical Source: Tulsi is abundantly
found in India and neighbouring countries. USES

CHARACTERS: Stomachic, Carminative, Febrifuge,

Antibacterial, Antiprotozoal, Insecticide
Tulsi is erect, profusely branched, perennial
under shrub of about 30-60 cms high. It is Adaptogenic and Immuno-modulator
grown annually mainly for its leaves. Various Expectorant and useful in Respiratory tract
useful parts of this plant have following infections
characters-
Anti-inflammatory and Anti-allergic
LEAVES:
Colour: Green or purple
Petiole: Petiolated
53
ANTI-RHEUMATICS
Anti-rheumatics are the drugs are those drugs
which are used to slow down the progress of
Rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatoid arthritis or
Rheumatism is damage associated with the
inflammatory diseases of the joints. Anti-
rheumatics reduce pain, inflammation and
stiffness of joints.
COLCHICUM
(Synonym: Meadow Saffron, Autumn saffron)
Botanical Source: Colchicum consists of
seeds and corm of Colchicum. These are
respectively the dried ripe seeds and fresh or
dried corm of Colchicum autumnale. CHARACTERS
Family: Liliaceae SEEDS
Geographical Source: Central and South
Europe and England.

54
Shape: Globular with Strophiole Geographical Source: India, Pakistan,
(Parenchymatous outgrowth of raphae) on its Baluchistan and Arabia (In India, Rajasthan,
side. Gujrat, Maharashtra and Karnataka)
Size: 2 to 3 mm in dia CHARACTERS
Outer Surface: Dark reddish brown, minutely Colour: Brown to pale yellow to dull green
pitted, very hard. Size: Agglutinated masses of 0.5 to 1.0 to 2.5
Endosperm: Large and very hard. cm in diameter.
Embryo: Very small Shape: Rounded or ir-regular masses of
Odour: None agglomerated tears. Tears are somewhat
Taste: Very bitter and Acrid transparent with waxy surface and brittle
CORM nature,
Appearance: Dried transverse slices Feel: Gummy to touch
Size: Length 03 cms thickness 2 to 5 mm Odour: Agreeable, aromatic and Balsamic
Colour: dark brown Taste: Bitter and Characteristic
Fracture: Short and Starchy Solubility: Partly soluble in Alcohol but forms
Fractured Surface: Bears several fibrous a white emulsion when triturated with water.
vascular bundles as greyish point. CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
Odour: None Guggal contains nearly 60% resin, 30 % gum
Taste: Bitter and Acrid and 0.5 to 1.5% volatile oil. It also contains 3
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS to 4% moisture along with steroids.
Seeds contain 0.6 to 1.2% alkaloid colchicines USES
and number of other colchicines type Guggal is used as Anti-inflammatory, Anti-
alkaloids. rheumatic, Hypolipidemic and
MeO H
Hypocholesteremic.
MeO N
COCH3
OMe

O
OMe

Colchicine
It also contains Resin, Fixed oil and Reducing
sugars.
The corm contains up to 0.6 % colchicines
along with related alkaloids
USES
Alkaloidal preparations are used in Gout, but
this should be used with utmost precautions
due to its toxicity.
Colchicine is used in plant experiment to
produce Polyploidy.

GUGGAL
(Syn: Guggulu; Guggul
Botanical Source: Guggal consists of Oleo-
gum-resin obtained by giving incisions to the
stem bark of Commiphora weightii (=
Comiphora mukul= Balsamodendron mukul).
Family: Burseraceae

55
ANTI-TUMOUR
Anti-tumor are the drugs, which are used to
treat cancer. The cancer is defined as the
growth of abnormal cells. Various chemical
and natural drugs are used to treat cancer. A
few important natural drugs are-
Vinca rosea: Vincristine, Vinblastine
Taxus baccata: Taxol
Podophyllum hexandrum: Podophyllotoxin

VINCA CHARACTERS
(Syn: Catharanthus, Baramasi, Sada bahar) Appearance: Catharanthus is herbaceous sub-
Botanical Source: Vinca or Catharanthus is shrub; 40 to 80 cm high with woody base.
whole dried plant of Catharanthus roseus also Leaves: Leaves are simple, petiolated,
called Vinca rosea. opposite, obovate, glossy with mucronate or
Family: Apocynaceae rounded apex and entire margin
Geographical Source: Vinca is indigenous to Flowers: Bracteate, complete, violet, pink or
Madagaskar. Presently it is widely grown as white in colour
ornamental plant in India, Africa, Australia, Fruit: Divergent follicles
Eastern Europe, Taiwan and Thailand.
Seeds: Black coloured.
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
From vinca about 90 alkaloids have been
isolated. These are mainly Indole alkaloids
(Catharanthine) or dihydro indole alkaloids
(Vindoline). Other alkaloids of this category
are- Ajmalicine, Serpentine Lochnerine and
Tetrahydro alstonine. Alkaloids of maximum
interest are about 20 dimeric alka;oids (Having
both Indole and Dihydro-indole nucleus).
Examples of this category are- Vincristine and
Vinblastine.

OH
N

N
N
H COOCH3

MeO N OCOCH3
OH
R
COOCH3
R = CH3 Vinblastine
R = CHO Vincristine

56
USES Certain alkaloids of vinca are Sedative and
Tranquiliser
Vinblastine is used in treatment of Hodgkin’s
disease and Chorion-epithelioma. Vinca alkaloids are used to increase blood
supply to brain
Vincristine is used to treat Leukaemia
Vinca alkaloids are useful to prevent dementia.
Vinca leaves are useful in diabetes and high
blood pressure
ANTILEPROTICS
Leprosy is an infectious disease caused by a
bacillus, Mycobacterium leprae. This (CH2)10 - COOH
bacterium multiplies slowly and the symptoms
may take as long as 20 years or even more to
occur.
The disease mainly affects the skin, the C16H28O2
peripheral nerves, mucosa of the upper Hydnocarpic Acid
respiratory tract, and the eyes.
Untreated, leprosy can cause progressive and (CH2)12 - COOH
permanent damage to the skin, nerves, limbs,
and eyes.
Anti-leprotics are the drugs which interfere
with the proliferation of the bacteria causing C18H32O2
leprosy
CHAULMOOGRA OIL Chaulmoogric Acid
Synonym: Hydnocarpus oil
Botanical Source: It is cold pressed fixed oil (CH2)6 - CH=CH - (CH2)4 - COOH
obtained from fresh ripe seeds of Hydnocarpus
weightiana, Hydnocarpus anthelmintica,
Hydnocarpus heterophylla and Hydnocarpus
alpine (Chaulmoogra is the original Burmese C18H30O2
name of the plant)
Family: Flacourtiaceae Gorlic Acid
Geographical Source: Native to Burma.
Found even in India, China and Thailand USES
CHARACTERS Fatty acids present in the Chaulmoogra oil has
Colour: Yellow to Brownish liquid at room specific toxicity against bacteria of TB and
temperature but whitish mass at lower Leprosy (Mycobacterium Tuberculosis and
temperature (Below 250C). Mycobacterium leprae). The oil has quite
Taste: Acrid unstable nature hence Sodium and Ethyl salts
Odour: Characteristic of these acids are used.
Density: 0.95 This oil also finds use in Psoriasis and
Refractive Index: 1.472 to 1.476 Rheumatism (External and internal use)
Optical Rotation: +480 to 600
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
Chaulmoogra oil consists of mixed
triglycerides of
Hydnocarpic acid
Chaulmoogric acid
Gorlic acid
Oleic acid
Palmitic acid

57
ANTIDIABETICS
Antidiabetics are the drugs which are used to Colour: Golden yellow brown with darker
control the sugar (Glucose) level in the blood. streaks
Diabetes is endocrine disorder characterized Aqueous extract: Up on extracting even with
by increased blood glucose level. Glucose cold water, the drug yields a brown coloured
level is controlled by proteinaceous hormone aqueous extract with blue shade on the surface
called INSULIN. Insulin is secreted by β-cells of water.
of pancreas. Decreased insulin secretion is
either death of β-cells or decreased secretion CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
by β-cells. Hence diabetes is of two types Pterocarpus contains mainly flavanoids and
Type – 1 Diabetes or Insulin Dependent tannins. Important constituents are-
Diabetes Mellitus (IDDM): This type of Pterostilbene
diabetes develops due to death of β-cells hence
patient is dependent on external insulin for the Liquiritigenin
control of blood glucose level. Isoliquiritigenin
Type-2 Diabetes or Non-Insulin Dependent Marsupsin
Diabetes Mellitus (NIDDM): This type of
diabetes develops due to reduction of secretion Pterosupin
by β-cells hence patient is given drugs which Pterocarpol
either increase the efficiency of β-cells or
Pterocarposide
decrease the absorption of sugar from GIT.
PTEROCARPUS
OH
(Syn: Vijayasar; Indian Kino)
MeO
Botanical Source: Pterocarpus consists of
heart wood of Pterocarpus marsupium.
Family: Leguminosae OMe
Pterostilbene
Geographical source: Hilly regions of Bihar,
O
Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Uttar
Pradesh.
HO O

OH
Liquiritigenin
O

HO HO OH

Isoliquiritigenin
O
CHARACTERS
Appearance: hard and brittle root with pieces
of variable length and thickness. HO O OH
OH
Marsupsin

58
 Flowers: Small, Bell shaped, yellow coloured.
Flowering July to September
USES
Fruit: Slender Follicle with glabrous surface.
Pterocarpus is used as Anti-diabetic and
Fruiting October to December
astringent. It increases the blood insulin level
and also reduces the resistance to the insulin. It Seeds: Ovoid, winged and pale brown
is also useful to reduce cholesterol. CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
Heart wood is carved in beakers (or glasses). Gymnema consists of Amino acids, Aromatic
These are filled with water and the extract is acids, Alkaloids and Glycosides. Glycosides
consumed after 12 hours. One beaker can are saponin type being mixture of Gymnemic
serve purpose up to 45 days. acid I to V. it also contains a polypeptide
known as GUMARIN. This polypeptide is
responsible for paralysis of sweet and bitter
GYMNEMA
taste buds.
(Syn: Gurmar)
USES
Botanical Source: Gymnema consists of
Leaves: Hypoglycemic, useful in cough and
whole plant or dried leaves of perennial woody
fever. Leaves help in regeneration of β-cells
climber called Gymnema sylvestre.
hence increasing the secretion of Insulin.
Family: Asclepiadaceae These also saturate the glucose absorption sites
Geographical Source: Gymnema is widely of GIT hence decreasing the absorption of
distributed in central and southern India. It is sugar from GIT.
also found in Goa. Whole plant: Whole plant is used as anti-
periodic, diuretic and stomachic.

CHARACTERS
Appearance: Gymnema is a stout, woody
climber with densely appressed hairy
branchlets.
Leaves: Leaves are Ovate or elliptical with
acute or acuminate apex. Lower surface is
more pubescent. Size is 3 to 5 cm long and 1
to 2 cm wide. Colour is green with pleasant
and aromatic odour and taste is tasteless. Up
on chewing these paralyse the sweet and bitter
taste buds hence person is not able to sense
these taste for few hours.

59
DIURETICS
Diuretics are the drugs which increase the flow Coccus: Each fruit can be divided into five
of urine. In this way these help in removal of segments, each known as Coccus. Each coccus
excess water, urea, accumulated poisons and is plano-convex in shape, has a pair of stiff
drugs from the body. These mainly act by spines (about 0.5 cm long), directed towards
interfering with re-absorption of water from apex. Tips of these spines almost meet in pairs
tubules and are highly useful in edema. forming a pentagonal frame work around fruit.
Each coccus also has a pair of short spines,
GOKHRU (Synonym- Trikanta) directed downwards. Each coccus has 4 to 5
Botanical Source: Gokhru consists of dried seeds.
ripe fruits of Tribulus terrestris Odour: Odourless
Family: Zygophyllaceae Taste: Slightly astringent
Geographical Source: Annual weed CHEMICAL CONSTITUENT: Gokhru has
(prostrate herb) of pasture lands, road sides Steroidal saponins which yield Diosgenin,
and other waste lands, throughout the plains of Ruscogenin and Gitogenin, upon hydrolysis. It
India (ascending up to 300 meters in Kashmir) also has traces of alkaloids Harman and
Harmine along with Potassium nitrate and
fixed oil.
USES: Diuretic. It is used in Nephritis,
kidney stones, painful micturition and gout

PUNARNAVA
Syn: Kathilla, Lal-punarnava, Hog weed
Botanical Source: Punarnava consists of dried
matured whole plant Boerhaavia diffusa
Family: Nyctaginaceae
Geographical Source: It grows throughout
India as trailing herb and collected after rainy
season.

MACROSCOPICAL CHARACTERS
Appearance: Stalked spiny fruits, divisible in
to five densely, hairy woody cocci (Singular
Coccus)
Shape: Globose or spherical
Size: 1.0 cm in diameter CHARACTERS
Colour: Yellowish light brown to greenish Stem: Greenish purple, stiff, slender, being
swollen at nodes.
grey
Root: Well developed, fairly long and
External Surface: Surface is covered with somewhat tortuous, 0.2 to 1.5 cm in diameter.
short and long stiff spines

60
Leaves: Opposite in unequal pairs, larger is 25
to 37 mm long smaller one is 12 to 18 mm
long.
Flowers: Very small, nearly sessile, pink
coloured.
Fruit: Nut; one seeded
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
Punarnava contains alkaloids collectively
called Punarnavine.
It also contains Xanthine derivatives and fatty
acids like Stearic and arachidic acids.
Also contains Inorganic salts like KNO3,
K2SO4 and KCl
USES
Anti-inflammatory, Diuretic and liver tonic

ANTIDYSENTERICS
Dysentery is intestinal infection which results (Syn: Ipecacuanha)
in severe diarrhoea accompanied by presence Botanical Source: Ipecac consists of dried
of blood and/or mucus in the stool. It may be roots or dried roots and rhizomes of Cephaelis
caused by Bacteria (Bacterial or Bacillary ipecacuanha and Cephaelis acuminata
dysentery or Amoeba (Amoebic dysentery). containing not less than 2.0% of ether soluble
Anti-dysentrics are the drugs which help in alkaloids.
controlling dysentery Family: Rubiaceae
IPECAC
61
Geographical Source: Brazil, Burma, Taste: Bitter and acrid
Malaya, Nicaragua and India.
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
.H3 CO

.H3 CO N

C2 H5

.OCH3
HN
OH

Cephaeline

.H 3CO

.H 3CO N

C2H 5

.OCH 3
HN
.OCH 3

Emetine

Ipecac contains 2.0% Isoquinoline type of

alkaloids. These alkaloids are grouped into
phenolic (Psychotrine and Cepheline) and non-
CHARACTERS phenolic alkaloids (Emetine, O-methyl
psychotrine and emetamine)
Shape: Cylindrical, slightly tortuous
Ipecac also contains a resin called
Size: Length 05 to 15 cm, thickness 03 to 5 Ipecacuanhin and Ipecacuanhic acid. Even
mm starch and Calcium oxalate are also present.
Colour: Dark brick red to dark brown USES
Surface: Annulated, each annulation is in form Expectorant, Emetic, Anti-amoebic and Anti-
of ring which encircles root and forms half to tumour
3/4th of the total drug. In some pieces the bark
may get removed; here and there thus
exposing central wood.
Fracture: Short and starchy in bark region and
splintery in wood region.
Odour: Slight to none
ANTISEPTIC and DISINFECTANTS

62
Antiseptics: These are those acid. Vapours of these acids sublime at the
cooler parts of the test tube.
agents which are used to check CHEMICAL
the growth of micro-organisms CONSTITUENTS
and can safely be applied to It contains free balsamic acids like
benzoic acid and cinnamic acid. It also
the skin. contains resin acids Sia-resinolic acid and
Suma-resinolic acid and their esters with
Disinfectant: These are those anti-microbial balsamic acids. It even contains Vanillin,
agents which cannot be applied to skin, as Styrol and Phenyl propyl cinnamate.
these are corrosive hence used to check the
growth of micro-organisms on inanimate
objects. These agents help in checking the
spread of infection.
COOH
BENZOIN
(Synonym: Sumatra benzoin) HO
Botanical Source: Benzoin is pathological, OH
ester balsamic resin obtained from the stem of
Styrax benzoin. Suma resinolic acid
(6-hydroxy Oleanolic acid)
(Stryax is Greek word meaning sweet scented
gum; benzoin is from two Arabic words Ben-
meaning fragrant and Zoa- meaning HO
exudation.)
Family: Styraceae
COOH
Geographical Source: Tree is native to
Borneo and Java; but for obtaining commercial
HO
quantities, plant is grown in Sumatra.
Collection and Preparation Sia Resinolic acid
(19-hydroxy Oleanolic acid)
Benzoin tree is allowed to grow till it is seven
years old. On its trunk triangular wounds are
made in the specified way. 1st secretion from USES
these wounds is amorphous and yellow Externally: Anti-septic, Protective and Healing
coloured and not fit for use in medicine. 2nd agent
secretion is milky white in colour and is of Internally: Expectorant and Diuretic
best quality. It is known as Almond benzoin. Also used as Flavouring agent in drinks,
3rd and 4th secretions are of darker colour and Confectionary items food- industry.
of inferior quality. 2nd, 3rd and 4th secretions Finds use even in perfumes and toiletry
are blended to get benzoin of commerce grade. preparations.
Each tree is capable of producing about
10 kg. of drug each year up to the age of
TESTS
nearly twenty years, after which it dies. 1. Heat benzoin in a dry test tube- irritating
fumes (of benzoic and cinnamic acid)
CHARACTERS produced.
Appearance: Whitish or reddish opaque tears
2. Heat 5.0 g coarsely powdered benzoin with
(called almonds) embedded in translucent
reddish brown or greyish brown mass 10 ml 1% KMnO4 solution- bitter almond
Taste: Balsamic, Acrid (Benzaldehyde) smell produced.
Odour: Balsamic, Aromatic and agreeable 3. Digest 0.2 g coarsely powdered benzoin
Upon slow heating it gradually evolves with 5 ml ether for five minutes. Pour 1.0
the irritating fumes of Benzoic and Cinnamic ml of this ethereal solution to porcelain

63
 dish containing 2 to 3 drops of H2SO4- CHO CH2 - CH = CH3
reddish brown colour produced.

MYRRH .OCH3
(Synonym: Arabian Myrrh; Somali Myrrh) OH
Eugenol
Botanical Source: Myrrh is Physiological Cuminic Aldehyde
Oleo-gum-resin obtained from Species of (p-iso propyl benzaldehyde)
Comiphora like Comiphora molmol,
Comiphora myrrha, Comiphora abyssinica Chemistry of resin is complex and not
and Comiphora schimperi fully understood. It has large ether soluble part
consisting of α-, β- and γ-commiphoric acid;
Family: Burseraceae esters of another resin acid and two phenolic
Geographical Source: Ethiopia and Somali- resins. The ether insoluble portion is small and
land. consists of α- and β-heerabo-myrrholic acid.
CHARACTERS The gum is acacia type and it forms mucilage
with water. This mucilage does not ferment
Appearance: Myrrh occurs as translucent or easily. The gum is associated with enzyme
transparent rounded or ir-regular tears of about oxidase. The gum upon hydrolysis provides
2.5 cms in dia. It also occurs as agglutinated arabinose, galactose and glucuronic acid.
mass of tears; up to 10 cms in dia. Tears and
mass are brittle in nature. The bitter principle is sparingly soluble
in water but soluble in alcohol.
Colour: Externally reddish brown; internally
brown USES
Odour: Aromatic, agreeable Myrrh is local stimulant, anti-septic, protectant
and astringent.
Taste: Aromatic, bitter and acrid
It is chiefly employed in medicated tooth
Surface: Outer surface is rough, dull and powders, mouth washes and gargles for its
dusty. Freshly fractured surface is waxy and action on mouth and pharynx. Its alcoholic
granular with whitish marks. tincture is used for inflamed skin.
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS Myrrh is also used in perfumes and incense
Volatile oils- 7 to 17% sticks.
Resin- 25 to 40% NEEM
Gum- 57 to 61% (Syn: Nim; Nimba)
Impurities- 3 to 4% Botanical Source: Neem consists of almost all
parts of tree called Azadirachta indica (=
Myrrh also contains very little of a bitter Melia azadirachta).
principle.
Family: Meliaceae
The volatile oil is thick yellowish
liquid which resinifies upon exposure to air. It Geographical Source: India, Pakistan,
contains terpenes, sesquiterpenes esters, Bangladesh, Sri-Lanka, Thailand and
cuminic aldehyde and eugenol. Malaysia.

64
 Neem contains bitter substance called
Nimbidin and a Complex limonoid compound
called Azadirachtin
From the seed oil bitter limonoids like Nimbin,
Nimbinin and Salanin have been isolated.
These have nor-terpenoid structure.
From leaf extract Sterols, Limonoids,
Flavonoids & their Glycosides and coumarins
have been isolated.
USES
Leaf Extract: Anti-malarial, Anti-Gastric
ulcer and Insecticide.
Seed oil: Anti-inflammatory, Anti-bacterial,
Anti-pyretic and Hypoglycaemic.
Bark: Very useful in skin diseases. Anti
cancer activity has also been reported.
Presently the neem is being viewed as a
potential source for developing natural
insecticide.
CHARACTERS Tender leaves chewed along with black
pepper; are effective against intestinal worms.
Almost all parts of neem are put to one or
another use.
Almost all parts of neem are used. Its bark, CURCUMA (TURMERIC)
leaves, dry flowers, berries (fruits) gum and Botanical Source: Turmeric consists of dried
seed oil is put to one or the other use. rhizome of Curcuma domestica (=Curcuma
Appearance: A large ever green tree 12 to 18 longa)
meter in height and 1.8 to 2.4 in girth. The tree Family: Zingiberaceae
has straight bole and long spreading branches
which make a broad crown. Geographical source: China, India, Malaya
and Pakistan
Leaves: Alternate, im-paripinnate, 9 – 19
leaflets, glossy surface and bluntly serrate Collection and Preparation
margin, bitter in taste. Turmeric is perennial herb. Its rhizome is
Flower: Numerous, white or pale yellow, collected upon withering of aerial parts.
small, scented. Rhizomes are then boiled in their own juice or
water for 12 to 24 hours. Boiling kills the
Fruit: Oblong, smooth, 1.3 to 1.8 cm long; viability of rhizomes, gelatinizes the starch
green when unripe but yellow to brown when present in the rhizomes and the yellow colour
ripe, pulp is bitter sweet. spreads to all cells after coming out of its
Bark: Dark gray outside, rough, reddish secretary cells. These are then dried in Sun or
brown, inside, Characteristic smell and bitter in the oven. After drying these are sorted into
taste. The bark exudes a clear bright amber bulbs and fingers.
coloured gum called East India gum. This gum
is available as tears or vermiform pieces and
blackens upon aging.
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

65
 O O

HO - CH = CH - C - CH2 - C - CH = CH - OH

R1 R2

Compound R1 R2

Curcumin-I -OCH3 -OCH3

(Diferuloyl methane)

Curcumin-II -OCH3 -H
Feruloyl (4-hydroxy-
cinnamoyl) methane
MACROSCOPY
Curcumin-III -H -H
Rhizomes of turmeric occur as Primary and Bis (4-hydroxy cinnamoyl)
Secondary rhizomes methane

The primary rhizomes are short, ovate or pear

shaped. These are also known as Bulbs or USES
Round turmeric. Turmeric is used as Aromatic, Stomachic,
Secondary rhizomes are 4 to 7 cms. long, 1 to Diuretic and in treatment of Jaundice and
1.5 cms wide, curved or almost straight, Hepatitis. (Curcumin-I and Curcumin-II have
cylindrical pieces, bluntly tapering at both the choleretic and Cholagogue actions while
ends. These are known as Fingers or Long Curcumin-III is Anti-choleretic)
turmeric. It also has Anti-inflammatory activity and is
Surface: Longitudinally wrinkled wit also useful in cough and Bronchitis. Ayurveda
transverse ring (Leaf scars). These may bear includes it even as Anti-diabetic.
short branches or circular scars of these broken It is also used for identification of boric acid
branches. and Borates (Turmeric paper gives red colour
Fracture: Short and tough. The freshly with Boric acid).
fractured surface is uniform dull brownish It is also used as colouring material for food
yellow with waxy and tough appearance, stuffs like Cheese and Sweets and dye for
Colour: Deep yellowish brown fabrics like wool and silk.
Odour: Characteristic, aromatic
Taste: Characteristic and aromatic. Upon
chewing, it colours the saliva yellow.
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
Turmeric contains Volatile oil, Colouring
matter Curcumin and resin. It also contains
sugars like Arabinose, Glucose and Fructose
along with abundant gelatinized
zingiberaceous starch grains
Volatile oil contains mainly the Zingiberene
(Sesquiterpene hydrocarbon) along with
ketone turmerone and ar-Turmerone.
Colourin matter Curcumin is present in three
forms Cucumin-I (60%) Curcumin-II (24%)
and Curcumin-III (14%)

ANTIMALARIALS
66
Malaria is characterised by high fever and Cinchona bark has about 6.5% alkaloids.
chills and shivering. Drugs used ti treat this These are 25 in number. Important alkaloids
disease are called ANTIMALARIAL. Most are- Quinine, Quinidine, Cinchonine and
common and still widely used natural drug is – Cinchonidine. These are mainly used as
CINCHONA BARK. Artemisin is another Sulphate
natural drug being extensively used. It also contains Quinic acid and Cinchotannic
acid.Cinchotannic acid decomposes to
CINCHONA Cinchona red.
Cinchona Bark; Peruvian Bark CH=CH2
CH=CH2
Bot. Source: Cinchona is dried stem and root HO HO
bark of Cinchona calisaya, Cinchona N N
H H
ledgeriana, Cinchona succirubra and Cinchona
.H3CO
officinalis or hybrids of first two species with
last two species. N N
Family: Rubiaceae Quinine Cinchonine
Geographical Source: India, Indonesia, South USES
America and Guatemala. Antipyretic, Analgesic and Anti-malarial.
Also used as Bitter tonic and appetite
stimulant.
Quinidine is used in Cardiac arrhythmia and
Atrial fibrillation.

MICROSCOPY

CHARACTERS
Colour: Yellowish brown to deep reddish
brown
Size: Up to 30 cm long and 2 to 6 mm thick.
Shape: Curved, Quill or Double quill
Outer Surface: Rough having longitudinal and
transverse cracks, fissures, ridges and
protuberances. Outer surface usually has moss
and lichens adhering to it.
Inner Surface: Inner surface has longitudinal CORK: It is composed of several layers of
striations. thin walled cells, arranged in radial rows and
Odour: Slight appears polygonal in surface view. These have
Taste: Bitter and Astrigent reddish brown cell content and are coated with
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS Suberin.

67
PHELLODERM: Cork is followed by
Phelloderm consisting of several layers of
regular cells with dark cell walls.
CORTEX: Cortex consists of thin walled
tangentially elongated parenchymatous cells
containing amorphous reddish brown matter.
These also contain small starch grains. In
cortex are scattered the Idioblast cells; which
contain the micro crystal of Calcium oxalate.
PHLOEM: Phloem is wide and consists of
sieve tubes, parenchyma and Phloem fibres.
These fibres are spindle shaped, lignified and
have conspicuously striated walls. These occur
isolated or in ir-regular radial rows. Medullary
rays are two to three cells wide and somewhat
radially elongated.

OXYTOCICS
Oxytocin is a hormone secreted by posterior smooth muscles of mammary glands. In this
lobe of Pitutary gland. During child birth, this way it helps in safe delivery and also breast
hormone causes contraction of uterine muscles feeding.
and during lactation it causes contraction of
68
Drugs having similar effects are called These ascospores are carried to the spikes of
OXYTICICS rye plant to start the life cycle again.
To produce ergot commercially, the
ERGOT ascospores are grown on nutritive medium.
Botanical Source: Ergot is dried These produce conidiospores. From these
SCLEROTIUM of fungus Claviceps purpurea conidispores will prepare the suspension and
developing on the ovary of food grain plant use it to infect the spikes of rye plants,
Secale cereal (Fam. Gramineae) manually or mechanically.
Family: Clavicipitaceae The sclerotium develops in due time and
Geographical source: India, Portugal, Russia collected from fields in June/July. It is then
and Spain. dried to remove extra moisture and packed in
LIFE CYCLE OF CLAVICEPS PURPUREA air-tight containers.
Life cycle of this fungus has three stages
➢ Sphacelia or Honey dew stage
➢ Sclerotium or resting stage
➢ Ascospore stage
Sphacelia or Honey dew stage
Rye plant bears flowers by the end of spring
season. During this time the ASCOSPORES
ofthis fungus are carried to the spikes of plant
by wind or insects. These spores settle to the
base of ovary and start growing. By enzymatic
action these enter the wall of ovary and form a
soft white mass of filamentous hyphae callec
SHACELIA. This mass secretes a sweet,
viscous yellowish liquid called HONEY
DEW. Several conidiospores come out of
hyphae and enter this sweet liquid. Insects gets
attracted to this fluid and help spreading the
infection to nearby plants.
Sclerotium or resting stage
The hypae spread further and penetrate deeper
in the ovarian tissue. These consume the
ovarian tissue and attach to the vascular tissue CHARACTERS (of Sclerotium)
for the nutrition. The ovary gets replaced by a SIZE: 01 to 04 cm long; 02 to 07 mm wide
dark purple, compact Pseudo-parenchymatous Shape: Slightly curved, Sub-cylindrical,
tissue called SCLEROTIUM. In summer, the fusiform or tapering at both ends.
sclerotium increases in size and protrudes out Colour: Purplish brown to almost black
of the spike. The sclerotium has remains of Outer Surface: Longitudinally furrowed with
Sphacelia on its apex. It may get collected occasional transverse cracks
along with grains or may fall on the ground. Odour: Characteristic
The sclerotium has alkaloids of medicinal Taste: Unpleasant
importance. CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
Ascospore stage Ergot has six pairs of alkaloids. All are indole
The sclerotium which falls on the ground stays alkaloids. One pair is water soluble while other
dormant till next spring season. Now it five pairs are water insoluble.
develops to produce upright stalks having Each pair has one active alkaloid
globular head called STROMATA. Each (Laevorotatory) and other inactive alkaloid
stromata has many flask like structures called (Dextrorotatory)
PERITHECIA. Each perithecia has many sacs This are-
each having 08, thread like ASCOSPORES. Active Inactive
(LAEVOROTATORY) (DEXTROROTATORY)

69
WATER SOLUBLE
Ergometrine Group
Ergometrine Ergometrinine
WATER SOLUBLE
Ergotamine Group
Ergotamine Ergotaminine
Ergosine Ergosinine
Ergotoxine Group
Ergocristine Ergocristinine
Ergocriptine Ergocriptinine
Ergocornine Ergocorninine

Sclerotium also contains 30-40% fixed oil. It

contains about 01% Ergosterol and other
sterols. It also has many Amino acids. Cell
wall of sclerotium is made up of CHITIN.
USES
Ergometrine has Oxytocic activity. It causes
strong contraction of uterine muscles so used
to help in delivery and to reduce post-partum
hemorrhage. Other alkaloids are used in
migraine and certain nervous disorders.

VITAMINS
Vitamins are essential nutrients for humans Geographical source: Many European
and are found in many plants and animals. countries and India. In India it is in Kerala,
These are required in small quantity and help Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.
the person to stay healthy and ward off many Preparation: Livers are removed from fish
diseases. Vitamins can be fat soluble (Vitamin and cleared from fatty and other tissues. Livers
A, D E and K) or Water Soluble (Members of are minced and heated at a temperature not
Vitamin B-complex and Vitamin C). If exceeding 800 C. the oil gets separated. Water
consumed in excess amount, the fat soluble from the oil is removed by using de-hydrating
vitamins get stored in body but excess amount agent. Oil is freezed to remove stearin.
of water soluble vitamins get excreted; hence Suspended impurities are removed by
water soluble vitamins should be present in filtration. Clarity may be improved by
diet on daily basis. centrifugation. The Vitamin A strength is
SHARK LIVER OIL adjusted. It may even be fortified with Vitamin
D.
(Synonyms: Oleum Selachoidae)
CHARACTERS
Biological Source: It is the fixed oil obtained
from fresh or carefully preserved livers of Appearance: Pale yellow to brownish yellow
shark Hypoprion brevirostris and other slightly viscous liquid.
varieties of shark. (As per IP one gram oil Odour: Fishy but not rancid
should contain not less than 6000 IU activity
of Vitamin A) Taste: Bland & fishy
Family: Carcharhinidae Other Characters: Insoluble in water. Slightly
soluble in alcohol but miscible with Petroleum
Ether (50-600 C fraction), Solvent ether and
Chloroform
70
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS Size: 2.5 to 3.5 cm in diameter
Shark liver oil Contains Vitamin A (15,000 to Colour: Green when tender but changing to
30,000 IU/g). It also contains glycerides of light pinkish, yellowish or golden yellow;
saturated and un-saturated fatty acids. upon maturity. Few dark specks are present on
the surface of mature fruits.
USES
External Surface: Shiny hard and smooth, with
Source of Vitamin A in Xerophthalmia
six prominent lines on the surface. At one end
Nutritive and Tonic is present the depression of its peduncle.
STORAGE: Store in an amber coloured bottle Odour: Odourless
under the atmosphere of Nitrogen.
Taste: Sour and astringent taste followed by
delicately sweet taste.
AMLA CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
(Syn: Amritphala) Amla is the richest source of Vitamin C (650
Botanical Source: Amla consists of fresh or to 900 mg per 100g pulp). It also contains 5%
dried fruits of Emblica officinalis tannins (Gallic acid, Ellagic acid and
(=Phyllanthus emblica) Phyllembelin) and minerals like Calcium, Iron
and Phosphorus.
Family: Euphobiaceae
USES
Geographical Source: India (ascending up to
the height of 1300 mtrs. in hills). It grows Amla is useful in Scurvy, liver diseases and
well in many tropical and sub-tropical Diabetes
countries of the world. Amla is a general tonic hence is considered
useful in Anaemia, Cough, Bronchitis and
Tuberculosis
Amla is ingredient of TRIPHALA and
CHAYVANPRASH.
Amla is also used in preparation of Hair oils,
Shampoos and Inks.

CHARACTERS
Appearance: Smooth, fleshy drupe fruit having
stony endocarp.
Shape: Globose

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ENZYMES
Enzymes are bio catalysts, high molecular USES
weight molecules of proteinaceous nature and Papain is able to convert protein (Polypeptide)
are capable of catalyzing various biological to dipeptide. It can easily digest 35 times it its
reactions at body temperature. These can be weight of meat. It is used for meat tederisation,
obtained from plants and animals beverage clarification, degumming of silk and
Plant Enzymes: Papain, Diastase, Maltase de-hairing of skin in the preparation of leather.
and Emulsin
Animal Enzymes: Pepsin, Renin and Trypsin DIASTASE
PAPAYA OR PAPAIN (Syn: Amylase)
(Syn: Vegetable pepsin) Diastase is an amylolytic enzyme present in
Papaya is the fruit. The ripe fruit is eaten raw plant (Germinated barley) and animals (In
without skin and seeds while unripe fruit is saliva). This enzyme is capable of converting
eaten cooked in curries and salads. From the starch to maltose.
latex of it an enzyme, called PAPAIN is Botanical Source: Diastase is obtained from
prepared. Papain is a powerful proteolytic germinate barley seeds called Hordeum
digestive enzyme capable of digesting even
vulgare.
tough proteins.
Family: Graminae
Botanical Source: Papain is purified dried
latex of unripe or green fruit of Carica Geographical Source: Almost throughout
papaya. Papain can also be obtained from the world including USA, Russia, India and
Stem, Leaves and Petioles of this plant. Even China.
this product is having comparable activity. CHARACTERS
Family: Caricaceae Appearance: Amorphous powder
Geographical Source: This tree is native to Colour: Yellowish white
Southern Mexico. Presently grown in Brazil,
Hawaii, India, Sri Lanka, South Africa Odour: Characteristic
Tanzania and many more countries. Taste: Characteristic
CHARACTERS Solubility: Soluble in water, but insoluble in
Appearance: Amorphous powder alcohol
Colour: White, Grayish white or brownish CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
white. Diastase contains amylolytic enzyme amylase.
Nature: Slightly hygroscopic It also contains Dextrin, Maltose and traces of
glucose.
Odour: Characteristic
USES
Taste: Characteristic
Diastase is used as digestant. It can easily
Optimum pH: 5 to 6 digest 50 times of its weight of potato.
Optimum Temperature: 60 to 900C
Solubility: Soluble in water, partially soluble YEAST
in glycerin but insoluble in organic solvents
(Syn: Khameer)
Botanical Source: Yeast consists of the cells
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS of suitable strain of Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
Papain contains many proteolytic enzymes. It is dried to preserve its vitamin content.
The main are Papain, Papaya proteinase and Family: Saccharomycetaceae.
Chymopapain.
72
CHARACTERS Yeast also contains 46% protein and 36%
carbohydrates (Mainly Glycogen). Other
Appearance: Whitish, pale buff or brownish
constituents’ are- fat, sterols and enzymes.
powder.
USES
Odour: Characteristic, resembling that of beer.
Dried yeast is rich source of Vitamin B-
Microscopic Characters: Under microscope the
complex. It is also rich source of biologically
cells appear Spherical, Elliptical or ovate.
complete protein and also used to synthesize
These can be up to 08µ. Some cells show
nucleic acids. Dried yeast is also used in the
budding.
treatment of Furunculosis (painful boils)
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
NOTE: Yeast is unicellular organism, which
Yeast consists of members of Vitamin B- are greatly reduced sac fungi. These feed upon
complex group- sugar and split it into alcohol and carbon-di-
B1 – Thiamine oxide. These are also termed as baker’s yeast
and used extensively for manufacture of
B2 – Riboflavin alcohol and bread.
B6 – Nicotinic acid
B12 – Cynocobalamin
and folic acid.

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PERFUMES AND FLAVORING PHYSICAL CHARACTERS

AGENTS Volatile oils are liquids with pleasant smell
These are odorous volatile constituents of and having specific gravity less than one (1)
plant and animal origin. These are also i.e. these are lighter than water, notable
known as ethereal oils as, like ether, these exception being clove oil, which is heavier
than water. These are nearly insoluble in water
evaporate upon exposure to air. These are
(1;200) but soluble in Alcohol, Chloroform
also named as essential oils as these and Petroleum ether. These have high
represent the essence, perfumed or refractive index and show optical activity
flavoured active constituents of the plant. (Camphor is dextro-rotatory while Menthol is
OCCURRENCE leavo-rotatory).
Families’ rich in volatile oil bearing plants
are- CHEMICAL NATURE
FAMILY EXAMPLES Volatile oils contain several constituents,
Labiatae Pippermint, Tulsi, Rosemary. which are hydrocarbons and their oxygenated
Lauraceae Camphor, Cinnamon. derivatives collectively known as
Myrtaceae Clove, Eucalyptus. TERPENOIDS. These can have acyclic,
Piperaceae Black Pepper, Long Pepper. monocyclic and bicyclic structure.
Betel. Hydrocarbons are represented by
Rutaceae Orange, Lemon, Buchu leaf. Monoterpenes (C10H16), Sesquiterpenes
Umbelliferae Coriander, Fennel, Dill (C15H24)and Diterpenes (C20H32). The
Zingiberaceae Cardamom, Ginger, Turmeric. oxygenated derivatives are- Alcohol,
Unlike fixed oils, which are mainly confined Aldehydes. Esters, Ethers, Ketones, Phenols
to seeds, the volatile oils occur in almost all and Oxides.
parts of plants. The various examples are- The volatile oils obtained from Bitter almond,
Bark Cassia, Cinnamon. Mustard and Wintergreen are glycosidic in
Bulb Garlic. nature.
Flower bud Clove.
Flower head Artemisia, Rosemary. USES
Fruits Anise, Caraway, Black pepper. Therapeutic uses of volatile oils are-
Herb (Entire) Benafsha (Viola odorata, Anthelmintic, Antiseptic, Bactericidal,
Violaceae), Chenopodium, Carminative, Digestant, Disinfectant, Diuretic,
Lemon Grass. Expectorant, Spasmolytic and Stimulant. In
Leaves Eucalyptus, Mentha, Tulsi. pharmacy these also find use as Flavouring
Rhizome Ginger, Jatamnsi, Rasna, agent and also for masking the objectionable
Turmeric, Valerian. smell of the drugs.
Rind Lemon peel, Orange peel. These are used in confectionary and food
Root Sausurrea (S. lappa). items as flavours and preservative. These also
Seeds Cardamom, Nutmeg. find use in Perfumery and Cosmetics.
Stigma Saffron.
Wood Camphor, Sandalwood.
Oleoresin Turpentine oil.
Animals containing volatile oils are-
Beaver (Castor fiber, an amphibious contains
Castoreum.)
Cantharides (An Insect).
Civet (Cat).
Musk (Deer).
Whale Stomach (Contains Ambergris)

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PIPPERMINT OIL Appearance & colour- Colourless to yellow,

thin liquid.
SOURCE- This volatile oil is obtained by
steam distillation of fresh flowering tops of Odour- Characteristic and pleasant.
the plant named- Mentha pipperita variety Taste- Pungent followed by cooling sensation.
forma pallescens (white var.) and variety
forma rubescens (Black var.). Solubility- Insoluble in water, soluble in 70 %
alcohol, ether and chloroform.
FAMILY- Labiatae.
pH- Neutral towards litmus paper.
GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCE-Native to
Europe, cultivated in Japan, England, France, Specific gravity- 0.9 to 0.912.
Italy, USA, Bulgaria, USSR & India (Jammu Optical rotation- -160 to –300.
and Tarai region of UP)
Refractive index- 1.459 to 1.465.
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
70 % Menthol (in Free State and as esters)
Menthone, Menthofuran, Jasmone, Menthyl
Acetate, Menthyl isovalerate, Cineole,
Pulegone, Isopulegone and terpenes like l-
limonene, pinene and camphene.
Jasmone and esters are responsible for
pleasant flovour. Upon long storage, the
CULTIVATION AND COLLECTION- Menthofuran is responsible for unpleasant
smell due to resinification.
For cultivation of Mentha pipperita, a well-
drained fertile neutral sandy loam soil is USES
required. Cultivation is started by vegetative Carminative, Aromatic, Flavouring
propagation using suckers. The suckers are agent, counter-irritant and Antiseptic. Used in
placed in soil in the month of Jan./Feb. Foliar dental preparations (tooth powder, tooth paste)
spray of fertilizer is preferred. De-weeding is shaving creams, tobacco, betel nuts, chewing
done frequently and the pest control achieved gums, jellies, perfumes and essence.
by using suitable pesticides. Harvesting is
done when the crop reaches the flowering STORAGE
stage. Store in a well filled, well closed
PREPARATION OF OIL- The bulk of crop container at cool place protected from light.
is reduced by drying it in shade, to about ¼th
OTHER SPECIES
of its original weight. Drying in direct sun or
fermentation is avoided as it affects the quality Mentha arvensis, M. roundifolia, M.
and quantity of volatile oil. longifolia.
The oil distilled from Mentha arvensis var.
The still with false perforated bottom is piperascens is known as Japanese pippermint
used to distill the oil from the harvested crop. oil or Mentha oil. This oil has considerable
The steam under pressure is passed through amount of Menthol (up to 80 %) but is inferior
still and the coiled condensers are used for the in flavour. This oil is mainly used as source of
condensation of oil. Normally 0.5-1.0 % oil is Menthol.
obtained. Volatile oil obtained from flowering top and
leaves of Mentha spicata (Mentha viridis) is
known as Spearmint oil. This oil contains a
least 50 % carvone.
CHARACTERS

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LEMON OIL Specific Gravity: 0.849 to 0.855

Botanical Source: Lemon oil is essential or Optical rotation: +59 to + 65
ethereal oil obtained from the oil cells present Refractive Index: 1.474 to 1.475
in outer skin of fruits of Citrus limon (C.
limonum) Solubility: Soluble in 03 volumes of alcohol,
CS2 and GAA, Miscible with absolute
Family: Rutaceae alcohol.
Geographical Source: Lemon is native of CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
India (Assam). It is grown in Burma, China,
Italy, Egypt and Australia. Contains 04 to 06% Citral, Terpenes
(Limonene, phellendrene and pinene) are
present up to 90%.

Preparation of oil: Lemon Oil is present in

special cells. These cells are present in outer Limonene Pinene
peri-carp of the lemon fruit. A machine breaks
up the cells (by use of fine needles) and uses
spray of water to flush off the oil. Oil is then USES
separated using centrifugal machines.
Mainly used for flavouring and perfumery
CHARACTERS purpose
Colour: Pale yellow to greenish yellow liquid. Used for teeth whitening, laundry freshener,
Odour: Characteristic; resembling lemon house hold cleaner, mood elevator and nausea
reliever.
Taste: Characteristic: resembling lemon

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 77

H OH

CHO
ORANGE OIL
Orange oil is a volatile oil obtained from the OH
rind (peel) of Orange fruit. This oil is present Geranial
in the special oil producing cells of rind. (Citral) Pinene Terpineol Linalool

Botanical Source: Orange oil is obtained

from the outer part of pericarp of Citrus Uses
aurantium, Citrus sinensis. Orange oil is mainly used for Flavouring and
Family: Rutaceae Perfumery purpose.
Geographical Source: Orange is indigenous It is used to relax muscles, lessen anxiety and
to India. Now grown in Spain and USA. anger and also as mood elevator.
Used as Anti-inflammatory and Anti-fungal
Used to cure Acne and dermatitis

LEMON GRASS OIL

Lemon grass is tall grassy plant growing as a
dense shrub and has leaves with very sharp
edges.
Botanical Source: Lemon grass consists of
over-ground portion of the plant named
Preparation of oil: Orange oil is obtained as Cymbopogan citratus and Cymbopogan
a by-product in Orange juice industry. From flexuosus.
fresh peels it can be obtained by crushing the
peels followed by centrifugation. From dried Family: Graminae (Grass family).
peels it can be obtained by solvent extraction Geographical Source: India, Indonesia<
method using alcohol as solvent. This oil can China, Sri-Lanka. In India, Kerala, TN,
also be obtained by infusion with suitable Gujarat and Punjab.
fixed oil.
Characters
Appearance: Thin liquid
Colour: Yellow to deep orange
Odour: orange like
Taste: orange like
Specific Gravity: 0.842 to 0.846
Refractive Index: 1.4723 to 14737
Optical Rotation: +94 to +99.
Chemical Constituents
Orange oil contains mainly Limonene along
with Citral, α-pinene, Terpineol and Linalool.

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Preparation of oil: From lemon grass the Botanical Source: Sandal wood oil is the
volatile oil is obtained by steam distillation volatile oil obtained by distilling the heart
process. wood of Santalum album.
CHARACTERS Family: Santalaceae
Appearance: Comparatively thick liquid. Geographical Source: India and Malaysia.
(In India; Karnataka and Tamil Nadu)
Colour: Yellowish brown
Preparation of Oil: Sandal wood oil is
Odour: Lemon like
obtained at least from 25 years old tree. The
Taste: lemon like tree is uprooted and bark removed. The heart
Specific Gravity: 0.892 to 0.909 wood is divided into small chips and oil
obtained by steam distillation of these small
Refractive Index: 1.4808 to 1.4868 chips.
Optical Rotation: - 03 to + 01
Chemical Constituents
Lemon grass contains 0.2 to 0.5% volatile oil.
The oil contains mainly Citral, Citronellol,
Geraniol with Limonene, β-caryophyllene and
Myrcene.

H
CH2OH CHARACTERS
CH2OH
CHO Appearance: Viscous or sticky liquid.
H H
Colour: Pale yellow to colourless.
Odour: Characteristic and Persistent
Geranial
(Citral) Geraniol Citronellol Taste: Unpleasant
CH3
Solubility: Very less soluble in water. Soluble
in Alcohol and Chloroform
H2C Specific Gravity:
CH3
Refractive Index:
CH3
Optical Rotation:
Myrcene Caryophyllene
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

Uses Sandal wood oil contains two isomeric alcohol

called α-Santanol and β-Santanol.
Perfuming agent for Cosmetics, Disinfectant
and Soaps An aldehyde Santanal is also present.

Flavouring agent.
Used as source of Citral which is then used for
synthesis of Vitamin A CH2OH
Anti-bacterial and Anti-fungal C15H24O
Santanol
SANDAL WOOD OIL

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USES
Sandal wood oil is urinary Anti-septic. It is
used to treat Dysurea and also to diminish the
CHO frequency of micturition in the tuberculosis of
C15H24O urinary bladder.
Santanal Extensively used in Perfumes, Cosmetics and
Incense sticks.

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PHARMACEUTICAL AIDS HONEY

Pharmaceutical aids are the substances which (Synonyms: Clarified Honey, Strained Honey,
have little or no therapeutic value but are used Mel)
in manufacture or compounding of Biological Source- Honey is sweet fluid
pharmaceutical preparations to achieve varied prepared from the nectar of flowers and
objective(s). deposited in the cells of honeycomb by
One of the main objectives of pharmacy is to honeybee Apis mellifica (Apis mellifera) and
prepare potent and stable preparations which other species of Apis like A. dorsata, A.
are acceptable to patients. To achieve the indica and A. florea .
same, various techniques like absorption, Family Apidae
clarification, emulsification, filtration, Geographical Source- West Indies,
solubilisation and suspension are employed. California, Chile, Africa, Australia, New-
Similarly we make use of substances like zeland and India.
colouring, flavouring, sweetening and CHARACTERS
perfuming agents. These substances may have Appearance- Honey is viscid (thick) syrupy
little or no therapeutic value but are must for fluid having light yellowish to reddish brown
preparing the pharmaceutical products. These colour. Freshly prepared honey is clear and
are termed are Pharmaceutical aids. These can translucent but upon keeping it becomes
be of plant, animal, mineral or synthetic origin. opaque and granular due to crystallization of
Following table enlists some important dextrose.
Pharmaceutical aids- Odour- Agreeable and Characteristics
Carbohydrates Taste- Sweet and faintly acrid
Starch Disintegrating agent The odour and taste may vary depending upon
Glucose, Sweetening agent the floral source of the honey
Sucrose honey Optical rotation- (+) 30 to (-) 150
Gums Binding, Suspending & Specific gravity- 1.36 at 15.50 C
Emulsifying agent CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
Sodium alginate Deflocculating Emulsifying, Honey contains about 80% equimolar
Gelling, Stabilising & mixture of dextrose and fructose (known as
Thickening agent invert sugar). Water content is about 20%.
Emulsifying & Solidifying It contains small quantities of sucrose,
Agar agent dextrin, formic acid, volatile oil, wax and
pollen grains.
Lipids
Microscopical examination of honey exhibits
Fixed oils Emollient & vehicle
the pollen grains, which can indicate the floral
Fat & Waxes Ointment base
source of honey.
Volatile oils Flavouring agent
USES
Chlorophyll, Natural colouring agents
➢ Sweetening agent and Pharmaceutical aid.
Cochineals,
➢ Used as nutritive agent
Saffron
➢ Finds use as demulcent and mild laxative
Animal protein
➢ Used as vehicle for linctuses and cough
Gelatin Suspending agent & making of
mixtures
capsule shell
➢ It is ingredient for pills and oxymel.
Kaolin absorbent
Adulteration- Honey is adulterated with
artificial invert sugar, sucrose and liquid
glucose.
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Test for artificial invert sugar- Artificial Solubility- Starch is insoluble in cold water
invert sugar is prepared by hydrolysis of but swells up and forms colloidal solution with
sucrose using HCl or H2SO4. It contains 15 times of its own weight of boiling water.
furfural that can be detected by following test This colloidal solution, upon cooling sets to a
(Fiehe’s test) translucent jelly. This colloidal solution is also
FIEHE’S TEST- Shake 10 ml honey with 5 called starch mucilage. This gives deep blue
ml ether. Separate the upper ethereal layer in a colour with solution of Iodine; which
porcelain dish and evaporate to dryness. To the disappears upon heating above 930C but
residue add 1 drop of 1% resorcinol in HCl. reappears upon cooling.
No persist cherry colour is produced (a When starch is heated with water, the grains of
transient pink colour, fading in half a minute starch swell up and then undergo
may get produced). gelatinization. Gelatinization also occurs with
Now days, invert sugar is produced by using caustic potash, concentrated solution of Cal or
enzyme invertase. The honey containing this Zinc chloride and concentrated solution of
sugar is devoid of taste and flavour of natural Chloral hydrate.
honey. MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
Under microscope, the starch grains appear as
STARCH (AMYLUM) colourless, highly refractive (R.I. = 1.5)
Starch is the most common reserve granules or grains having Hilum and
carbohydrate or polysaccharide granules Striations. The Hilum is the starting point of
(Glucosan) of plants, which upon complete formation of grain. It can be Central or
hydrolysis yield glucose. Eccentric. The grains with eccentric Hilum
Starch is the 1st or primary product of are usually longer than their breadth. Striations
photosynthesis are the fine lines, which surround the Hilum
Commercial quantity of starch is prepared and are formed by successive deposition of
from Maize, Rice, Wheat and Potato starch material.
Biological and Geological Source During drying the fissures (cracks)
WHEAT- Triticum sativum (Gramineae) may appear in grains. These fissures may
Many temperate countries appear to originate from the Hilum. Due to this
MAIZE- Zea mays (Gramineae) USA, reason the Hilum may appear rounded dot,
Argentina, India, Tropical & Subtropical curved or multiple cleft.
countries. CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
RICE- Oryza sativum (Gramineae) India, Starch consists of two polysaccharides-
China, Japan, Tropical & Subtropical countries Amylopectin (-amylose)……..80%
POTATO- Tubers of Solanum tuberosum Amylose (-amylose)…………..20%
(Solanaceae) Many countries of the world The molecule of amylopectin consists of 20 to
CHARACTERS 26 1-4 linked glucose molecules. Several
Appearance- Starch occurs as irregular hundred of these chains are linked by 1-6
angular masses or fine powder. linked glycosidic bonds to the neighboring
Colour - White chains.
Odour - Odourless The amylopectin is present in the outer part of
Taste - Taste less grains. It is insoluble in water and swells up in
Sp. gr. - 1.60 to 1.65 hot water, hence is responsible for gelatinizing
Nature - Maize starch- Neutral property of starch. It has low Iodine binding
Rice starch- Alkaline and gives purple colour with iodine solution. It
Wheat & Potato starch- Acidic
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 82
gets completely hydrolyzed by mineral acids Appearance - Spheroidal tears, angular
and enzymes (other than -amylase). fragments or flakes of variable size,
-amylase can attack only the outer linear translucent with numerous minute fissures.
chain and is not able to attack 1-6 bond, Colour- Whitish or yellow white
hence it can hydrolyse the amylopetin only up Fracture- Very brittle (Breaks up easily) with
to the extent of 50-60%. transparent and glassy fractured surface
AMYLOSE or - -AMYLOSE: It consists of Odour- Odourless
1-4 linked glucose molecules. Several Taste- Mucilaginous
thousand molecules form a chain Solubility- Soluble in twice its weight of
It is present in inner part of grain. It is soluble water, insoluble in alcohol
in water and has strong binding with Iodine CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
and gives deep blue colour with Iodine Gum Acacia contains mainly Arabin. Arabin is
solution. It can be completely hydrolyzed by mainly the Calcium salt of Arabic acid with
traces of Potassium and Magnesium salt.
-amylase into maltose.
.Arabic acid has complex polysaccharide
USES
structure which upon complete hydrolysis
➢ Starch is used as Nutritive, Demulcent,
produces following molecules-
Protective, Absorbent and Pharmaceutical-
Arabinose,
aids. Its various uses are-
Galactose
➢ Dusting powder (as it can allay the skin
Rhamnose,
irritation in swelling and/or inflammation)
Gluco-uronic acid
➢ Starch mucilage is used as emollient for
Acacia also contains about 15% moisture and
skin
an enzyme Oxidase.
➢ Anti-dote for Iodine poisoning
USES
➢ Used as base for some enemas
➢ Acacia is demulcent hence used in Cough,
➢ Used as Disintegrating agent for pills and
Throat and Diarrhoea preparations.
tablets
➢ Used as Emulsifying agent.
➢ Used as Diluent for dry extracts and
➢ Used as Binding agent in Tablets and
medicinal powders.
Lozenges
➢ Sterilized maize starch is used as lubricant
➢ It finds use in Food, Drug and other
for surgeon’s gloves (Unlike Talc, it gets
industries.
completely absorbed by the body)
➢ Used as Suspending agent for Barium
TRAGACANTH (Gum Tragacanth)
meal.
Source- Gum Tragacanth is the air hardened
gummy exudates, obtained from stems and
GUM ACACIA
branches of Astragalus gummifer and other
Source- Gum Acacia is dried gummy
species of Astragalus.
exudates, obtained from stems and branches of
Family- Leguminosae
Acacia senegal and other species of Acacia
Geographical source- Asia, Greece, Iran,
Acacia is from Greek word Akakia meaning
Soviet Union and Syria
pointed and refers to the thorny nature of
CHARACTERS
plant. Senegal refers to habitat of plant
Appearance- Translucent, flattened ribbons
Family- Leguminosae
up to 25 mm long, 12 mm wide and 0.5 to 2.5
Geographical source- Central and West
mm thick. These ribbons are almost curved.
Africa, Senegal and Sudan
Colour- Colourless or slightly yellow
CHARACTERS
Odour- Odourless
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Taste- very slight CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
Surface- Number of ridges are present on the Guar gum has two portions
surface which indicate the successive Water soluble portion……. 85%
temporary stoppage of exudation. Water insoluble portion…...15%
Fracture- Short, tough and horny The water soluble portion is high molecular
Solubility- Only small portion of it dissolves Hydro-colloidal polysaccharide known as
in water but it swells up to form a gelatinized GURAN. Chemically it is Galacto-manan
mass. It is insoluble in alcohol. containing 30 to 35% Galactose and 60 to 65%
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS Mannose.
Tragacanth contains mainly two Galacto-manan consists of linear chain
portions- of 1: 4, - glycosidal Mannose with 1: 6, -
Water-soluble portion- Tragacanthin (30%) glycosidal Galactose in the side chain.
Water insoluble portion- Bassorin (70%) Fatty acids in free and ester form have also
(Less the Tragacanthin, better is the quality) been reported along with 5 to 7% protein.
Tragacanthin consists of Tragacanthic USES
acid and a Polysaccharide. (The tragacanthic ➢ Used as Thickening agent, Binding
acid gives Fructose, Galactose, Xylose and agent and Disintegrating agent.
Galacto-uronic acid upon hydrolysis. The ➢ Used in treatment of Peptic ulcer and
Polysaccharide yields Arabinose and as Bulk laxative and Appetite
Galactose). The bassorin is Poly-methoxylated suppressant.
acids. Tragacanth also contains a neutral ➢ Recent studies show that the guar gum
Polysaccharide, traces of water, Starch, produces changes in gastric emptying
Cellulose and a Nitrogenous substance. time and Gastro-intestinal transition
Enzyme Oxidase is absent. time hence can delay the absorption of
USES sugars and Oligosaccharides. This
➢ Suspending agent for mixtures containing makes it Hypoglycaemic agent; but this
insoluble powders. has not been conclusively proved.
➢ Emulsifying agent for Oils and Resins ➢ Guar gum also lowers the Cholesterol
➢ Adhesive for pills level. This action is possibly due to its
➢ Demulcent and emollient for hand lotions binding action on bile salts.
➢ Used for textile sizing, Cloth printing and
Confectionary items AGAR (Agar-agar, Japan isinglass)
Source- agar is dried gelatinous hydrophilic
GUAR GUM (Guar flour) colloidal substance. It is obtained by
Source- Guar gum is the powdered endosperm concentrating the decoction of various red
of the seeds of Cyamopsis tetragonolobus. algae, particularly of various species of
Family- Leguminosae Gelidium, Gracilaria and Pterocladi.
Geographical source- India, Pakistan and Class- Rhodophyceae
USA Geographical source- Australia, India, Japan,
CHARACTERS New Zealand and USA
Appearance- Pale yellowish white powder CHARACTERS
Odour- Characteristic Agar occurs in two forms-
Taste- Mucilaginous Bundles of somewhat agglutinated translucent
Taste- Gummy yellowish white thin strips 60 cms long and 4
Solubility- Swells up rapidly, in water, to mm wide
form a thick colloidal solution. Coarse powder or flakes
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Agar swells in cold water but very little of it 6 to 7% Methoxyl group and Not Less Than
dissolves in cold water. It can only be 74% Galacto-uronic acid.
dissolved by boiling. 1% of its solution sets to The gelling power of pectin depends
stiff jelly up on cooling. upon number of Galacto-uronic acid units or
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS on its Molecular weight; which varies from
Agar is heterogeneous Polysaccharide of two 1,00,000 to 2,50,000.
components known as AGAROSE and USES
AGAROPECTIN. ➢ Thickening agent
Agarose is polymer of disaccharide called ➢ Emulsifying agent
AGAROBIOSE. (Alternate units of 3,6 ➢ Preparation of Jelly
anhydro L-galactose and D-galactose). It is ➢ Plasma substitute
also known as neutral gel forming agent and is ➢ Used in Diarrhoea Gastro-enteritis and
responsible for gel strength of the agar. Ulcer due to its Colloidal and
USES protective nature.
➢ Agar is used to treat chronic
constipation. SODIUM ALGINATE
➢ It is used as Emusifying agent. Source - Sodium alginate is sodium salt of
➢ It is used as Solidifying agent in Alginic acid, obtained from the walls of brown
bacteriological culture medium. algae like Laminaria Sps. (Kelp), Macrocystis
➢ Agar and Agarose are used in sps (M. pyrifera) Ascophyllum sps. (A.
Electrophoresis, gel filtration and nodosum).
Chromatography. Class - Phaeophyceae
G. S. - Atlantic and Pacific Ocean (US, Japan,
PECTIN Canada, Australia, India)
Source- Pectin is purified carbohydrate CHARACTERS -
product. Its riches source is rind of Lemon and Appearance: Coarse or fine powder
Orange; hence it is obtained as by product of Colour: White or buff coloured
citrus canning industry. It is also present in Odour: Odourless
pulp of Papaya, Mango, Guava and Apple Taste: Tasteless
Family- Rutaceae (Lemon and Orange) Solubility: Soluble even in cold water. Upon
CHARACTERS dissolution in cold water, it forms viscous
Appearance- Coarse to fine powder colloidal solution. Insoluble in Alcohol and
Colour- Yellowish white organic solvents
Odour- Odourless Chemical Constituents: Sodium alginate is
Taste- Mucilaginous co-polymer of homo-polymeric blocks.
Solubility- Soluble in 20 times of its weight of It contains two uronic acids called D-
water. The solution is viscous, opalescent, Mannuronic acid (M) and Guluronic acid (G).
colloidal and acidic to litmus paper. It is Mannuronic acid can form M- block
insoluble in alcohol and organic solvents. (MMM…) and Guluronic acid can form G-
One part of pectin upon heating with 9 block (GGG…). Combination of two gives
times of water forms a stiff jelly upon cooling. MG –block. Molecule of Alginic acid has M &
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS G blocks in it, along with some MG blocks.
Pectin consists of partially This gives samples of varying characters.
methoxylated Polygalacto-uronic acid. In side Quality is directly proportional to the
chain are present sugars like D-galactose, L- proportion of G component.
arabinose, D-xylose and D-fucose. It contains
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USES ➢ Used in preparing soap and textile
➢ Thickening Agent, Suspending agent, lubricant.
Stabilizing agent, Emulsifying agent
➢ Film forming agent, Gel formation ARACHIS OIL
➢ Used in skin and dental preparation (Synonyms: Ground nut oil, Pea nut oil, Earth
nut oil)
OLIVE OIL Botanical source: Arachis oil is obtained from
(Synonyms: Jaitoon-ka-tael, Salad oil, Sweet the ripe seeds of Arachis hypogaea.
oil) Family: Leguminosae
Botanical source: Olive oil is obtained from Geographical source: Ground nut is
the pulp of ripe fruits of Olea europaea (An indigenous to Brazil. Now it is extensively
ever green tree with white flowers). Two cultivated in Africa, China, India and United
varieties are extensively cultivated-Variety States.
latifolia and variety longifolia. Variety (NOTE: Ground nut oil is third largest source
longifolia produces best quality oil. of fixed oil and India produces about 45% of
Family: Oleaceae world’s production)
Geographical source: This tree is native of CHARACTERS
Palestine. Now it is widely cultivated in Appearance: Pale yellow to greenish yellow
Australia, Italy, Spain and United States. to colourless.
CHARACTERS Odour: Ground nut like.
Appearance: Pale yellow liquid with greenish Taste: Bland and nut like,
tint and having natural fluorescence. Specific gravity: 0.910 to 0.915
Odour: Slight but characteristics. Chemical Constituents: It contains mixed tri-
Taste: Bland glycerides of –
Specific gravity: 0.915 at 250 C Oleic acid (50 to 65%)
Refractive index: 1.46 at 400 C Linoleic acid (18 to 30%)
Other Characters: Upon chilling it tends to Palmitic acid (8 to 10%)
be cloudy and becomes whitish granular mass It also contains Small percentage of tri-
at 00 C. It becomes rancid upon exposure to glycerides of following acids
air. Arachidic acid
Chemical Constituents: It contains mixed tri- Stearic acid
glycerides of – Behenic acid
Oleic acid (83.5%) Lignoceric acid
Palmitic acid (9.5%) USES
Linoleic acid (4%) ➢ Arachis oil is used in the same way as
Stearic acid (2%) Olive oil
Arachidic acid (1%) ➢ Solvent for I/M injections.
It also contains Squalene (0.7%) and the ➢ As an article of food
Phytosterol and Tocopherol (0.2%) as minor ➢ For the preparation of hydrogenated oil
constituents. (Vegetable ghee)
USES ➢ Emulsion containing 10% oil and 40%
➢ Internally- Used as nutritive (salad oil glucose is used as intra-gastric drip for
and cooking medium) and vehicle for nitrogen free diet.
parenteral preparations. ➢ Used for preparation of Ointments,
➢ Externally: It is emollient and soothing Liniments and Plasters.
hence used in Liniments and Plasters
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➢ Used for preparation of soap (Arachis USES
oil gets saponified slowly but gives a ➢ Lanolin is used as emollient base for
firm white soap). ointments and creams as it promotes the
absorption of drugs in skin.
WOOL FAT ➢ It is also used as base for water absorbable
(Synonyms: Anhydrous Lanolin) ointment as it can absorb up to 30% water.
Biological Source: Lanolin is purified wax ➢ Lanolin is used to prepare Wool alcohols
obtained from the wool of sheep Ovis aries and Hydrous lanolin (Hydrous Wool Fat)
Family: Bovidae NOTE: During storage Butylated hydroxy
Preparation: Wool fat is secreted by Toluene is used as anti-oxidant (up to 200
Sebaceous glands present in the skin. This ppm).
secretion is wax in nature and passes to the
wool fibres of the sheep. The raw wool has BEESWAX
nearly 25% crude lanolin or Wool grease. (Synonyms: Yellow Beeswax)
From wool, the wool grease is separated by Biological Source: It is purified wax obtained
washing with water or organic solvent. The from honey-comb of honey bee Apis mellifica
washings are acidified or the organic solvent is (=Apis mellifera) and other species of Apis.
evaporated to separate the crude lanolin. The Family: Apidae
lanolin is now purified by bleaching and Geographical source: Africa, France, India,
centrifugation Italy and Jamaica
CHARACTERS
CHARACTERS Appearance: Yellowish or Brownish yellow
Appearance: Pale yellow tenacious (Sticky) solid
and unctuous (greasy) almost solid material. Odour: Honey like
Odour: Slight but characteristics. Taste: Characteristic, some -what honey like
Melting point: 34 to 400 C Specific gravity: 0.938 to 0.970
Other Characters: Insoluble in water; Refractive index: 1.4380 at 1.4420
Soluble in organic solvents like Acetone, Melting Point: 62 to 640 C
Alcohol and Benzene. Fracture: Granular fracture
Chemical Constituents: Lanolin contains the Other Characters: Upon chilling it becomes
mixture of Esters and Polyesters of 33 high brittle. It is insoluble in water, soluble in hot
molecular weight alcohols and 36 fatty acids. Alcohol and in ether, Chloroform, Carbon
Alcohols are of three types- Aliphatic, Steroid tetrachloride, fixed oils and volatile oils.
and Triterpenoid alcohols. Acids are hydroxyl Chemical Constituents: It contains mainly
and non-hydroxyl types. Main acids are- the esters of straight chain Fatty acids with
Lanoceric, Lanopalmitic, Carnaubic, Oleic, straight chain Monohydric alcohols.
Myristic and Palmitic acids. These acids also Alcohols are even numbered monohydric
occur in Free State also. Lanolin also contains alcohols having carbons 24 to 36. Main
appreciable amount of Cholesterol (30%) and alcohol is Myricyl alcohol C30H61OH. The
Iso-cholesterol. fatty acids are also having even number of
Consistency of lanolin is directly related to the carbon atoms (up to 36 carbons). Main acids
molecular weight of acids and alcohols. Liquid are Palmitic acid C15H31COOH and Cerotic
Lanolin is rich in low molecular weight acid C25H51COOH.
branched chain aliphatic acids while waxy Main constituent is Myricin. It is in about 80%
Lanolin is rich in high molecular weight proportion, Chemically it is Myricyl-palmitate.
straight chain acids and alcohols. (C15H31COOC30H61)
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It also contains free wax acid called Taste: Very slightly earthy taste.
Cerotic acid (C25H51COOH) and its Size: 10 to 60 µ.
homologues. It also has small percentage of Density: 2.3
moisture, an aromatic substance Cerolein, Solubility: Insoluble in water, dil. acids and
pollen grains and bee glue called Propolis. dil. alkalis. Conc. HCl decomposes it partially
Pollen grains and the bee glue are while prolonged boiling with Conc. H2SO4
responsible for the colour of the beeswax decomposes it into insoluble silica and
USES Aluminium sulphate.
➢ Beeswax is used to prepare Ointments, MICROSCOPY
Plasters and Polishes Medicinal Kaolin has particle size from 2 to 20
➢ It is also used for hardening of soft µ. The fine particles have various shapes while
ointments. the bigger particles are usually flat and
➢ It also finds use for preparation of White irregularly angular.
beeswax by bleaching in Sunlight or by CHEMICAL NATURE
chemicals. Kaolin is almost pure Aluminium silicate
represented by formula Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O.
KAOLIN USES
(Synonyms: China Clay, Kaolinite ➢ Used as adsorbent to treat Gastro-
Kaolin is purified Aluminium silicate enteritis, dysentery, alkaloidal and food
obtained from native Kaolin by elutriating poisoning.
process. The native Kaolin is produced by the ➢ Used externally as dusting powder and
weathering of Felspar granite (Pot. Alumino- as filtering aid.
silicate). ➢ Heavy Kaolin (up to 60 µ) is used in
Kaolin Poultice.
Geographical source: Mainly in South
Eastern United State, England, France and GELATIN
India. Gelatin is protein derivative (Sclero-protein or
In medicine following two types of Kaolins Albuminoid); which is obtained by
are extensively used- evaporating the purified extract of skin, bones,
Natural light Kaolin- In this Kaolin particle tendons and ligaments derived from Sheep
size does not exceeding 3 µ. (75 to 90% (Ovis aries), Pig (Sus sacrofa) and Ox (Bos
particles) taurus).
Heavy Kaolin- Particle size is up to 20 µ. Family: Bovidae (Sheep and Ox); Suidae
These particles do not show Brownian (Pig)
movement.
Light Kaolin- It is Natural Light Kaolin CHARACTERS
containing suitable dispersing agent. Appearance: Thin translucent sheets, shreds
or granular powder
CHARACTERS Colour: Colourless or very slight pale yellow
Appearance: Very fine soft clay, crumbling to or amber coloured
fine powder upon pressing between fingers Odour: Odourless or slight Characteristic
Colour- White or very faintly grey brown or odour
yellow tinged. Taste: Tasteless or slight characteristic taste
Feel: Slightly soapy to touch Fracture: Short, hard and brittle
Odour: Odourless (develops clay like odour Solubility: Gelatin swells up in cold water but
when moistened) it dissolves in hot water. Gelling property is
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lowered/destroyed upon excessive boiling. 2%
solution, upon cooling; sets to a jelly. Soluble
in Acetic acid and Glycerin. Insoluble in Ether
and Alcohol.

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
Gelatin consists of protein GLUTIN.

USES
➢ Gelatin is a Pharmaceutical-aid. It is
used in preparation of Absorbable
gelatin sponge, Capsule shell, Pastes,
Pessaries and Suppositories.
➢ It is also used in Bacteriological culture
medium and in pill coating.

TESTS
➢ Heat Gelatin, in a dry test tube; with soda
lime- NH3 evolves (due to presence of
Nitrogen, which is about 18%)
➢ Prepare solution of gelatin by boiling 0.5 g
gelatin in 100 ml water. Perform following
tests with this solution-
➢ To few ml solution add few drops of
Tannic acid solution- White buff colour
gets produced which does not dissolve
upon heating.
➢ To few ml solution add few drops of
Millon’s reagent- White precipitate is
produced which turns red upon heating.
➢ To few ml solution, add few drops of
Picric acid solution; drop wise- Yellow
coloured precipitate gets formed.

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5c. Miscellaneous
GARLIC (Lashun)
Botanical Source: Garlic consists of ripe
bulbs of Allium sativum.
Family: Liliaceae
Geographical Source: Garlic is cultivated in
India, Italy, Russia and US.
CHARACTERS
Appearance: The bulb consists of a central
main bulb which is ovate in shape and is
surrounded by 6-15 secondary bulbs. Both
main and secondary bulbs are surrounded by
white membranes
Odour; Aromatic, Alliaceous and
Characteristic
Taste: Alliaceous and Pungent
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
Garlic contains ‘Alliin’ which is water soluble
sulphur containing compound.
Upon crushing or distillation, it changes to
‘Allicin’ by the action of an enzyme called
Alliinase. In presence of water and oxygen, the
allicin changes to Polysulphides; which are
responsible for unpleasant smell.
In humans, this degradation is responsible for
smell in the exhaled air.
USES
Garlic lowers blood cholesterol level hence
used in B. P and Atherosclerosis.
Used in indigestion and intestinal infections.
Bacteriostatic
Used as spice for seasoning of soups, sauces
and pickles.
Garlic is Stimulant, Diaphoretic, Expectorant,
Diuretic and Tonic.
It is Anthelmintic, Emmenagogue and also had
Anti-fertility effect (due to Oxytocic effect0
It is used in Rheumatic and Catarrhal
conditions and also found to be useful in
Diabetes and Leprosy.
It is effective mosquitocide and pesticide and SHATAVARI
externally found to be Rubefacient. Botanical Source: Dried tuberous roots of
Incorporation of Garlic, in diet; in moderate Asparagus racemosus.
amount, is likely to shift the balance of g.i.t. Family: Liliaceae
micro-flora in favour of Lactobacillus hence Geographical Source: India, Himalayan and
favouring absorption of dietary minerals. Sub-Himalayan region up to the height of
1300-1400 mtrs.
CHARACTERS
Appearance: Plant of Shatavari is perennial
shrub. The stem is covered with recurved
spines and linear green, needle like leaves
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The root has following characteristics Flowers: Flowers are Short, Axillary, Solitary
Shape: Cylindrical, swollen in the middle, or 2-3 together. These have white, rose or
tapering towards base purple colour.
Size: 5 to 15 cm long and 1 to 2 cm in
diameter. CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
Colour: White to buff Shankhpuspi contains alkaloid
Taste: Bitter Shankhpushpine. It also hag Flavonoids,
Other Characters: When soaked in water, the Starch and Inorganic salt KCl.
root becomes soft and swells considerably. USES
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS Nervine Tonic, hence used in Epilepsy,
Satavari contains 0.1 to 0.2% steroidal saponin Insanity and Nervous debility.
I to IV. These saponins have Sarsapogenin as NOTE: Evolvulus alsinoides of family
aglycone but differ in sugar part. Convolvulaceae is also considered
USES Shankhpushpi.
Anti-oxytocic activity, hence used as cure for
threatened abortion and safe delivery. Also has
Galactogogue activity.

Liquorice (Glycyrrhiza)
SHANKHPUSHPI Botanical Source: Liquorice consists of dried
peeled or unpeeled underground Roots and
(Vishnukranti) Stolons of Glycyrrhiza glabra
Botanical Source: Shankhpushpi consists of Family: Leguminosae
whole dried herb called Convolvulus Geographical Source: Baluchisatan,
pluricaulis. England, India, Russia and Spain
Family: Convolvulaceae
Geographical Source: It is found growing
wildly in plains of North India and Bihar
CHARACTERS
Stem and Leaves: The herb is procumbent
(Prostrate) and has woody stem at its base. The
leaves are Linear, Elliptical and Sub-sessile
which have trichomes on their both surfaces.
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CHARACTERS
Shape: Unpeeled pieces are cylindrical while
peeled pieces are angular
Size: Up to 20 cms or more in length and 0.5
to 2.0 cm in dia (Liquorice root can grow up to
04 meters depth, in soil.)
Colour: Unpeeled pieces are reddish brown
while peeled pieces are pale yellow USES
The stolon pieces have buds, scale leaves and Demulcent, Expectorant, Anti-spasmodic,
scar of lateral roots. Anti-ulcer, Anti-inflammatory diuretic and
Outer surface: Unpeeled have longitudinal Sweetening agent.
wrinkles while peeled have fibrous surface. Liquorice potentiates the laxative action of
Taste: Sweet, very faintly acrid senna and is also used in fire-extinguishers due
Odour: Faint and Characteristics to its frothing property.
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
Liquorice contains 5 to 8% sweet saponin
glycoside called GLYCYRRHIZIN. It is 50 PYRETHRUM
times sweeter than sucrose. It is mixture of Botanical Source: Pyrethrum consists of dried
Pot. And Cal. Salts of GLYCYRRHIZINIC flower heads of Chrysanthemum
ACID. The glycyrrhizic acid is a glycoside cinerarifolium
which upon hydrolysis yields two molecules of Family: Compositae
Glucuronic acid & one molecule of Geographical Source: Mainly Kenya,
GLYCYRRHETINIC acid (Glycyrrhetic acid). Rwanda, Tanzania Ecuador Brazil and India.
Liquorice also contains glycosides Liquiritin
and Isoliquiritin. These have Liquiritigenin as
aglycone.
Liquorice also contains Sucrose and Starch.

CHARACTERS
Appearance: Flower head is 06 to 12 mm in
dia.
Peduncle: Short and longitudinally striated.
Involucre: It is present as 02 to 03 rows of
yellowish or greenish yellow lanceolate hairy
bracts with membranous margin.

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Receptacle: Flat, bearing numerous yellow LINSEED
tubular florets and a single row of cream or (Syn: Alsi kae beej, Flax seeds)
straw coloured ligulate florets Botanical Source: Linseed consists of dried
Ovary: Inferior and 05 ribbed ripe seeds of Linum Usitatissimum.
Taste: Bitter and Acrid Family: Linaceae
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS Geographical Source: Linseed is indigenous
Pyrethrum consists of 01 to 02% esters known to India. It is grown for its fiber and oil
as PYRETHRINES. Pyrethrines are mixture of yielding seeds. Now it is grown world over
esters of Chrysanthemic acid and Pyrethric especially in Russia, Greece, Spain, Italy and
acid. Afghanistan.
It also has keto alcohols called
PYRETHROLONE and JASMOLONE CHARACTERS
All esters are yellowish oily liquid and are Appearance: Linseed is annual erect plant
unstable in air (Due to presence of attaining height up to 04 feet. It has bluish
unsaturation) green coloured slender, lanceolate leaves, pale
USES blue or red coloured flowers and dry capsular
Contact poison for flying insects like Flies and fruit. The seeds yield a viscous fixed oil and
Mosquitoes. It is also an effective poison for have following characters
Cockroaches, Lice and Bugs. Shape: Seeds are oval, flatted and elongated.
It is used in form of Dusting powder, Sprays, These have one end as rounded while other
Aerosols and Spiral fuming coils. end is obliquely pointed.
Internally it is Anthelmitic for Ascaris worm. Size: 04 to 06 mm long; 02 to 03 mm wide
Colour: Reddish brown
Extern ()al Surface: Smooth, hard, glossy and
minutely pitted
Odour: Odourless
Taste: Oily and mucilagenous
Other Characters: Hilum is present at pointed
end; micropyle is present in the depression of
this end. Raphe is present along one edge
while endosperm is narrow and encloses
embryo.
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
Linseed Contains fixed oil (30 to 40%) Protein
(25%) mucilage (06%) along with enzyme
Lipase and
USES
Linseed is source of Omega-3-fatty acids for
vegetarians
Oil obtained from seeds is Emollient,
Demulcent, Expectorant, Diuretic and
Laxative
Oil is used as base for lotions and liniments
Mucilage is also used as demulcent in Cough,
Cold and Bronchitis
Mucilage is an effective Anti-inflammatory in
Urinary tract Infections, Gonorrhoea and
Diarrhoea

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5d. Collection and pharmaceutical elegance to the drug. Common

processing steps are-
preparation of crude drug ➢ Washing: to remove adhering soil
for the market as (Usually the underground parts)
➢ Removal of undesirable parts: It
exemplified by Ergot,
reduces foreign organic matter and also
opium, Rauwolfia, Digitalis, reduces bulk and weight of drug
Senna. ➢ Peeling and Slicing: These help in
drying
➢ Drying: Reduces weight and bulk.
CULTIVATION, COLLECTION AND
Helps avoiding hydrolysis of active
PREPARATION OF DRUGS
Most of the drugs are still collected from wild constituents and attack by fungus and
sources. Collection from wild source poses insects. Temperature of drying,
following problems- duration of drying and mode of drying-
➢ Difficulty in collecting (Difficult all are important.
terrain and sparsely spread) ➢ Preservation: Suitable preservative is
➢ Quality and quantity not as desired added so as to prevent attack by
➢ Skilled labor can not be employed for fungus/insects
collection (Cost consideration) SENNA
➢ Immediate drying is not possible Leaflets of Cassia acutifolia
Cultivation of drug avoids these problems and (Alexandrian/Egyptian senna) C. angustifolia
also improves quality and quantity due to (Tinnevelly senna)
following reasons- Family: Leguminosae
➢ Cultivation of desired Sps. Variety or Leaflets: Pinnate compound leaf (Uni-pinnate,
hybrid Bi, Tri, Tetrapinnate: Peripinnate,
Imperipinnate)
➢ Optimum preparation of field
Palmate compound leaf (Unifoliate, bi, tri,
➢ Timely use of Fertilizers/manure and quadrifoliate, Multifoliate)
pesticides/insecticide Senna requires red loamy soil (Red-Siliceous
➢ Immediate processing by skilled works and aluminous with high Potassium: Loamy
Collection helps in improving quality in Sand: Silt: Clay:: 40:40:20). Seeds are sown in
following way Feb.-March by Broadcasting method and thin
➢ Timely collection (When active sowing.
constituents are maximum) (Seeds are abraded using sand so early
➢ Consideration of season, stage of germination occurs)
Second sowing is possible in October-
development, condition of plant part
November
(affected by fungus/insects) and Light irrigation is preferred as water logging
environment conditions (Rain/dew and low temp harm the crop. (Temp less than
drops, moisture in air, strong wind) 10- plant dies)
➢ Collection and processing by skilled Nitrogen fertilizer is required as senna is not
workers having root nodules.
Preparation for market In about 2-3 months, the leaves are ready for
Collected drugs have active constituents. collection. Leaves which are fully grown and
Therapeutic activity is due to these bluish green are hand plucked.
constituents; hence these should remain intact Second plucking is done after one month.
till drug is used. This help in exerting desired Third plucking is done after 30 to 45 days
degree of action. So drug is processed or when even pods (Fruits) are collected. Plant is
prepared for market in a way so as to maintain now uprooted.
these constituents and also to provide
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Active constituents decrease as the plant OPIUM
matures. Air dried milky exudate from the capsules of
Leaves are dried in shade, as thin layer for 7- Papaver somniferum (Papaveraceae)
10 days. Shade drying helps in preserving India, Bulgaria, Persia, Turkey and Yugoslavia
green color and also maintains flexibility. CULTIVATION
Pods are separated using sieves For cultivation of opium permission of Govt.
Packed in bales using pressure. This leads to is required. Plant prefers rich, porous alluvial
pressure markings (transverse and oblique soil. Bright sunshine and use of fertilizers
lines) on the surface of leaves. helps in increasing the qty. of Opium
DIGITALIS In India seeds are sown in November by
Digitalis is a biennial/perennial herb. It grows broadcasting method. Seeds are very small
wild but good quality of drug can be obtained hence mixed with 3-4 times sand before
from cultivated plants; hence it is grown as sowing. After germination the plants are
biennial herb. thinned so that each plant gets space for
Plant grows in well drained loose soil. Plants branching and grow to a height of about 1.5
growing in sunny condition produce more meter.
active constituents compared to plants growing Flowering starts by end of May. Each plant
under shade. bears 5-8 capsules. These capsules are ready
Seeds of digitalis are very small and light. for incision after about 02 weeks of fall of
These are mixed with sand and can be sown by petals and it turns yellowish from bluish green.
broadcasting method. Germination of its seeds Incisions are given in June/July. The time
is not certain hence seedlings are prepared in selected for incision is sunny afternoon when
nursery beds. Seeds selected for seedlings are rain/dew drops are not present and day is not
special seeds and produce disease free plants. windy. Capsule is held in the left hand and
The seedlings are transplanted in fields at 6-9 incision made using NUSHTUR. Nushtur has
inches distance, in the month of May. 3-4 blades held at distance of 03mm and has
The plants are inspected periodically for projecting teeth of about 02mm. Incision is
absence of attack by diseases and insects. made longitudinally from below upwards.
Irrigation is must during dry season. Incision is repeated at interval of 2-3 days till
In first year, the plants grow a long stalk exudation stops (Usually 3-4 times). Now
bearing rosette of leaves. These leaves are plant is not shaken and path is not retraced so
collected from September to November. The as not to shake off the drops of latex from the
leaves are hand plucked. This helps in capsule.
avoiding foreign organic matter and Next morning the hardened latex is collected
discoloured leaves. Leaves are immediately in a small copper instrument shaped like a
dried at temperature NMT 600 C till residual tray. This opium is now transferred to a tilted
moisture is NMT 5%. vessel where a thick deleterious liquid
Drying chambers, in which leaves are dried, separates.
have automatic temperature and humidity The thick liquid is decanted off and opium
control. Rate of collection is so kept that it mixed well to get homogeneous mass. It is
matches the drying capacity. This also helps in dried by exposing to the air till it gets desired
maintaining the continuous supply of the consistency and moisture content. It is now
leaves. turned into cubes and stored for further use.
In 2nd year, plant bears flowers and seeds. In In Yugoslavia and Bulgaria, horizontal
second year leaves are collected only from incision is given which is equatorially around
those plants from which seeds are not to be the capsule. Next morning latex is collected in
collected. These leaves are comparatively tins lined with opium leaves, each holding
inferior. Seeds are collected and immediately about 750g opium.
used for sowing as fresh seeds give better
percentage of germination.
ERGOT
Ergot is dried SCLEROTIUM of fungus
Claviceps purpurea developing on the ovary
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of food grain plant Secale cereal (Fam. use it to infect the spikes of rye plants,
Gramineae) manually or mechanically.
Family: Clavicipitaceae The sclerotium develops in due time and
Geographical source: India, Portugal, Russia collected from fields in June/July. It is then
and Spain. dried to remove extra moisture and packed in
LIFE CYCLE OF CLAVICEPS PURPUREA air-tight containers.
Life cycle of this fungus has three stages CHARACTERS (of Sclerotium)
➢ Sphacelia or Honey dew stage SIZE: 01 to 04 cm long; 02 to 07 mm wide
➢ Sclerotium or resting stage Shape: Slightly curved, Sub-cylindrical,
➢ Ascospore stage fusiform or tapering at both ends.
Colour: Purplish brown to almost black
Sphacelia or Honey dew stage
Outer Surface: Longitudinally furrowed with
Rye plant bears flowers by the end of spring
occasional transverse cracks
season. During this time the ASCOSPORES
Odour: Characteristic
ofthis fungus are carried to the spikes of plant
Taste: Unpleasant
by wind or insects. These spores settle to the
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
base of ovary and start growing. By enzymatic
Ergot has six pairs of alkaloids. All are indole
action these enter the wall of ovary and form a
alkaloids. One pair is water soluble while other
soft white mass of filamentous hyphae callec
five pairs are water insoluble.
SHACELIA. This mass secretes a sweet,
Each pair has one active alkaloid
viscous yellowish liquid called HONEY
(Laevorotatory) and other inactive alkaloid
DEW. Several conidiospores come out of
(Dextrorotatory)
hyphae and enter this sweet liquid. Insects gets
This are-
attracted to this fluid and help spreading the
Active Inactive
infection to nearby plants. (LAEVOROTATORY) (DEXTROROTATORY)
Sclerotium or resting stage
WATER SOLUBLE
The hypae spread further and penetrate deeper
Ergometrine Group
in the ovarian tissue. These consume the
Ergometrine Ergometrinine
ovarian tissue and attach to the vascular tissue
WATER SOLUBLE
for the nutrition. The ovary gets replaced by a
dark purple, compact Pseudo-parenchymatous Ergotamine Group
tissue called SCLEROTIUM. In summer, the Ergotamine Ergotaminine
sclerotium increases in size and protrudes out Ergosine Ergosinine
of the spike. The sclerotium has remains of Ergotoxine Group
Sphacelia on its apex. It may get collected Ergocristine Ergocristinine
along with grains or may fall on the ground. Ergocriptine Ergocriptinine
The sclerotium has alkaloids of medicinal Ergocornine Ergocorninine
importance.
Ascospore stage
The sclerotium which falls on the ground stays Sclerotium also contains 30-40% fixed oil. It
dormant till next spring season. Now it contains about 01% Ergosterol and other
develops to produce upright stalks having sterols. It also has many Amino acids. Cell
globular head called STROMATA. Each wall of sclerotium is made up of CHITIN.
stromata has many flask like structures called USES
PERITHECIA. Each perithecia has many sacs Ergometrine has Oxytocic activity. It causes
each having 08, thread like ASCOSPORES. strong contraction of uterine muscles so used
These ascospores are carried to the spikes of to help in delivery and to reduce post-partum
rye plant to start the life cycle again. hemorrhage. Other alkaloids are used in
To produce ergot commercially, the migraine and certain nervous disorders.
ascospores are grown on nutritive medium.
These produce conidiospores. From these
conidispores will prepare the suspension and

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SARPGANDHA regular irrigation where temperature rise high
Rauwolfia commonly called Sarpagandha is an combined with low rain fall during rainy
important medicinal plant distributed in the season. It is suggested that 15 to 16 irrigations,
foot-hills of Himalayan range, up to the amounts to irrigation at 20 days interval in
elevation of 1300-1400 m. and almost summer and at 30 days interval in winter.
throughout all over the country. It is an erect WEEDING
evergreen, perennial under-shrub, 75 cm to 1 The Rauwolfia field should be kept relatively
m. in height. Root is prominent, tuberous, weed-free in the initial period of growth. This
usually branched, 0.5 to 2.5 cm in diameter, means giving two to three weedings and two
Up to 40 to 60 cm deep into soil. The root hoeings in the first year where sole Rauwolfia
possesses high alkaloid concentration. crop is taken or 5-6 weeding where intercrops
CULTIVATION: in Rauwolfia are practiced.
SOIL AND CLIMATE HARVESTING/POST-HARVESTING
The plant requires slightly acidic to neutral Root yields at different age and season have
soils for good growth with medium to deep showed that 18 months duration crop produce
well drained fertile soils. Clay-loam to silt- maximum root yield. Transplanting is done in
loam soils, rich in organic content are suitable July; the harvesting period coincides with the
for its commercial cultivation. It grows well in shedding of leaves during early autumn season
frost-free tropical to subtropical situations next year. At this stage, the roots contain
under irrigation. The crop can be propagated maximum concretion of total alkaloids. At
by seed, stem cutting and root cuttings. Seed harvest the root may be found to go up to 40
propagation is the best method for raising cm deep in the soil. Harvesting is done by
commercial plantation. digging up the roots and thin roots are also
SEED GERMINATION collected.
Seed germination in Rauwolfia is highly After digging the roots are cleaned, washed
variable. It is reported to vary from 5 to 30 and cut into 12 to 15 cm pieces for
percent even when only heavy seeds are convenience in drying and storage. The dry
chosen for sowing purpose. Light and heavy roots possess up to 8-10 per cent of moisture.
seeds can easily be separated by simple water The dried roots are stored in polythene lined
flotation. Germination of heavy seeds during gunny bags in cool dry place to protect it from
May-June after soaking them in water for 24 mould.
hours was 20-40 percent and 62.77 percent
germination was recorded in freshly collected
heavy seed lot. In all, 6 kg of seeds are
sufficient to raise one-hectare plantation.
MANURES, FERTILISERS AND
PESTICIDES
The medicinal plants have to be grown without
chemical fertilizers and use of pesticides.
Organic manures like, Farm Yard Manure
(FYM), Vermi-Compost, Green Manure etc.
may be used as per requirement of the species.
To prevent diseases, bio-pesticides could be
prepared (either single or mixture) from Neem
(kernel, seeds & leaves), Chitrakmool,
Dhatura, Cow's urine etc.

IRRIGATION
Rauwolfia, if grown in areas which receive
rainfall of 150 cm or above well distributed
throughout the growing season such as in
Assam and Kerala, can be raised and rain fed
crop under subtropical conditions. It needs
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5e. Study of source, Regenerated from protein material

preparation and identification Fibrolin (From milk casein)
Aridil (From Ground nut protein)
of fibres used in sutures and
surgical dressing’s cotton, Synthetic fibres
Nylon
silk, wool and regenerated Terylene
fibre. Orlon
Polyester
FIBRES
Botanically the fibres are very long cells
having length many more times than their PLANT FIBRES
breadth. Usually these have thick walls with COTTON, Raw Cotton
narrow lumen. Thickening on walls may be to Botanical Source: Cotton consists of
the extent that cavity is almost oblitered. Epidermal trichomes or hairs of the seeds of
Fibres usually occur as bundles and provide Gossypium herbaceum and other cultivated
mechanical strength to the plant. species of Gossypium like G. hirsutum, G.
Plant fibres are mainly composed of cellulose. barbadense.
Cell walls contain lignin, hemi-cellulose, Family: Malvaceae
pectic substance, resin, mineral material fat Geographical Source: USA, Egypt and India
and waxes. PREPARATION
Animal fibres contain mainly protein while Cotton plant is a shrub. It produces 3 to 5
synthetic fibres are derived from cellulose, celled capsules. Each capsule contains several
animal protein and petrochemical products. seeds. Seeds covered with its hairs, is known
Fibres are mainly used as Surgical dressings, as BOLLS. When ripe, the bolls are collected
Filter medium and for heat and fire proofing. and subjected to a process known as
Surgical dressings mean all those GINNING. This process removes long hairs
MATERIALS, which are USED TO COVER from seeds and the short hairs remain attached
THE to them. These short hairs are removed by
Classification of FIBRES second GIN known as LINTERS.
Fibres can be natural, regenerated or Seeds thus remaining are used to produce
manmade. Examples are- cotton seed oil and the oil cake (Cattle feed)
while short hairs are used to produce low
Natural: quality cotton wool and the rayon. Long hairs
Vegetable or plant fibres: are used to spin yarn.
Cotton (Gossypium herbaceum; Malvaceae) Length of cotton hair is known as STAPLE.
Jute (Corchorus capsularis; Tiliaceae) Length less than 25 mm is known as short
Hemp (Cannabis sativa; Cannabinaceae) staple. 25 to 30 mm is medium staple, while
Flax (Linum usitatissimum; Linaceae) length longer than 30 mm is long staple. Very
fine yarn can be spun by using only the long
Animal fibres staple (Sea island cotton yarn has staple length
Silk (Bombyx mori; Bombycidae) up to 54.5 mm). the yarn thus produced is
Wool (Ovis aries; Bovidae) referred as COMBED YARN and the machine
used for this purpose is known as cotton
Mineral fibres combing machine. This machine separates all
Glass wool short fibres and spins the yarn using only long,
uniform, well paralleled fibres. (The short
Asbestos
fibres separated by combing machine, are used
Regenerated fibres:
to produce, the best quality cotton wool).
Regenerated from carbohydrate material
The machine using short and less uniform
Viscose rayon or acetate rayon (Artificial Silk) fibres is known as CARDING MACHINE.
Cellulose wadding The yarn thus spun, is known as CARDED
Alginate yarn YARN which has irregular arrangement of
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fibres, the ends of which usually project from and soda ash (NA2CO3) solution at 1 to 3
the surface of yarn. atmospheric pressure for 10 to 15 hrs. This
CHARACTERS removes much of waxy cuticle and colouring
Cotton occurs as white, soft, fine, filament like matter. It is then washed with water and then
hairs, it is odourless and tasteless bleached using dil. Sodium Hypochlorite
MICROSCOPY solution (NaOCl). It is then treated with dil.
Cotton consists of unicellular, non-glandular HCl, it is then washed, dried and changed into
hairs, resembling empty, flattened, twisted fire continuous sheets of fairly even thickness.
hoses.(Cotton hair is Cylindrical, when young; Several such layers are super imposed and
but becomes flat and twisted, as it matures). packed in paper as rolls
Length: up to 50 mm USES
Diameter: from 9 to 24 µ ➢ Cotton is used as Surgical dressing
Number of twists- (Absorbs blood, mucus, pus and
Indian: 150 twists/inch protects wound from infection)
Sea Island: 300 twists/inch
➢ It is also used as filtering medium.
Apex is rounded and solid.
Lumen is large and elongated
Each hair is covered with thin waxy cuticle,
which makes it Non-absorbable. ANIMAL FIBRES
The fibre swells at right angle to long axis and WOOL
also has tensile strength along the long axis. Source: Wool fibres are obtained from fleece
CHEMICAL NATURE of sheep Ovis aries
Raw cotton consists of 90% cellulose, nearly Family: Bovidae
7% moisture and remaining is Wax, Fat, Geographical source: Argentina, Australia,
Remains of Protoplasm and Sand. Russia, USA and India.
Absorbent cotton consists of up to 94% PREPARATION
cellulose 6 to 7% moisture and very little of The hairs forming the fleece of sheep are
sand. removed at shearing time. Wool fat and dirt
are removed. Hairs are now subjected to
CH2OH CH2OH bleaching, washing and drying.
O O CHARACTERS
Wool hairs are smooth, elastic, lustrous, curly,
O O O
OH OH hygroscopic and slippery to touch Wool hairs
have tendency to cling together. Wool is
OH OH insoluble in 66% H2SO4, Conc. HCl and
Cuoxam solution.
10.3 A0 (1.03 u)
MICROSCOPY
Wool hairs are from 2 to 50 cms in length and
from 5 to 100 µ (Usually 13 to 40µ) in
Cellobiose
Diameter. The tapering ends (also known as
Cellulose molecule is made up of glucose ‘Lamb ends) are found only in 1st shearing.
molecules linked by 1,4 β-glucosidic linkage. Under high power, the hair shows three
It is a polysaccharide composed of elongated distinct region, known as CUTICLE,
chain like molecules, which are repeating units CORTEX and MEDULLA
of CELLOBIOSE and are oriented in spiral CHEMICAL NATURE
manner. Wool fibres are composed of protein Keratin.
ABSORBENT COTTON WOOL This protein has elasticity, due to reversible,
Absorbent cotton wool is also known as intra-molecular transformation of fibre
COTTON WOOL or ABSORBENT WOOL. substance α-keratin to β- keratin and back. The
It is prepared from comber waste and cotton α-keratin is stable substance while β- keratin is
linters. Comber waste gives best quality cotton its unstable form.
wool.
The comber waste is loosened using machines
and heated with dilute caustic soda (NaOH)
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H
N
USES
Wool is used to prepare domette crepe
N bandages and flannel.
Used as filtering and straining medium.
H
Piperazine
SILK
The α- keratin has pseudo diketopiperazine Biological Source: Silk is obtained from
ring which opens reversibly to form unstable cocoon of mulberry silk worm, Bombyx mori;
β- keratin; hence expanding to double its other species of Bombyx and that of Antheraea
original length. This explains the elasticity of (In India mainly A, myllita and A. assama are
wool. Protein Keratin is rich in Cystine which reared.
joins the adjacent polypeptide chain as shown. Family: Bombycidae
Geographical Source: China, France, India,
R Italy and Japan.
C =O C =O
CH PREPARATION
NH NH While passing from caterpillar (larva stage) to
O= C
pupal stage, the worm secretes a 2.5 to 5 cm
long oval cocoon around itself. Cocoon
HN C =O CH -R
consists of about 1200metre continuous long
5.1 A0 CH thread. The thread consists of two silk or
NH C =O fibroin fibres, glued together by a layer of silk
R
glue called SERICIN. This double fibre of
CH - R
R NH cocoon is known as BAVE while constituent
C =O threads are called BRIN.
CH The insect, inside the cocoon, is killed by
CH -R
10.2 A0 O= C
NH exposing to 50 to 600 C using steam. The
cocoon is placed in hot water and beaten. This
C =O removes the outer layer and softens the silk
HN C =O
glue.
CH NH The raw silk is reeled by taking loose ends of
NH
bave from 2 to 15 cocoons (usually 5 cocoons)
R
CH - R
CH -R and twisting these into single thread. The
sericin (Silk glue) is removed by treatment
C =O C =O with hot soap solution or dilute Na2CO3
solution. This process is named as
a-Keratin STRIPPING or DEGUMMING
NH
(Stable) CHARACTERS
Silk thread is very fine, solid, smooth and
CH -R usually yellow coloured. Silk is soluble in
Cuoxam solution, 66% Sulphuric acid and
conc. HCl.
B-Keratin MICROSCOPY
(Unstable) Upon mounting in water, the raw silk shows
number of brins, devoid of any cellular
structure The sericin (Silk glue), if present can
CH - CH2 - S - S - CH2 - CH be removed by treatment with hot soap
solution or dilute Na2CO3 solution. This
Cystine removes the glue completely and constituent
brins becomes very clear and can be counted.
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The brins of mulberry silk measures 10 to 21µ
(usually 16µ) while wild silk measures 30 to
60µ. The wild silk also shows well marked
longitudinal striations.
CHEMICAL NATURE OF SILK
Silk is composed of a protein called FIBROIN.
This protein, upon hydrolysis yields Amino
acids- GLYCINE and ALANINE. Serine,
Tyrosine and other amino acids have also been
reported.
Fibroin actually consists of repeating units,
each being 7.0 A0 long (0.7µ). this unit is
actually two fully extended amino acids as
shown.

O
NH C
CH2 NH
CH NH
C CH
R O R
Fibroin

H2N - CH2 - COOH

Glycine (44%)

H2N - CH - COOH

CH3

Alanine (27%)

H2N - CH - COOH

CH2OH
Serine (11%)

H2N - CH - COOH

CH2

OH
Tyrosine (5%)
USES
Silk is used to prepare special type of Sutures,
Ligatures and Sieves.

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5f. Gross anatomical studies of Midrib: Midrib shows the vascular bundle
containing xylem and phloem, almost
Senna, Datura, Cinnamon, surrounded by lignified pericyclic fibres and a
Cinchona, Fennel, Clove, sheath of parenchyma which contains
prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate. Below
Ginger, Nux vomica & the midrib is the collenchyma.
Ipecacuanha.
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENT
Senna has 2 to 3 % Sennosides A, B, C & D.
GROSS ANATOMY Senna also contains free Chrysophanol, Aloe-
emodin, Rhein and their glycosides. Mucilage
ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF is also present.
SENNA LEAF USES
Botanical Source: Senna consists of dried Cathartic and Purgative. Due to its gripping
leaflets of Cassia acutifolia (Cassia senna) action it is usually prescribed with
known as Alexandrian senna and leaflets of Carminatives.
Cassia angustifolia known as Tinnevelly
senna. ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF
Family: Leguminosae DATURA LEAF
MICROSCOPY
Biological Source: Datura consists of the
dried leaves and flowering tops of Datura
metel.
Family: Solanaceae.
MICROSCOPY

Being isobilateral leaf, senna shows more or

less similar features at both the surfaces of leaf
with few differences.
Transverse section of leaf shows following
structure-
Epidermis: These are two- Upper and lower T.S. (schematic) diagram of datura leaf
epidermis with straight wall cells, few of
which contain mucilage. Paracytic stomata and
non-lignified unicellular trichomes are found
on both the surfaces.
Palisade: A single layer of palisade
parenchyma is observed at both the sides but it
is discontinued in the midrib region of lower
epidermis due to the zone of collenchymatous
tissues.
Spongy Parenchyma: Palisade is followed by
spongy mesophyll which contains cluster
crystals of calcium oxalate and vascular
strands.

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Transverse Section of Datura leaf
Transverse section shows a Dorsi-ventral MICROSCOPY
(bifacial) structure. The lamina and the midrib
region of the leaf show following structure-
Upper epidermis: It is single layered having
rectangular cells covered with cuticle. Both
covering and glandular trichomes are present.
The covering trichomes are uni-seriate,
multicellular, warty and with blunt apex. The
glandular trichomes have one stalk consisting
of one cell and multicellular head.
Mesophyll: It has spongy parenchyma and
palisade parenchyma in it. Palisade cells are
single layered and compactly arranged.
Spongy parenchyma are several layers, loosely
arranged consisting of micro-sphenoidal
crystals and vascular strands. TS of CINNAMON BARK
Lower epidermis: is similar to that of the
upper one but has more number of trichomes
and stomata when compared with upper
epidermis.
Midrib: It consists of strips of collenchyma
appearing; below the upper and above the
lower epidermis followed by the cortical
parenchymatous cells containing calcium
oxalate.
Chemical Constituents
Datura herb contains up to 0.5% of total
alkaloids, among which hyoscine
(scopolamine) is the main alkaloid, while l-
hyoscyamine (scopoline) and atropine are
present in very less quantities.
USES
In Ayurveda black datura is considered more
efficacious or more toxic. D. metel is used in
the manufacture of hyoscine or scopolamine. It
exhibits parasympatholytic with
anticholinergic and CNS depressant effects.
The drug is used in cerebral excitement,
asthma and in cough. The Rajpoot mothers are
said to smear their breasts with the juice of The transverse section of cinnamon shows
the D. metel leaves, to poison their newly born following structure
female infants.
Sclerids: These are present as three to four
ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF layers of sclereids which are horse shoe
CINNAMON BARK shaped consisting of starch grains.
Bot. Source: Cinnamon is dried inner bark of Pericyclic Fibres: The pericyclic fibres (6 to
coppiced tree of cinnamomum zeylanicum 15) are present on the outer margin. It consists
Family: Lauraceae
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of sieve tubes which are completely collapsed
and are arranged tangentially;
Phloem fibres: These are lignified phloem
fibres, arranged as tangential rows of four to
five cells.
Medullary rays: Medullary rays are biseriate
with needle-shaped calcium oxalate crystals;
Oil cells: Longitudinally elongated idioblast
cells consisting of volatile oil.
Parenchyma: These are sub-rectangular
parenchyma cells with starch grains and
calcium oxalate crystals.
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
The bark has Volatile oil and Phloba-tannins,
Calcium oxalate crystals, starch and mucilage.
The main constituents present in volatile oil
are- Cinnamaldehyde and Eugenol.
USES
Carminative, Stomachic, Flavouring agent,
Anti-bacterial and Anti-fungal.
Useful in diabetes, weight loss and healing of
wounds TS CINCHONA BARK

ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF CORK: It is composed of several layers of

CINCHONA BARK thin walled cells, arranged in radial rows and
appears polygonal in surface view. These have
Cinchona Bark; Peruvian Bark reddish brown cell content and are coated with
Bot. Source: Cinchona is dried stem and root Suberin.
bark of Cinchona calisaya, Cinchona PHELLODERM: Cork is followed by
ledgeriana, Cinchona succirubra and Cinchona Phelloderm consisting of several layers of
officinalis or hybrids of first two species with regular cells with dark cell walls.
last two species.
CORTEX: Cortex consists of thin walled
Family: Rubiaceae tangentially elongated parenchymatous cells
MICROSCOPY containing amorphous reddish brown matter.
These also contain small starch grains. In
cortex are scattered the Idioblast cells; which
contain the micro crystal of Calcium oxalate.
PHLOEM: Phloem is wide and consists of
sieve tubes, parenchyma and Phloem fibres.
These fibres are spindle shaped, lignified and
have conspicuously striated walls. These occur
isolated or in ir-regular radial rows. Medullary
rays are two to three cells wide and somewhat
radially elongated.
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
Cinchona bark has about 6.5% alkaloids.
These are 25 in number. Important alkaloids
are- Quinine, Quinidine, Cinchonine and
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Cinchonidine. These are mainly used as Hypathium- It is sub-cylindrical, slightly
Sulphate flattened and tapering below. It is 10 to 13 mm
It also contains Quinic acid and Cinchotannic long and 2 mm thick
acid.Cinchotannic acid decomposes to
Crown or Cap- It consists of Calyx, Corolla,
Cinchona red.
Androecium and Gynoecium
USES
Calyx- 4, thick walled spreading sepals
Antipyretic, Analgesic and Anti-malarial.
Corolla- 4, dome shaped membranous petals
Also used as Bitter tonic and appetite
stimulant. Androecium- Numerous and free stamens,
Quinidine is used in Cardiac arrhythmia and incurved
Atrial fibrillation. Gynoecium- Inferior bilocular ovary
ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF embedded in hypanthium. It has axile
CLOVE BUD placentation and many ovules. Style reaches
SOURCE- Clove consists of dried Flower up to center of crown. Style is spine like and
buds of Eugenia caryophyllus (Syzygium erect
aromaticum) Other Characters- Sinks when added to
FAMILY- Myrtaceae freshly boiled and cooled water and exudes
MACROSCOPIC CHARACTERS volatile oil when pressed with fingernail.
MICROSCOPY
TS of clove through Hypanthium reveals
following structure

Appearance- Each flower bud consists of

upper dome shaped structure called CROWN
or CAP and lower stalk shaped body called
HYPANTHIUM.
Size- 16 to 20 mm long
Colour- Reddish brown to blackish brown
Odour- Strong, Spicy and aromatic
Taste- Pungent and aromatic, followed by
slight numbness of tongue.

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USES
Carminative, Aromatic, Stimulant, Anti-septic,
Flavouring agent and Dental analgesic. Also
used in microscopic work.

ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF
FENNEL FRUIT
SOURCE- Fennel consists of dried ripe fruits
of Foeniculum vulgare.
FAMILY- Umbelliferae
MACROSCOPIC CHARACTERS
Appearance- Entire cremocarp with long
pedicel and short bifid stylopod at the top.
Shape- Straight, slightly curved, oblong oval
or elliptical
TS OF CLOVE BUD Size- 5 to 10 mm long and 2 to 4 mm wide
Epidermis- Heavily cuticularised, single layer Colour- Greenish to yellowish brown
of straight walled cells with few Anomocytic Odour- Pleasantly aromatic
stomata having sub-stomatal space.
Taste- Characteristic, strongly aromatic
Cortex- It can be divided into three zones- External surface- Glabrous, 5 prominent pale
Outer zone- It consists of roughly radially coloured ridges, from stylopod to pedicel, are
elongated parenchymatous cells with 2 to 3 present on the surface of each Mericarp (10 on
each Cremocarp)
inter mixed layers of schizolysigenous
ellipsoidal oil glands. MICROSCOPY
TS of fennels reveals following structure
Middle Zone- It consists of a ring of bi-
collateral vascular bundles with occasional
isolated pericyclic fibres.
Inner Zone or Aerenchyma- It consists of
zone of parenchyma having air spaces,
separated by lamellae which are only one cell
thick (Aerenchyma). This zone surrounds the
central COLUMELLA.
Columella- It is parenchymatous rich in
cluster crystals of calcium oxalate and has a
ring of vascular bundles towards its periphery.

CHEMICAL PERICARP- it consists of following three

CONSTITUENTS layers

Clove contains 14 to 21% volatile oil. This oil Epicarp- Single layer of polygonal or
contains up to 90% Eugenol. Clove also quadrangular cells with smooth cuticle and
contains tannins and fixed oil. few stomata (anomocytic)
Mesocarp- In this region, below each primary
ridge, is present a bi-collateral vascular bundle
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(Total five). Above and below each vascular
bundle, is present reticulate lignified
parenchyma.
Total 6 vittae (schizogenous oil ducts) four on
dorsal and two on ventral or commissural
surface, are present. These appear yellowish
brown in colour.
Endocarp- It consists of narrow elongated
cells showing PARQUETRY arrangement.
SEED- It consists of following parts
Testa- It is single layered having yellowish
brown colour.
Endosperm- It consists of thick walled
cellulosic parenchymatous cells containing oil
globules (fixed oil) aleurone grains (Protein)
and calcium oxalate crystal (rosette).
Raphe- It is present as single layer of vascular
strand, in the middle of the commissural
surface.
CARPOPHORE
This structure is present on commissural
surface containing very thick walled
sclerenchyma in two strands. It joins the two
mericarps.
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
Fennel contains 4 to 6% volatile oil. It
contains a phenolic ether- Anethole (50 to
60%) and a ketone- Fenchone (about 10%).
Anethole is sweet in taste while Fenchone is
pungent in taste. Fennel also contains fixed oil
(12 to 18%) and proteins (14 to 22 %)
USES
Carminative, Flavouring agent and respiratory
stimulant.
ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF
GINGER RHIZOME
TS of GINGER shows following structure CORK
from outward to inwards
Cork is present in two parts; Outer cork and
Inner cork
Outer cork: It consists of few layers of
irregularly arranged, dark brown coloured
parenchymatous cells.
Inner cork: It consists of few layers of
radially arranged colourless parenchymatous
cells.
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PHELLOGEN TESTA
It is in distinguished from cork and cortex. LIGNIFIED TRICHOMES: These are long,
thick walled trichomes emerging from
CORTEX
EPIDERMAL CELLS. These are twisted and
Cortex consists of Isodiametric, thin walled bent outward about 600µ long and 25µ in
cellulosic cells. These cells have Starch grains. diameter.
Cortex also contains fibro vascular bundles
EPIDERMAL CELLS: It is single layer of
and idioblast cells containing yellowish to
thick walled cells which give rise to lignified
reddish brown oleo-resin.
trichomes.
ENDODERMIS
COLLAPSED PARENCHYMA: This layer
It consists of single layer of tangentially consist of two layers of collapsed
elongated cells. parenchyamatous cells.
ENDOSPERM
Endosperm consists of Thick walled cellulosic
parenchymatous cells. These cells are
connected through protoplasmic strands called
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENT: Ginger Plasmodesmata and contains Alerone grains
contains 1.0 to 2.0% volatile oil, 5 to 8% resin and Oil globules.
along with starch and mucilage. Important
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
USES: Stomachic, Stimulant and Carminative
Nux-vomica contains mainly Strychnine
Anti-emetic
(1.25%) and Brucine (1.5%). Brucine is
Used as an important condiment
actually dimethoxy strychnine.
ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF
NUX VOMICA SEEDS Minor alkaloids are Vomicine and Pseudo-
strychnine. Other constituents are-
Bot. Source: Nux-vomica consists of dried Caffeotannic acid (Chlorogenic acid), Loganin
ripe seeds of Strychnos nux-vomica (A glycoside), fixed oil and aleurone grains.
Family: Loganiaceae USES
TS of Nux-Vomica shows TESTA and Bitter stomachic
ENDOSPERM. These have following
structure Stimulant for Respiratory and Cardio-vascular
system
Used to improve Reflux action
Nerve and sex tonic
Strychnine is used as rodent killer
Brucine (Four times as bitter as Strychnine) is
used as denaturant for Alcohol and non-edible
fat and as dog poison.
ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF
IPECAC ROOT
IPECAC
(Syn: Ipecacuanha)
Botanical Source: Ipecac consists of dried
roots or dried roots and rhizomes of Cephaelis
ipecacuanha and Cephaelis acuminata

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containing not less than 2.0% of ether soluble Ipecac contains 2.0% Isoquinoline type of
alkaloids. alkaloids. These alkaloids are grouped into
phenolic (Psychotrine and Cepheline) and non-
Family: Rubiaceae
phenolic alkaloids (Emetine, O-methyl
MICROSCOPICAL CHARACTERS psychotrine and emetamine)
Ipecac also contains a resin called
Ipecacuanhin and Ipecacuanhic acid. Even
starch and Calcium oxalate are also present.
USES
Expectorant, Emetic, Anti-amoebic and Anti
tumor.

PERIDERM
It consists of Cork and Phellogen-
Cork: 3-5 layered, tangentially elongated cells
filled with brown matter.
Phellogen: 2 layered, immediately below the
cork, shining and cells tangentially elongated.
CORTEX
Several layered with thin walled polyhedral
parenchyma with small intercellular spaces.
The cortical parenchyma contains acicular
raphides (Calcium oxalate crystals) either in
bundles or scattered all over.
VASCULAR BUNDLES
It consists of Phloem
Phloem
Several thin patches around the well-
developed xylem and consists of perforated
sieve tubes.
Xylem:
Cells are lignified. Because of their
lignifications, it is difficult to differentiate
medullary rays from other wood elements in a
cross section. Each medullary rays cell, is
radially elongated and contains starch. The
dense secondary xylem consists of tracheids,
tracheidal vessels, fibres and parenchyma.
Starch grains are also seen in the xylem
parenchyma.
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
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