Literature Review

Topic:

Examination of Stress and Organizational commitment relationship

through perceived employee’s exploitation at workplace;

A study on Educational Institutions of Pakistan

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 Examination of Stress and Organizational commitment relationship

through perceived employee’s exploitation at workplace;

A study on Educational Institutions of Pakistan

Literature Review and Hypotheses Development

Relationship of Organizational commitment and Stress

The topic of organizational commitment is considered one of the most researched topics to

intrigue the trait of employee behavior, the study in this concept explains how and why an

individual develops a sense of an attachment towards its organization. Porter et al., (1976)

defines organizational commitment as a relative involvement of an individual towards its

organization and further this involvement creates identification which later on becomes his

relative strength. So the commitment is a behavior that represents the nature and quality of

association between an organization and an employee (Mowday et al., 1984 b). Furthermore,

many studies elaborate this concept more specifically as, organizational commitment is an

individual identification and its association with an organization, which results in strong

attachment to the objectives and goals of an organization (Grego-planer, 2019, Ferreria et al.,

2017). Alamri and Al-Duhaim (2017) interpret that organizational commitment is an action

that ties a knot between employee’s identity and company, further ensuring that employees as

well as company’s goals are coherent. Subsequently, it can be interpreted that commitment

with the goals of a particular organization results in creation of membership which further

assists towards the better achievement of goals. This commitment usually establishes a causal

relationship between individual and organization, employees attached and committed to

organization further want incentive and rewards in return (Buchanan, 1974). When an

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individual joins an organization with certain skills, knowledge, needs and expectations

moreover, look forward to utilizing its capabilities to satisfy his needs, in return when an

organization also provides desired work environment and opportunities, then commitment

with the organization automatically develops. Some prominent research is conducted to find

the determinants of organizational commitment further these three sets are explained; Job and

role features, individual characteristics, and organizational variables (Schaufeli and Salanova,

2007; Suifan, 2015; Tsai et al., 2010). Above mentioned literature explained that commitment

depends on three factors; attachment with the organizational goals and objectives, willingness

to exert effort for the achievement of these objectives and to maintain the membership with

the organization. Meyer et al. (1993) proposed a theory that employees demonstrate three

prominent levels of commitment towards its organization, it means it is a multidimensional

structure, consisting of three types i.e, affective, continuance and normative commitments.

Affective commitment is a positive interaction between the individual and the organization

and employees' anticipation about the hiring company (Robinson et al., 2004; Wong and

Wong, 2017). Further they want to retain or continue their job not only because of their need

but also they want it as an occupation (Meyer et al., 1993, p. 539). In continuous commitment

the employee analyzed the cost and benefits of his job which further help to decide rather to

continue or leave the job (Meyer and Parfyonova, 2010, Chew and Chen, 2008). According to

the Meyer continuous commitment related to employee’s investment of time and effort

which he has incorporated in his job and further this effort resist the employee to give up his

position in favor of an unseen opportunity additionally, the skills and experience can not be

easily transferred to another organization so need of the current job creates continuous

commitment between employee and current organization (Meyer et al., 1993, p.539).

Normative commitment explains the devotion and duty of the employee to remain stuck with

the organization (Meyer et al., 2012; Norm et al., 2017). Another study elaborates that it is the

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strong commitment of the employee with the organization with a belief that my job is right

and according to my moral values (Meyer and Allen, 1991). Normative commitment develops

a psychological relationship between employee and organization and it increases when an

individual feels loyalty with the organization. It further develops high commitment to work

for the compensation received against the job done (Meyer et al., 1993, p. 539; Roussenau,

1995). High commitment of the employees creates aspects of devotion, professionalism and

loyalty (Albrecht and Andreetta, 2011, Bailey et al., 2017, Grobelna, 2019). Organizational

commitment increases employee job association, loyalty, levels of job involvement and

reduces turnover intentions (Gagne and Deci, 2005; Habib et al., 2014; Nawaz and Pangil,

2016). Above mentioned studies positively argue that when the employees committed to an

organization results in high motivation, low turnover and significant attachment to the

objectives of an organization. A study conducted at global level on the teachers of India and

Iran and results revealed that Iranian teachers showed better continuous commitment as

compared to Indian teachers who had a better affective and normative component of

organizational commitment. In both countries age groups and subject areas of teachers did not

have any effect on their organizational commitment (Joolideh and Yeshodhara, 2009). On the

other side of the picture, if the employee shows low performance, lack of concentration and

low commitment, to investigate it further a negative relationship between job stress and

performance was revealed although they thought that to some extend the job stress is essential

for the growth of both employees and organization (Westman and Eden, 1996). Teachers of

our educational sector unfortunately also face this unforeseen pressure during their job. Low

commitment to the organization and high turnover intentions are mostly observed in this

profession. A study on stress and performance explained the negative relationship between

job stress and job performance and positive relationship between job stress and turnover

intention. Moreover, the moderating role of organization-based self-esteem (OBSE)

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significantly moderated the relationship of job stress with turnover intention and job

performance (Arshadi and Damiri, 2013). Further the definition of stress explained by Selye

(1946, p.55) also supported its negative impact on person’s life and work, he interpreted it as

“the non-specific response of the body to any demand made on it to adapt”, if we elaborate it

in physiological aspect all the stress is not harmful for our body, a positive stress called

Eustress is important for the physical growth of the body and subsequently this optimal level

of stress initiate or motivate the person to perform at a better level but value of this optimum

level of stress is vary from person to person. On the other hand the second category of stress

is Distress, which is a bad stress and it has a negative and damaging effect on the person. The

word Stress is mostly associated with negative effects, a study on work stress explains it as an

adverse psychological condition brought on by a response to certain aspects of the workplace

that appear physically and emotionally dangerous (Jamal, 2005). If it is specifically related it

to teacher’s stress as studied by Kyriacou and Sutcliffe (1978, p. 3) as “stress is a response

syndrome mediated by an appraisal of threat to the teacher’s self esteem or well–being”.

Kyriacou (1987, p. 146) further explained “Teacher’s stress may be defined as the

experience by a teacher of an unpleasant emotion, such as tension, frustration, anxiety, anger

and depression, resulting from aspects of his work as a teacher”. Many theories are

developed on stress since 1950 but one of the well known theory i.e., Person Environment Fit

Theory perfectly explain the arousal of stress that stress does not arise separately from person

or environment but it arises when the person tries to interact with its environment (work

place), a good fit or interaction of a person with its environment results in no stress but on

the other hand the stress arises in case of a misfit or incompatibility of a person with his or

her environment (Lazarus, 1966; Lazarus and Folkman, 1984). This incompatibility arises

from different sources such as poor health, overload of work, low experience, insufficient pay

or job security which results in work stress. Selye (1946) identifies the stimuli which develop

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stress is called stressor. The most commonly associated stressors of our work life are

occupational, endogenous and exogenous stress (Bhat at el., 2023). Endogenous stress is

generated on a negative psychological interaction between an employee and an organization.

Main causes of this stress are lack of appreciation, low professional support and difficult

interpersonal interaction (Burke et al., 1996). Collegial support can reduce the impact of this

stress (Greenglass et al., 1997). Hashim et al. (2019) postulate the two main causes of this

stress that are, overloaded work and insufficient financial support. Furthermore, the school

teachers even in the private sector have relatively inadequate salaries (Jack and Punch 2001)

which induces them to look for extra income as a second occupation (Olivier and Venter

2003). Another research explained that the poor job security, outcomes in a low

organizational commitment and further insufficient support increased the turnover of

employees (Cheng and Chan, 2008; Rainayee et al., 2013). On the other hand, Exogenous

Stresses are external to the company and have an impact that does not end at the individual

level, but may also harm organizational morale, which also has a direct impact on employee

attitudes. Furthermore, workers' concerns about how their stressor-related difficulties would

be seen at work are undoubtedly sources of further stress. Main exogenous stressors are less

job opportunities, family conflict and future financial worries and many more. Mostly these

types of stressors are difficult to identify. Stress at work is one of the common features of the

modern era and in recent years workplace stress has become a common and usual problem

for human resource managers (Avey et al., 2009). The term job stress can be defined as the

harmful physical and emotional responses that occur when the requirements of the job do not

match the capabilities, responses, or needs of the worker (National Institutes for Occupational

Safety and Health, 1999, p. 6). A research on endogenous and exogenous stressors revealed

that both contribute to a negative relationship between employee and organization resulting in

high turnover intention. Furthermore, the mediating role of perceived employee’s exploitation

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also positively accelerates the stress and turnover intention relationship (Bhat et al., 2023).

Stress also has a negative relationship with organizational commitment (Wang, 2013), later

on more studies also revealed that stress and remuneration relationship in which employees

are forced to accept relatively low income as compared to the income of similarly qualified

persons at different positions or professions. This difference of remuneration leads to high

frustration specially for those who are struggling against financial crisis as well as family

responsibilities (Grayson and Alvarez, 2008). If the employee is not entitled to extra pay for

overtime it would also contribute towards low organizational commitment (Singh et al.,

2011). Moreover with respect to job satisfaction a study on banking sector reveals that tellers

exhibit high job dissatisfaction due to extra work stress in case of both gender, so stress is not

gender determinant both male and female have similar stress perception and experience

(Dartey-Baah et al., 2020). One of the study conducted on physical education teachers in

Bahrain, also explained the major causes of stress are working environment, insufficient

salaries, poor school or administration support, extra workload and career development

choices (Khaleel, 1999), in continuation another study on the teachers of Qatar evaluated the

impact of stress at the start and end of the school year, additionally its effect on gender,

experience, diversity makes a significant difference and influence on stress relationship, this

significant difference arised due to different culture, social and environmental factors (Al-

Mohannadi and Capel, 2007).

The study of some above mentioned literature explained the negative relation of stress with

turnover intention (Bhat et al., 2023), job satisfaction (Dartey-Baah et al., 2020),

remuneration (Singh et al., 2013), organizational commitment (Wang, 2013) and as well as on

teacher’s profession as explained by Khaleel (1999), and (Al-Mohannadi and Capel) 2007.

The contribution of Jack and Punch (2001), Olivier and Venter (2003), Cheng and Chan

(2008) and Rainayee et al. (2013) explained clearly the impact of low salaries, poor job

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security, extra burden of work in teaching profession results in low performance and low

commitment to the organization. In the light of above studies the influence of stress on

organizational commitment with respect to the educational institution of Pakistan should be

assessed to contribute more knowledge in existing body of literature, so the first hypothesis of

our research is,

H1: Stress has a negative relationship with organizational commitment.

By keeping in view the researches on both endogenous and exogenous stressors and this

study will also assessed the role of these stressors in teaching profession, then further two

hypotheses of this study are,

H1a: Endogenous Stress has a negative relationship with organizational commitment.

H1b: Exogenous Stress has a negative relationship with organizational commitment.

Role of Perceived employee’s exploitation in stress-organizational

commitment relationship:

Workplace exploitation is not a part of our history or only for the developing and

underdeveloped countries where the workforce is weakly protected by any law and

regulations. It is a slavery and forced labor concept and exists globally across many firms and

industries (Crane, 2013). The term exploitation is defined in the context of the labor market as

“the extent to which the earnings of various groups in the labor force are underpaid relative

to the market values of their productivities' (Sakamoto and Kim, 2010 p. 20). The researchers

further derived that although the importance and presence of the exploitation in our

workplace, this concept has not been properly investigated by sociologists using statistical

data since the time of Karl Marx ( Sakamoto and Kim, 2010). Due to the change in workplace

environment and nature of the work the potential ways of employee’s exploitation has been

considerably changed such as decline in collective bargaining agreement and trade unions

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(Cobb, 2016), exploitation is also increased due to short term employment contract, freelance

and remote work and outsourcing (Bidwell et al., 2013). According to the Oxford English

Dictionary, exploitation means “The action or fact of treating someone unfairly in order to

benefit from their work” and also defined as taking advantage of an individual or situation for

one’s benefit (Friedman, 1994). Friedman explained a vague concept that exploitation is

perceptual or actual and further the exploitation side rather than employee or employer with

the condition and state of exploitation is not interpreted clearly. Keeping in view these

deficiencies Linve-Ofer et al., 2017 explain the concept of perceived employee’s exploitation

as “employees’ perceptions that they have been purposefully taken advantage of in their

relationship with the organization, to the benefit of the organization itself”. In their extensive

research scholars explained that perception is an outward-focused emotion of anger and

hostility for the organization and inward-focused one of shame and guilt to be a part of an

exploitative job. They further explore that outward attributes of anger and hostility has a

partial mediating effect on perceived exploitation on employee engagement, organizational

commitment, and turnover intentions, on the other hand inward attributes of shame and guilt

also partially mediating the effects of perceived exploitation on employee burnout, silence,

and psychological withdrawal (Livne-Ofer et al, 2017). Moving forward towards the

subjectivity of perceived employee’s exploitation, Moore in 1972 explained that the existence

or absence of exploitation, as evaluated by some nominally neutral observer, makes little

difference in human emotions and behavior. It is always vital to find out how individuals

themselves perceive their circumstances; there are too many possible social and psychological

processes that might prevent human beings from not only expressing moral anger at their

condition, but also from going through it. Moreover, a study on employee’s exploitation

explained that perceived employee's exploitation has a significant negative impact on life

satisfaction and also on an individual's perception (Winkelmann and Winkelmann, 1988). On

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a positive note, some research has also been conducted to enhance the employee’s perception

of their work in order to increase their commitment towards their organization (Bakker and

Schaufeli, 2008, Labrague et al., 2018, Yeh, 2013). Another study on employee’s exploitation

anticipated that almost all factors influencing employee stress are linked to intention to leave

the company. Employee exploitation mostly involves suppressing legal requests of the

employees. Employers often use unfavorable labor market circumstances to maximize profits

by paying employees cheap wages. The present working environment, reinforced by a

recession and weak economic circumstances, has led to increasing stress in several

occupations (Leiter, 1997). A study on private school teachers to evaluate the impact of both

endogenous and exogenous stressors with employees turnover intentions revealed that both

stress have a significant negative relation with employee’s psychological state which further

contribute towards turnover intention of the employee. Further the mediating role of

perceived employee’s exploitation also intensified the turnover intention decision (Bhat et al.,

2023). Another important study conducted on stress and organizational commitment

evaluated its negative relationship with a dual partial mediating role of job satisfaction and

the scholars conducted this study on the longitudinal time frame model (Abdelmoteleb,

2018). Most of the studies conducted on teachers indicated that organizational commitment is

affected by teacher’s attitude of work (Imran et al., 2017) more it is influenced by turnover

intention (Imran et al., 2017; Bhat et al., 2023) work performance (Zhang, 2014). A study on

three categories of Chinese university teachers explained that stress has an adverse impact on

organizational commitment and the mediating effect of job burnout is more significant than

job satisfaction (Wang et al., 2020). Further it can be derived that efficiency and effectiveness

of the teachers are also dependent on their work (Louis, 1998) and another study explained

that teacher’s behavior i.e. job involvement and enthusiasm directly related to organizational

commitment (Emami et al., 2013).

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Empirical study of above literature revealed that many studies are being conducted on stress

with turnover intention and employee engagement but only few studies evaluated the

influence of perceived employee’s exploitation with respect to turnover intention (Bhat et al.,

2023, Leiter 1997), life satisfaction (Winkelmann & Winklemann 1988), work and

organization commitment (Bakker and Schaufeli, 2008). A comprehensive study on stress and

perceived employee’s exploitation and its impact on organizational commitment requires

further attention. According to Bhat et al, (2023) that many other variables such as job

satisfaction, organizational commitment and organizational citizenship behaviors are needed

to be considered in future research. Further, the variable perceived employee’s exploitation

should be analytically evaluated especially in terms of statistical data and tools (Sakamoto

and Kim, 2010). Secondly, study especially on the educational sector of Pakistan with respect

to private school teachers, where the teachers are facing job stress and how this job stress

affects organizational commitment with the mediating role of perceived employee’s

exploitation should be assessed to provide more knowledge to the existing literature. Thirdly,

the endogenous and exogenous stressor also broaden the understanding of teacher’s stress by

examining their unique and broad attributes such as work-life conflict, economic crisis,

workload, lack of administration support developed by Cox (1987), Srivastava and Singh

(1984), Cartwright and Cooper (2002) and Giorgi et al. (2015) will discuss in detail in the

methodology of this research work. Keeping in view the literature of all empirical studies,

this research aimed to evaluate the effect of stress on organizational commitment with respect

to endogenous and exogenous stressors. Then the mediating effect of perceived employee’s

exploitation on stress and organizational commitment will be observed. This relationship of

each stressor (endogenous and exogenous) on organizational commitment with mediating the

effect of perceived employee’s exploitation will also be observed. In the light of the above

discussion the further hypothesis of our research is as;

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H2: Perceived employee’s exploitation mediates the impact of stress on organizational

commitment

For the more elaboration of effect of each category of stressor i.e., endogenous and

exogenous the next two hypotheses of the study are,

H2a: Perceived employee’s exploitation mediates the impact of endogenous stress on

organizational commitment

H2b: Perceived employee’s exploitation mediates the impact of exogenous stress on

Conceptual Model:

On the basis of the above theoretical framework the conceptual model of this research study

to examine the effect of independent variable “stress” with the dimensions of endogenous and

exogenous stressors on dependent variable “organizational commitment” will be evaluated.

Secondly, the impact of mediating variable “perceived employee’s exploitation” will also be

assessed between stress and organizational commitment relationship on collective as well as

separately for each stressor. Further elaboration of stressors and organizational commitment

will be discussed in methodology.

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