Chapter 1

Vectors and simple calculus

Objective

PHY1201 is about mechanics (motion, force)

wave (sound, wave on a string and in a pipe)
and heat (motion of atoms and molecules).
These topics need some knowledge of vector
and calculus

To prepare you for this by providing with some

mathematical background, mainly vector and
simple calculus
Topics for Chapter 1

• What is physics?
• What is vector? vectors and scalars
• vector components, adding vectors using components
• add vectors graphically
• unit vectors and components
• multiplying vectors
• definition of derivatives (differentiation) of functions
• definition of integration
What is physics? What do we study in PHY1201?

• Its main objective is to understand

physical phenomena, not chemical
phenomena, not biological phenomena
• physicists try to understand the natural
principles and laws behind physical
phenomenon
• an experimental science: physicists
observe/measure physical phenomena
using experimental techniques
• Develop theories, models, laws and chemistry
principles to explain the physical
phenomena or experiment results
Categories of Physical Phenomenon, Physics Topics

Mechanics
Heat
Wave
Electricity and magnetism
Atoms
Nuclear
Light
Physics is the foundation of engineering

Engineers need to know physics

Civil engineer: force, equilibrium in a
bridge
Mechanical engineer: motion of the
components in a car engine,
thermodynamics of car engine motion
Biomedical: force in artificial joint
Electrical & electronics: current in
devices ICs, motion of a motor
Example of a study of physical phenomenon

• For example, the description of

motion: How fast the cyclist
moves? His velocity?
• You use a tape measure to
measure the position and a
stop watch to measure the
time
• Plot a position and time graph
to describe the motion;
calculate the velocity=distance 𝑣𝑣 = Δ𝑥𝑥/Δ𝑡𝑡
travelled/time
• The motion can be explained Newton’s law
using Newton’s law F=ma
Two main components of physics studies

Experiments: observation of physical

phenomenon, measurement of physical
quantities in the phenomenon
Theory: qualitative explanation, quantitative
explanation, in the form of principles and laws
using principles and laws
 Physical Measurements give you numbers
We use instrument (ruler, stop watch,
thermometers) to measure,
Instrument gives you numbers> measurement
gives you numbers
Numbers describing physical phenomenon
are called Physical quantities
Example: height of this building is 100m,
weight of this book is 2kg
m represents meters, a unit, a unit of length,
unit is used to differentiate different
physical quantities
kg is kilogram a unit of weight
Significant digits and Angles
in Physics
Significant digits

• All measurement have accuracy which depends on the

instruments you use.
• For example, this ruler gives
∆x = 2.89-0.20 = 2.69

The last digit is about accuracy

• In Physics, we only write down digits that have significance.
• We keep the same number of significant digits after calculation
by carrying over the extra digits:
(∆𝑥𝑥) 2 = (2.69) 2 = 7.2361 = 7.24
 Vectors and Scalars

physical quantities, such as height, weight, position, velocity,

are used to describe physical phenomenon
 A Scalar Distribution of Temperature

7 73 72
7 82 75
71
84 77
80 68 64
83 82 88 55 73
66 80 88
88 75
92 83 90 91

Only one number is needed at each location to specify the

temperature everywhere (x,y). One number  Scalar T
 A Vector Distribution of Wind

7 73 72
7 75
82 71
84 77
80 68 64
83 57 56 55 73
66 88
75 80
88
83 90
92 91

It may be more interesting to know which way the wind is

blowing and how fast. Magnitude and direction  vector
Two kinds of physical quantities: Vector and Scalar

Physical Quantities are represented by numbers only is

scalar, such as your weight or your height, temperature
Physical quantities are represented by number and direction
are called vectors, such as wind velocity
Vectors, symbols for vectors
• A vector is a quantity having both a magnitude
(scalar) and a direction. Graphically it is represented
by an arrow
• a vector is usually represented by a letter with an
arrow over it: 𝐴𝐴⃗ .

• Magnitude of 𝐴𝐴⃗ is represented by A or 𝐴𝐴 .

• A typical example of vector: displacement

Consider the position of a Point

One dimensional coordinate
• Consider how to determine the location of a point on a line:

• We set up a coordinate: x-axis with a ruler and an origin

−1

• The origin (O) is the reference point.

• Position can be uniquely determined by one real number (x = +3).

negative (−) if on the left of O
Two and three dimensional coordinates
• For a point in a plane, we set up x- and y-coordinate with an origin
and two axes

(x,y)

• The position can be uniquely determined by two real numbers (-1, 2)

• We can do the similar with three real number (x,y,z) in 3-dim space
Displacement

• If you go from the origin (O) to one place (A), we

can use an arrow to represent it with a size r and
direction of an angle θ from x-axis:

A (x,y)
r
θ
O

• Segment 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 is a vector called displacement

• Ex: go to Kowloon Tong station from Central.
An example of Vector: relative position, displacement
• The straight line from Central to Kowloon
Tong is a vector (arrow). This is the
Displacement vector that gives the Kowloon Tong
relative position of KLT with C as origin.

• It tells you how to get directly from Central

to Kowloon Tong :
• Travel a distance (5km) along a certain
direction (10 degree east of North)
• If the direction is changed, you go to a
wrong place (red arrow)
• Displacement has a scalar magnitude and
direction. So it is a vector Central
Representing vectors by an arrow or by numbers

1. A vector is represented graphically by an arrow

• The length of the arrow is the vector’s magnitude.
• The direction of the arrow is the vector’s direction.

2. Representing vector using numbers

• Magnitude can be represented by a number, say r in
the figure
r
• Direction can be represented by the angle made with a y
fixed direction, angle θ made with the x-axis
• Or equivalently by two numbers x = r cosθ, y = r sinθ x
(Cartesian coordinates or Polar coordinates)
Addition of Vectors
Addition of vectors by the numbers

Vectors are like numbers, they can be added

• 1-dim case: x = x1 + x2 x1 x2

• Likewise, 2-dim case: B

(x,y)
A y2
x = x1 + x2 ,
y = y1 + y2 y1
x1 x2

• There are two numbers (x, y) for each vector. x and y numbers are
added separately as though they are not related
Adding two vectors graphically

B
(x,y)
y2
y1 A
O x1 x2

⃗ 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝐵𝐵 may be added graphically

• Two vectors 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 𝐴𝐴,
using the head-to-tail method to obtain sum 𝑂𝑂𝐵𝐵= 𝐴𝐴⃗ + 𝐵𝐵.

• We transport 𝐵𝐵 while keeping its direction,

so that its tail touches the head of 𝐴𝐴⃗ .
Parallelogram method for adding vectors

Draw a parallelogram with the

two vectors as its sides

The sum of the two vectors

(vector R) is the vector
pointing to the vertex between
vector A and B (Diagonal line
between A and B)
Adding two vectors graphically: Head to Tail method
• Two or more vectors may be added graphically using the head-to-tail method.

𝐶𝐶⃗ = 𝐴𝐴⃗ + 𝐵𝐵
Head of A coincides with tail of B
The arrow from tail of A to head of B is the vector C

The method can be used to add

more than two vectors
Adding vectors: Head to tail method

It is independent on the order, adding in different

order gives the same result. This method can
be used to find the result of adding
displacement vectors (vectors that represent
movement). 𝑅𝑅 = 𝐴𝐴⃗ + 𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶⃗ = 𝐶𝐶⃗ + 𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵
Adding two vectors may not increase size (collinear vectors)

Adding vectors lying on the same straight line

Head to tail method only, cannot use
parallelogram method
Subtracting vectors (𝑪𝑪 = 𝑨𝑨 − 𝑩𝑩)
• This shows how to subtract vectors.

• Tip-to-tip
• A, B, R triangle
B+R=A
Multiplying a vector by a scalar

• If c is a scalar, the product

has magnitude |c|A. direction is
unchanged same as 𝐴𝐴⃗
• Multiply by a negative scalar
reverse the direction

−𝐴𝐴⃗ is opposite in direction to 𝐴𝐴⃗

Other vector physical quantities

• Apart from displacement, the following

physical quantities are also vectors
• Velocity, momentum (come from position)
• Angular velocity, angular momentum (come
from position)
• Acceleration, force (related to position)
• electric field, magnetic field (generate Force)
• They are usually related to motion and force
Representing any vector by its components

similar to the Displacement vector: R = (x, y, z)

Representing a vector by its components

Any 2-dim vector can be decomposed or re-written as

the sum of two vectors with head-to-tip formation

The two vectors Ax Ay are the components of the

vector A.

Usually the components are perpendicular to each

other, x-direction is perpendicular to y-direction
The magnitudes of components can be found from
trigonometry of right triangle: 𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥 = 𝐴𝐴cos𝜃𝜃, 𝐴𝐴𝑦𝑦 = 𝐴𝐴sin𝜃𝜃
Example

The vector has a length of 2 and the angle θ

made with the x axis is 30o.
The x component is Ax = 2 cos 30o = 1.732
The y component is Ay = 2 sin 30o =1.
Positive and negative components

• The components of a vector can be positive or negative numbers,

as shown in the figure.

Positive
y-component

Negative Positive Negative

x-component x-component y-component

• If the component is point to the negative direction, then the

component is a negative number
Example

y
Bx = − 2 cos 30o = − 1.732 𝐵𝐵 2 +
By = + 2 sin 30o = + 1 30o +
x
− 60o

𝐷𝐷 2
Cx = + 2 cos 60o = + 1 − 𝐶𝐶⃗
Cy = − 2 sin 60o = − 1.732
Find magnitude and direction from its components

Direction is usually denoted by an

angle measured from an axis for
example x axis
Addition of vector using component

Like displacement vector, you can add any two

vectors by their components:

𝐴𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝐴⃗𝑥𝑥 + 𝐴𝐴⃗𝑦𝑦 𝐵𝐵 = 𝐵𝐵𝑥𝑥 + 𝐵𝐵𝑦𝑦

𝐴𝐴⃗ + 𝐵𝐵 = 𝑅𝑅 = 𝐴𝐴⃗𝑥𝑥 + 𝐵𝐵𝑥𝑥 + 𝐴𝐴⃗𝑦𝑦 + 𝐵𝐵𝑦𝑦 = 𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 + 𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦

The vector is the addition of its x component

and y component 𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 = 𝐴𝐴⃗𝑥𝑥 + 𝐵𝐵𝑥𝑥 ; 𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦 = 𝐴𝐴⃗𝑦𝑦 + 𝐵𝐵𝑦𝑦
Unit vectors
Vectors along the directions of the
components with a unit length are
called the unit vectors.
Unit vectors represent the directions
of the components
The vector C is represented by two
components along x and y axis and
the unit vectors 𝑖𝑖� 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝚥𝚥̂ represent
directions along the x and y axes
respectively. we write vector 𝐶𝐶⃗ as

𝐶𝐶⃗ = 𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥 𝚤𝚤̂ + 𝐴𝐴𝑦𝑦 𝚥𝚥̂

Unit vector

Unit vector (e.g. 𝚤𝚤̂ , 𝚥𝚥)gives

̂ you the direction of the
component and the scalar (𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥 , 𝐴𝐴𝑦𝑦 ) multiplying
the unit vector gives you the magnitude of the
component. A component of a vector is
represented by a scalar multiplied by the unit
vector.𝐴𝐴⃗𝑥𝑥 = 𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥 𝚤𝚤̂ ; 𝐴𝐴⃗𝑦𝑦 = 𝐴𝐴𝑦𝑦 𝚥𝚥̂

This is a convenient way of representing

information about direction and magnitude.
Unit vectors and dimension (2D)
• For two dimension, we need two unit vectors.
• They have a length of 1 and are in the
direction of x and y in two dimension , they are
usually denoted by 𝚤𝚤̂ and 𝚥𝚥̂
• We use only one set of unit vectors in
calculation
Unit vectors (3D)
• For 3 dimension, we need three unit vectors
• The unit vector 𝚤𝚤̂ points in the +x-direction, 𝚥𝚥̂
points in the +y-direction, and 𝑘𝑘� points in the
+z-direction.
• Any vector in 3D can be expressed in terms of its
components as

vx is the length of the x component of v

vy is the length of the y component of v
vz is the length of the z component of v
Addition using unit vectors
• We can use the unit vector notation
in addition as
Examples (from university
physics, young and freedman,
13th edition pearson)
We may not have time to go through the
examples
Read the examples and learn how to apply the
knowledge of the chapter. Useful for exam
preparation
Addition of two vectors at right angles

• First add the vectors graphically.

• Then use trigonometry to find the magnitude and direction of the
sum.
• Follow Example 1.5. )
(Ans: because the angle given (45o) has only 2 significant figures)
Adding vectors using their components—Figure 1.22

• Follow Examples 1.7 and 1.8.

Vector products
Vector products

• Vectors are like scalar or numbers.

• We have learned how to add two vectors

• How about multiplication of vectors, forming

product of two vectors?

• Yes, we can multiply two vectors!

• Actually we have two ways of multiplying vectors,
one gives a scalar, another leads to a vector
The scalar product

• Like vector addition, we multiply the components of

the two vectors, but then a bit different, we add them
up to give a number (scalar):

𝐴𝐴⃗ � 𝐵𝐵 = 𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥 𝐵𝐵𝑥𝑥 + 𝐴𝐴𝑦𝑦 𝐵𝐵𝑦𝑦

So, it is called scalar product or also called dot product

• For three dimension

• Later you can see work done is the dot product
(scalar product) of force and displacement.
Calculating a scalar product from magnitude and angle

𝑦𝑦
• Using the definition of scalar product, we have:
𝐴𝐴⃗ � 𝐵𝐵 = 𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥 𝐵𝐵𝑥𝑥 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 cos 𝜙𝜙 = 𝐴𝐴𝐵𝐵∥ 𝑥𝑥

𝐴𝐴, 𝐵𝐵 = size of vectors, 𝜙𝜙 = angle between them 𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥 = A

𝐵𝐵∥ = 𝐵𝐵 cos 𝜙𝜙 = 𝐵𝐵𝑥𝑥 𝐴𝐴𝑦𝑦 = 0
• It can be positive or negative or zero, depending
on cos 𝜙𝜙

• Later, it is used in calculating work done of a force with a displacement

The vector product

• The vector product (“cross product”) of

two is a vector .

• The product is a vector 𝐶𝐶⃗ = 𝐴𝐴⃗ × 𝐵𝐵

• 𝐶𝐶⃗ has magnitude 𝐴𝐴⃗ × 𝐵𝐵 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 sin 𝜙𝜙

• 𝐶𝐶⃗ is perpendicular to 𝐴𝐴⃗ 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐵𝐵 and the

right-hand rule gives its direction. See
the figure
2 2
𝐴𝐴⃗ × 𝐵𝐵 + 𝐴𝐴⃗ � 𝐵𝐵 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 sin 𝜙𝜙 2
+ 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 cos 𝜙𝜙 2
= 𝐴𝐴2 𝐵𝐵2
Vector product
• Later we can see that angular momentum is
the vector product of momentum and a
position vector
• Torque is the vector product of force and a
position vector
 Calculating a scalar product

• Example 1.10 shows how to calculate a scalar product in two

ways.
Finding an angle using the scalar product

• Example 1.11 shows how to use components to find the angle

between two vectors.
Calculating the vector product—Figure 1.32

• Use ABsinϕ to find the

magnitude and the right-hand
rule to find the direction.

• Refer to Example 1.12.

Calculating vector product by component
Calculus
Calculus

• In mechanics we need to know some calculus

for calculating velocity and acceleration
• We need to know the concept of differentiation
and integration to understand some physics
such as motion.
• In the assignments and tests of this course,
only a little bit of differentiation is used but not
integration. Differentiation is the required skill.
Basic Idea in Calculus – World of Infinitesimally Small (but not zero)

• Let’s dive into the small world (magnification in both x and y)

𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 (e = 2.7183)
∆𝑥𝑥 = 4, ∆𝑦𝑦 = 8 ∆𝑥𝑥 = 0.5, ∆𝑦𝑦 = 1 ∆𝑥𝑥 = 0.2, ∆𝑦𝑦 = 0.2 ∆𝑥𝑥 = 0.02, ∆𝑦𝑦 = 0.02

∆𝑦𝑦
• The curve becomes a linear line: ∆𝑦𝑦 = 𝑎𝑎∆𝑥𝑥 ⇒ 𝑎𝑎 = → 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.
∆𝑥𝑥
• Basis for differentiation: any curve is a straight line as ∆𝑥𝑥, ∆𝑦𝑦 → 0
Differentiation (finding instantaneous rate of change)

Differentiation helps us to find the

instantaneous rate of change of a
variable with respect to another
variable (e.g. growth rate)
For example, y changes with x. y is
function of x. The rate of change of
y with respect to x represents how
fast y changes with x.
Instantaneous means the rate of
change at a particular value of x = x0
Average and instantaneous rate of change

• x is changed from x0 to x0+Δx and y is

changed from f(x0) to f(x0+Δx).
• Δy/ Δx= (f(x0+Δx)- f(x0))/ Δx =Δf/Δx is the
average rate of change for interval Δx
• As Δx becomes very small, this rate is a
number depending on the location x0
• The rate of change at point A(x0) is the
instantaneous rate of change.
 Simple calculus
• Consider a function of time x, f(x)
• The derivative (differentiation) of f(x) with
respect to x is defined as
• Δf= f(x0+Δx)- f(x0)
• i.e., divide Δf by Δx and gradually reduce Δx to
very small value (the meaning of )
• Slope of AC is the derivative (instantaneous
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 Δ𝑓𝑓
rate of change) Slope of AB is
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 Δ𝑥𝑥
• If f is distance, then the
• When Δx is small, AB becomes AC and Slope
derivative with respect
of AB=Slope of AC
to time is the speed
Derivative of simple functions

c is constant
Sum rule and chain rule of differentiation
• Derivative of sum of two functions is the sum of the derivatives of
the two functions
• For the exercise, you need the following formula and the rule given
above.
• In examination, differentiation formula are given. What you need is
understand the concepts. Know the calculation in the exercise and
you should be able to do the calculation in examination
𝑑𝑑 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) + 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 2𝑥𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑥
= +
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 2𝑥𝑥 2 𝑑𝑑 3𝑥𝑥
= + = 4x + 3
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = cos 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ; 𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔 = cos 𝑔𝑔 , 𝑔𝑔 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 cos 𝑔𝑔 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= = (− sin 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎) 𝑎𝑎
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
=− 𝑎𝑎 sin 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
Example

𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = exp 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ; g = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 exp(𝑔𝑔) dg
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 dx
= 𝑎𝑎 exp(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)
Partial differentiation (partial derivative)
The function is a function of two
variables, x, y
Keep one variable x or y constant and
differentiate with respect to the other
variable y or x.
Basic Idea in Calculus – World of Infinitesimally Small (but not zero)

• Let’s dive into the small world (magnification in x only)

𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 (e = 2.7328)
∆𝑥𝑥 = 4, ∆𝑦𝑦 = 8 ∆𝑥𝑥 = 0.5, ∆𝑦𝑦 = 2 ∆𝑥𝑥 = 0.2, ∆𝑦𝑦 = 1.2 ∆𝑥𝑥 = 0.002, ∆𝑦𝑦 = 1.2

• The curve becomes flat: 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 ≈ 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 + ∆𝑥𝑥 ⇒ 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ≈ 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 ∆𝑥𝑥

• Basis for integration  any function becomes flat as ∆x  0
Integral

Integral is related to the area under the curve

We divide the x- section [a, b] into n small segment ∆x = (b - a)/n

∆𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 )∆𝑥𝑥

𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏
Integral – Reverse operation of differentiation
Define a function 𝑔𝑔 𝑏𝑏 as the area from a to b
with b as a variable: 𝑔𝑔 𝑏𝑏 is and integral of f
with respect to x between a and b
𝑏𝑏
𝑔𝑔 𝑏𝑏 ≡ ∫𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

What is the rate of change

of 𝑔𝑔 𝑏𝑏 with respect to b?
Integral – Reverse operation of differentiation

𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥n
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 + Δx − 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥n ∆𝑔𝑔
≅
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 Δ𝑥𝑥
∆𝑔𝑔 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥n Δ𝑥𝑥
= ≈ = 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥n
Δ𝑥𝑥 Δ𝑥𝑥 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 + Δx

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
→ = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2
example, = 2𝑥𝑥; ∫ 2𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑐
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

arbitrary number related to a

Integration

What you expect to know and understand for

integration:
The meaning of integration:
Reverse of differentiation
Area under a curve