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Biogas production

Research · March 2020

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.30410.31680

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 KAFR EL-SHEIKH UNIVERSTY
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
CHEMISTRY DEPARTMENT

AN OVERVIEO
OF BIOGAS
Graduate project

PROUDUCTION 2019-2020

An Essay

Submitted in partial Fulfillment for

the requirements of Bachelor degree of science
( Chemistry )

Prepared By

Mohamed Neama Khalil

Under Supervision Of

Dr.Hanaa Mansour

Prof of Organic Chemistry

1 AN OVERVIEW OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION

AN OVERVIEO
OF BIOGAS
PROUDUCTION

An Essay

Submitted in partial Fulfillment for

the requirements of Bachelor degree of science
( Chemistry )

Prepared By

Mohamed Neama Khalil

Under Supervision Of

Dr.Hanaa Mansour

Prof of Organic Chemistry

2 AN OVERVIEW OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION

Declaration

I am Mohamed Khalil the 4th year student at faculty of science

Chemistry Department ( 2019/2020 ) , Declare that the following project on
the Bio-gas production has been accomplished under the wise guidance of our:
Prof. Dr. Hanaa Mansour
Professor of Organic Chemistry
3 AN OVERVIEW OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION

Content

1) INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………….4

2) BIOGAS PORODUCTION……………………………………………….5

3) Stages of Biogas Production using AD…………………………………7

4) Main Factors Affecting the Biogas Production…………………………9

5) Methods of Biogas Production through AD……………………………12

6) TYPES OF BIOMASS AND THEIR POTENTIAL…………………….13

7) Advantages of biogas technologies……………………………………18

8) Main applications of biogas…………………………………………….23

9) Biogas storage…………………………………………………………...27

10) Use and application……………………………………………………...30

11) Upgrading…………………………………………………………………31

12) Biogas around world……………………………………………………..31

13) REFERENCES…………………………………………………………...34
4 AN OVERVIEW OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

Due to the fluctuating cost and the environmental effects of conventional sources
(especially crude oil) of energy, there is an emergent interest in the use of renewable
energy. As such, the adoption of renewable energy is gradually becoming significant due
to the negative effects of greenhouse gas emissions on the environment. Another driver
for the use of renewable energy sources is the issue of sustainability. It has been said
that the conventional sources have a lifespan and will be totally depleted in future. The
common renewable energy sources that have been explored include solar, wind, hydro,
geothermal as well as biomass. It is possible to generate biofuels such as hydrogen,
methanol, dimethyl ether, ethanol, synthetic natural gas, etc. In order to fully explore the
use of biomass in the generation of energy, several government organisations and
researchers have instituted programmes and studies to promote the use of biofuels. For
instance, the European Union has a target to make biofuel 10% of its energy share in the
transport sector by 2020. Furthermore, by 2022, the US is expected to produce about 36
billion gallons of biofuels annually(1). Presently, industrial plants are embracing the
production of biogas for the generation of energy and on biomethane upgrading for grid
injection. The production of biogas is noncomplex and 4entralized technology with a low
level of organic conversion into biogas, (nearly 5–10 wt. %), based on the type of
feedstock and the operative conditions. Nations with enormous area of fertile cultivable
land, a favourable climate as well as water resource can invest in the planting ofbiomass
plants for energy generation. Such agricultural plants include sugarcane, cassava, corn
starch etc. For instance, it is possible to produce several types of sugar, and alcohol as
well as generate electricity from sugarcane. The agricultural and industrial processing of
these plants yields products such as straws, molasses, filter cake, stalks, pulp etc. which
can be further exploited to generate electricity. Conversely, there exist significant
logistical challenges related to production of biomass feedstock from food products such
as cassava and sugarcane. One of such is the challenge of maintaining a balance
between the economic, technical, political, social, and environmental factors involved in
the biofuel production processes. Thus, decision makers, researchers and other
stakeholders have revolved into the conduct of experimental studies as well as
5 AN OVERVIEW OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION

mathematical optimisations techniques that can help in attaining the optimum decision
that will make biomass more economically appealing and commercially available. One of
the end products of this process that has been of major interest of late is the production
of biogas. Biogas (considered to be the low carbon fuel sources) offers the best
opportunities to the rural communities especially in African countries to meet their energy
demand. The use of biogas offers multiple benefits, such as: • The enhancement of
farming in rural communities, which directly enhances the economy of a community
through job creation; • Waste reduction through the use of organic agricultural waste and
municipal solid waste (MSW) for energy production; • The improvement of the
environment quality through CO2 emission reduction (2); and • The combination of the
disposal of organic waste with the formation of valuable energy “methane” by biogas.The
production of biogas is based on a profound technology whose output is principally used
for electricity generation and also for the valorization of organic residues. Biogas is an
output of anaerobic digestion (AD), where various microorganisms, breakdown organic
matter through different metabolic processes. Tremendous and novel development in
biogas production has led to the creation of advanced bioenergy facilities. As such, the
biogas facilities are the basis of an economy concept aimed at nutrients recycling,
reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and biorefinery purposes. This paper presents an
overview of state-of-the-art and future viewpoints related to the AD process for biogas
production.

1 .BIOGAS PORODUCTION
Biogas is a colourless combustible gas that is produced by the biological breakdown of
organic matter; occurring in the absence of oxygen (3). The biogas comes from “biogenic
materials” (4) and it is generated from AD of biodegradable materials such as biomass,
cow dung green waste and agricultural residue such as cassava, sugar cane etc. (5).
Biogas comprises a mixture of different gases, mainly methane (ch4), carbon dioxide
(CO2), 1–5% other gases, including hydrogen (H2). The composition of biogas is
presented in Table 1 (6). The gas is produced by bacteria that occur during the bio-
degradation of organic materials under anaerobic conditions (7). Biogas has an elevated
methane content (Table 1), which makes it an attractive source of energy. The energy
6 AN OVERVIEW OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION

that is released from biogas makes it a suitable fuel in any country for heating and cooking
purpose. Biogas can also be used in an anaerobic digester where the energy in the gas
is converted into electricity and heat using gas engine. In as much as the biogas
constitutes mainly methane and carbon dioxide, which are greenhouse gases that are
harmful to the environment. It is therefore important that it undergoes a burning process
before releasing it to the atmosphere. The physical, chemical and biological characteristic
of cassava and other potential biomass can influence the biogas composition and yield
(8). In general, three key methods are in the thermo-chemical conversion of biomass. The
main thermochemical conversion processes, the intermediate process and the final
energy products resulting from conversion procedure are given in table 1.

Table 1: Biogas composition (Prakash et al., 2005, Schnurer and Jarvis, 2010)

Component Concentration (%)

Methane (CH4 ) 55–60

Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) 35–40
Hydrogen (H2 2–7
Hydrogen sulphide (H2 S) 2
Ammonia (NH3 0-0.5

Nitrogen (N) 0-2

1.1 AD

The AD is a microbial degradation of organic waste in the absence of oxygen. Organic

matter conversion to CO2 and CH4 gases occurs next to a sequence of biochemical
reactions during an anaerobic process (9). As a result, a breakdown of organics takes
place during the digestion, and this is made possible by anaerobic microorganisms. The
AD of organic matter follows stages that are organized by different categories of
microorganisms. Most biodegradable organic matter are converted to gases while only a
small amount (about 10%) is converted to new cell mass through microbial growth (10).
7 AN OVERVIEW OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION

Methane produced by AD can be used to run a treatment plant; giving AD an economic

advantage over aerobic digestion. Table 2 shows the advantages and disadvantages of
an AD taking into consideration costs, startup time, sludge generation and buffering
capacity.

1.2 More about anaerobic digestion (AD)

AD is a biochemical process during which complex organic matter is decomposed in

absence of oxygen, by various types of anaerobic microorganisms. The process of AD is
common to many natural environments such as the marine water sediments, the stomach
of ruminants or the peat bogs. In a biogas installation, the result of the AD process is the
biogas and the digestate. If the substrate for AD is a homogenous mixture of two or more
feedstock types (e.g. animal slurries and organic wastes from food industries), the
process is called “co– digestion” and is common to most biogas applications today.

1.3 Substrates for AD Substrates for AD

A wide range of biomass types can be used as substrates (feedstock) for the production
of biogas from AD. The most common biomass categories used in European biogas
production are listed below.

•Animal manure and slurry

•Agricultural residues and by-products
•Digestible organic wastes from food and agro industries (vegetable and animal origin)
•Organic fraction of municipal waste and from catering (vegetable and animal origin)
•Sewage sludge
• Dedicated energy crops (e.g. maize, miscanthus, sorghum, clover).

2. Stages of Biogas Production using AD

There are four basic stages involved in AD. These four basic stages make up the process
of biogas production from various organic materials as it occurs in an anaerobic digester.
These four stages are the hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis, and methanogenesis
(11). The AD process is characterized by the decomposition of organic matter into
methane, carbon dioxide, inorganic nutrients and compost in an anaerobic environment
(12).
8 AN OVERVIEW OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION

2.1. Hydrolysis

Hydrolysis is theoretically the first step of AD, during which the complex organic matter
(polymers) is decomposed into smaller units (mono- and oligomers). During hydrolysis,
polymers like carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids and proteins are converted into glucose,
glycerol, purines and pyridines. Hydrolytic microorganisms excrete hydrolytic enzymes,
converting biopolymers into simpler and soluble compounds as it is shown below .
lipase
Lipids fatty acids, glycerol
xylanase, amylase
Polysaccharide monosaccharide
protease
Proteins amino acids

A variety of microorganisms is involved in hydrolysis, which is carried out by exoenzymes,

produced by those microorganisms which decompose the undissolved particulate
material. The products resulted from hydrolysis are further decomposed by the
microorganisms involved and used for their own metabolic processes.

2.3. Acidogenesis

During acidogenesis, the products of hydrolysis are converted by acidogenic

(fermentative) bacteria into methanogenic substrates. Simple sugars, amino acids and
fatty acids are degraded into acetate, carbon dioxide and hydrogen (70%) as well as into
volatile fatty acids (VFA) and alcohols (30%).

2.4. Acetogenesis

During the acetogenesis stage, alcohols (ethanol), VFAs with more than two carbon
atoms, are converted by acetate-forming bacteria into acetate, with hydrogen and carbon
dioxide being the main products (14). This conversion is a vital process because
hydrogen and carbon dioxide are constantly reduced to acetate by homoacetogenic
microorganisms (15), thereby reducing the hydrogen accumulation that may affect the
functioning of acetogenic bacteria .
9 AN OVERVIEW OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION

2.5. Methanogenesis

Methanogenesis is a critical step in AD. It has a large impact on the AD process (16)
because approximately 70% of methane used in AD is generated from this stage .During
this stage, carbon dioxide-reducing and hydrogenoxidizing methanogens convert
hydrogen and carbon dioxide to obtain methane, while acetoclastic methanogens utilize
acetate to produce methane (17). Methanogens (Archaea) utilize acetate, hydrogen and
CO2, and to a lesser extent methanol, methylamines and formate, to form methane and
CO2. These end products are the primary substrates for the methanogenic bacteria to
produce biogas, which generally consists of 50–75% methane (CH4), 50–25% CO2 and
trace amounts of nitrogen, hydrogen and hydrogen sulphide. Methanogenesis indicates
the extent of biological activities in an anaerobic system and the state of the digestion.
The more methane is produced, the more the system is stable and well performing.

3 . Main Factors Affecting the Biogas Production

The production of biogas is influenced by many factors such as nutrients, pH of feedstock,

temperature, flow rate of feed (loading rate) and retention time. These factors may slow
or stall the process of biogas production if the values of the factors are not within a certain
range (18). Some of the factors are presented in this section.

3.1 Hydraulic retention time (HRT)

HRT indicates the mean residence time for solids and liquids wastes remaining in a
digester (reactor) to contact with the microbial biomass .In flow-through systems without
recycle, such as the CSTRs adopted in Phase II, the HRT and retention time of the
microbial biomass or sludge (SRT) are the same. In situations where the influent streams
contain high solids concentrations, longer retention times are required to maximize
bioenergy production (19). The HRT can be understood as the treatment time for a waste
that undergoes AD, the higher the HRT the higher the removal efficiency because the
biomass has enough time to be in close contact with the waste, therefore removing high
amounts of contaminants from the waste being treated.
10 AN OVERVIEW OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION

3.2 Nutrients

The inadequate availability of nutrient concentration in energy crops have resulted in

problems such as low methane yields, acidification and process instability in crop
monodigestion, leading to application of low organic loading rates (OLRs) and long HRTs
(20). They influence the performance and stability of the AD process. The
abovementioned setbacks indicate that adequate amounts of both macro- and
micronutrients are crucial for continuous performance of the biogas process.

3.3 pH of feed stock

The pH value of the material is one of the essential factors. Methanogenic bacteria are
sensitive to an acidic condition. This acidic condition could adversely affect the growth of
bacteria and the production of methane (21). Different optimal pH values are reached at
different stages of the AD process. These changes occur during biological transformation,
which takes place during the different stages of the AD process. The pH level can be
below 5 during the production of organic acids, which occurs during the acetogenesis
stage., the optimal range of pH for obtaining utmost biogas yield in AD is 6.5–7.5, and
this range of pH is relatively wide in the plants. Several factors such as the substrate used
and the digestion technique could vary the optimal value of the pH. For this reason,
constant pH level is of great importance, and to maintain a constant pH level, equilibrium
buffers such as calcium carbonate or lime has to be added into the system. Briefly, pH is
a critical indicator in anaerobic process. It provides a clear indication of the performance
of the system, including the stability of the digestion. A lower pH is an indication of system
failure or low buffering capacity and can inhibit the digestion. High pH can also limit the
methanogenesis process. The pH value is dependent on the following factors: VFA
concentration, bicarbonate concentration, the alkalinity of the system and the fraction of
CO2 in digester gas. the relationship between the VFA and bicarbonate concentration is
crucial to maintain a constant pH value within the system.

3.4 Temperature
11 AN OVERVIEW OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION

As reviewed by 22, AD is usually operated within two distinct temperature ranges, with
one optimum at 35°C (mesophilic) and the other optimum at 55°C (thermophilic). Though
thermophilic digestion may provide some advantages over mesophilic digestion, such as
improved reaction rate and pathogen reduction, microorganisms in mesophilic digestion
have less demand on nutrients and mesophilic digestion can function like thermophilic
digestion (23). Temperature indicates the rate of biological reactions. It is a sensitive
parameter that has to be monitored regularly, especially when there is a change in
weather. The choice of temperature (mesophilic or thermophilic) will depend on the type
of expected outcome. However, temperature should be suitable to the type of
microorganisms used for waste treatment

3.5 Retention time

A longer retention time will provide a greater degree of sludge stabilization and allow
intimate contact between the biomass and the liquid flow during the treatment process
(24).

3.6 Mixing

In a conventional anaerobic digester, mixing has been observed to generally increase

CH4 yields and to render the digester more stable (25). Mixing has the effect of bringing
a homogeneous environment and an effective use of the entire digester volume. This is
achieved by minimizing hydraulic dead zones in the digester and preventing build-up of
large pockets of unfavourable environmental conditions (low pH and high VFA).
Consequently, the concentration of toxic agents throughout the reactor is diluted. Mixing
also assists in the removal of excess CO2 which has inhibitory effects at partial pressures
larger than 0.2 atmospheres.
12 AN OVERVIEW OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION

3.7 Oxygen

Oxygen is toxic to most anaerobic microorganisms. Its presence in an anaerobic reactor

will result in a significant decrease in the digestion rate. However, it is possible that
facultative anaerobes metabolize the dissolved oxygen before toxic effects are noticeable
(26)
3.8 VFA

During start-up or when there is organic overloading of the digester, high concentrations
of VFA are generally observed. They are usually associated with toxicity and inhibitory
effects. Although it is generally understood that VFA inhibition is due to their accumulation
and subsequent pH reduction, some VFA are themselves toxic to anaerobic microbes
(27).

3.9 Free ammonia

Free ammonia concentrations above 100 mg/l can cause inhibition, although the ionic
form, NH+4 will only cause inhibition at much higher concentrations (above 3000 mg/l)
(28).

4. Methods of Biogas Production through AD

It is well known that AD turns organic waste into useful biogas and fertilizer in an
anaerobic environment. There are two main methods to produce biogas from AD, namely
wet AD (Wet AD) and dry AD (Dry AD). The main difference between these two methods
relates to the form of the solid waste. Dry AD handles organic waste as it is by means of
simple mechanical sorting and with digestion taking place from waste in its solid form.
Wet AD requires that the waste be converted into a homogenous pulp that can be pumped
while being processed. Biogas produced during AD is mainly composed of methane and
carbon dioxide and is considered as an alternative to traditional energy. Typically, it
contains 60–65% methane, which is flammable. With the technology of biogas utilization
improving, it becomes one of the most widely used waste/residues-to-energy
technologies .Traditionally, biogas has been used as fuel to support the process
13 AN OVERVIEW OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION

temperatures in anaerobic digesters. Another alternative use is that the gas is burned in
an engine generator of combustion to produce electricity in biogas plants. Biogas has
also been used as fuel for cooking, lightning and vehicles. Biogas production, except for
its use as a renewable energy source, has many other benefits. In many countries,
farmers must give up their occupations because their land no longer produces enough
yield from conventional agricultural production. Biogas production is subsidized in many
countries to give an additional income to the farmers.

5. TYPES OF BIOMASS AND THEIR POTENTIAL

Biomass is defined as a living organic matter (29). Biomass can be any type of organic
matter and it is a source/feedstock. The fuel form obtained after the processing or
preparation of this biomass is called biofuel, biogas or bio-solid and the energy output is
called bioenergy, which is a measure of the energy capability of the biomass used. An
extensive range of biomass is available for the potential sources for CH 4 production.
14 AN OVERVIEW OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION

The methane yield of the AD substrates depends on the content of proteins, fats, and
carbohydrates, as shown in Table 5.1

Feedstock Methane yield(%) Biogas yield(m³/tff)

Cattle manure 60 45

Pig manure 60 60

Organic waste 61 100

Corn silage 52 202

Beet 53 88

Terrestrial Biomas

5.1 Biogas from woods and weeds

AD of woody biomass for biogas production has been considered unfeasible without pre-
treatment (30) due to its anaerobic biodegradability, which depends on the following
factors: low moisture content; relative lignin; cellulose and hemicellulose content;
proportion of structural and non-structural carbohydrates; cellulose crystallinity; degree of
association between lignin and carbohydrates; particle size; wood-to-bark ratio; and toxic
components (31). Taple 5.1 shows that hybrid poplar and sycamore with high
degradability produced the highest CH4 yield of 0.32 m3 /kg VS using the BMP assay test,
while according to (32) eucalyptus, loblolly pine and white fir on poor degradability yielded
0.014, 0.063 and 0.042 m3 /kg VS of CH4 respectively at mesophilic temperature. The
use of weedy plants as a potential feedstock for biogas production is a recent concept. It
15 AN OVERVIEW OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION

is considered a potential biomass for the following reasons (33): • It has the ability to trap
a significant amount of solar energy.

Table 5.2: Methane yield of woody biomass

Feedstock Temperature (°C) Methane yield (m3/Kg)

cotton wood 35 0.220

hybirid poplar 35 0.320

sycamore 35 0.320

loblolly pine 35 0.063

black alder 35 0.240

red alder 35 0.280

Table 5.2 shows some of the weeds studied as a source of CH4, these weeds include
Parthenium hysterophorus, Lantana camera, and Ageratum. According to 34, the batch
co-digestion of cow manure (CM) and Parthenium has shown to increase the production
of biogas using Parthenium. AD of Parthenium in CSTR at a temperature of 30°C with a
10-day HRT yielded CH4 of 0.11 m3 /kg VS while pre-treated Parthenium increased the
CH4 yield by 95% (Table5.2). Lantana camera, a weed that grows abundantly on the
Himalayan slope, India, treated with NaOH and mixed with CM to feed batch digesters
16 AN OVERVIEW OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION

for 37 days at a temperature range of 28–31 °C produced 62% higher CH4 yield compared
to CM alone (35). Table 5.2 shows that Ageratum alone (mono digestion) yielded 0.24 m3
/kg VS added of CH4 yield in batch digesters at a temperature of 30°C.

5.2 Biogas from leaves and grass

36, methane produced from leafy biomass are generally higher compared to that
produced from the stems (Table 5.2). As reported by 37, Ipomoea jistulosa leaves yielded
more CH4 compared to that of the stem. According to (38), Gliricidia leaves green-leaf
manuring found in India when it undergoes AD yielded a CH 4 of 0.18 m3 /kg VSadded
when co-digested with residue of high manorial value. However, some leaves with the
presence of some toxic compound produced low CH4 due to partial inhibition of the
digestion process. One such leaf is Calotropis 39). Research conducted by 40) showed
that the batch digestion of high solids with mango leaves and CM produced higher biogas
yield compared to digestion of CM alone. Literature shows that grasses such as Napier
grass, energy cane (ball milled), Alemangrass-6A, turf grass, wheat straw, paddy straw,
millet straw, oats crop, maize crop, corn stover and sorghum exhibited CH4 yields as high
as 0.3 m3 /kg VS added without pretreatment (41). As reported by (42), the grass with the
highest yield of CH4 is sweet sorghum. In grass the age of the grass plays an important
role as younger grasses produce more methane than the older ones, probably because
younger tissues are less lignified.

5.3 Biogas from fruit and vegetable solid waste

The organic fraction of MSW has been identified as a diverse material of which the
composition differs greatly. Many factors affect the composition of MSW, including
regional differences, climate differences, the extent to which recycling is done, the
frequency of collection, seasonal change, and cultural practices (43). The sorting system
of MSW is not the only factor that influences the qualities, they are also influenced by
various methods used for quantifying the OMSW. According to Mata-Alvarez et al. (1990),
17 AN OVERVIEW OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION

mechanical sorting of MSW is present in large amounts of suspended, non-biodegradable

solids and small pieces of plastic, wood and paper. OMSW digestion at a mesophilic
temperature (35°C) yields a maximum CH4 ranging from 0.39 to 0.43 m3 /kg VS MSW
without paper and wood (44) and VS reduction (VSr) ranging from 63 to 69% (Table 6).
The methane yield of OMSW ranged from 0.11 to 0.16 m3 kg-VS and VSr was around
30% due to its high ash value (Mata-Alvarez et al., 1990). The FVSW wastes are
characterized by high percentages of moisture (>80%) and VS (>95%) and have a very
high biodegradability percentage. Table 6 shows that the CH4 yield of FVSW is very high.
However, these results are mostly based on laboratory trials. According to Knol et al.
(1978), the maximum OLR to obtain a stable digestion of a variety of FVSW ranges from
0.8 to 1.6 kg VS mm3 /d having an HRT of 32 days. According to (Hills and Roberts,
1982), the failure of the digestion of peach waste is due to inadequate alkalinity levels at
3 kg/m3 /d with a 20 days HRT. Research conducted by Radhika et al. (1983) show that
coconut pith (CP) co-digested with CM performed better with a mixture ratio of 3:2 dry
weight basis that also showed enhanced biogas production with 80–85% CH4 . According
to a study conducted by Stewart et al. (1984) where the biogas yield from the AD of
banana, i.e. damaged fruit and stem, and potato waste was measured (peelings and
rejects). The digestion.

5.4 Aquatic biomass

Biogas production from aquatic biomass may be greater compared to the land on the
basis of the availability of large areas for growth. Terrestrial biomass production is two-
dimensional, while aquatic biomass production is three-dimensional where the “height” is
added.

5.5 Biogas from marine biomass and fresh water biomass.

Recent studies on marine biomass involve the bioconversion of marine macroalgae to a
potential source for CH4. This includes the brown algae Macrocystis pyrifera, Sargassum,
Laminaria.
18 AN OVERVIEW OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION

6. Advantages of biogas technologies

The production and utilisation of biogas from AD provides environmental and

socioeconomic benefits for the society as a whole as well as for the involved farmers.
Utilisation of the internal value chain of biogas production enhances local economic
capabilities, safeguards jobs in rural areas and increases regional purchasing power. It
improves living standards and contributes to economic and social development.

6.1 Benefits for the society

6.1.1 Renewable energy source

The current global energy supply is highly dependent on fossil sources (crude oil, lignite,
hard coal, natural gas). These are fossilised remains of dead plants and animals, which
have been exposed to heat and pressure in the Earth's crust over hundreds of millions of
years. For this reason, fossil fuels are non-renewable resources which reserves are being
depleted much faster than new ones are being formed The World’s economies are
dependent today of crude oil. There is some disagreement among scientists on how long
this fossil resource will last but according to researchers, the “peak oil production”* has
already occurred or it is expected to occur within the next period of time
Unlike fossil fuels, biogas from AD is permanently renewable, as it is produced on
biomass, which is actually a living storage of solar energy through photosynthesis. Biogas
from AD will not only improve the energy balance of a country but also make an important
contribution to the preservation of the natural resources and to environmental protection.

6.1.2 Reduced greenhouse gas emissions and mitigation of

global warming

Utilisation of fossil fuels such as lignite, hard coal, crude oil and natural gas converts
carbon, stored for millions of years in the Earth’s crust, and releases it as carbon dioxide
(CO2) into the atmosphere. An increase of the current CO2 concentration in the
19 AN OVERVIEW OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION

atmosphere causes global warming as carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas (GHG). The
combustion of biogas also releases CO2. However, the main difference, when compared
to fossil fuels, is that the carbon in biogas was recently up taken from the atmosphere, by
photosynthetic activity of the plants. The carbon cycle of biogas is thus closed within a
very short time (between one and several years). Biogas production by AD reduces also
emissions of methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) from storage and utilisation of
untreated animal manure as fertiliser. The GHG potential of methane is higher than of
carbon dioxide by 23 fold and of nitrous oxide by 296 fold. When biogas displaces fossil
fuels from energy production and transport, a reduction of emissions of CO2, CH4 and
N2O will occur, contributing to mitigate global warming.

6.1.3 Reduced dependency on imported fossil fuels

Fossil fuels are limited resources, concentrated in few geographical areas of our planet.
This creates, for the countries outside this area, a permanent and insecure status of
dependency on import of energy. Most European countries are strongly dependent on
fossil energy imports from regions rich in fossil fuel sources such as Russia and the
Middle East. Developing and implementing renewable energy systems such as biogas
from AD, based on national and regional biomass resources, will increase security of
national energy supply and diminish dependency on imported fuels.

6.1.4 Contribution to EU energy and environmental targets

Fighting the global warming is one of the main priorities of the European energy and
environmental policies. The European targets of renewable energy production, reduction
of GHG emission, and sustainable waste management are based on the commitment of
the EU member states to implement appropriate measures to reach them. The production
and utilisation of biogas from AD has the potential to comply with all three targets at the
same time.
20 AN OVERVIEW OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION

6.1.5 Waste reduction

One of the main advantages of biogas production is the ability to transform waste material
into a valuable resource, by using it as substrate for AD. Many European countries are
facing enormous problems associated with overproduction of organic wastes from
industry, agriculture and households. Biogas production is an excellent way to comply
with increasingly restrictive national and European regulations in this area and to utilise
organic wastes for energy production, followed by recycling of the digested substrate as
fertiliser. AD can also contribute to reducing the volume of waste and of costs for waste
disposal.

6.1.6 Job creation

Production of biogas from AD requires work power for production, collection and transport
of AD feedstock, manufacture of technical equipment, construction, operation and
maintenance of biogas plants. This means that the development of a national biogas
sector contributes to the establishment of new enterprises, some with significant
economic potential, increases the income in rural areas and creates new jobs.

6.2 Benefits for the farmers

6.2.1 Additional income for the farmers involved

Production of feedstock in combination with operation of biogas plants makes biogas

technologies economically attractive for farmers and provides them with additional
income. The farmers get also a new and important social function as energy providers
and waste treatment operators.
21 AN OVERVIEW OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION

6.2.2 Digestate is an excellent fertilizer

A biogas plant is not only a supplier of energy. The digested substrate, usually named
digestate, is a valuable soil fertiliser, rich in nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and
micronutrients, which can be applied on soils with the usual equipment for application of
liquid manure. Compared to raw animal manure, digestate has improved fertiliser
efficiency due to higher homogeneity and nutrient availability, better C/N ratio and
significantly reduced odours.

6.2.3 Closed nutrient cycle

From the production of feedstock to the application of digestate as fertiliser, the biogas
from AD provides a closed nutrient and carbon cycle. The methane (CH 4) is used for
energy production and the carbon dioxide (CO2) is released to the atmosphere and re-
uptaken by vegetation during photosynthesis. Some carbon compounds remain in the
digestate, improving the carbon content of soils, when digestate is applied as fertiliser.
Biogas production can be perfectly integrated into conventional and organic farming,
where digestate replaces chemical fertilisers, produced with consumption of large
amounts of fossil energy.

6 .2.4 Flexibility to use different feedstock

Various types of feedstock can be used for the production of biogas: animal manure and
slurries, crop residues, organic wastes from dairy production, food industries and
agroindustries, wastewater sludge, organic fraction of municipal solid wastes, organic
wastes from households and from catering business as well as energy crops. Biogas can
also be collected, with special installations, from landfill sites. One main advantage of
biogas production is the ability to use “wet biomass” types as feedstock, all characterised
by moisture content higher than 60–70% (e.g. sewage sludge, animal slurries, flotation
sludge from food processing etc.). In recent years, a number of energy crops (grains,
22 AN OVERVIEW OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION

maize, rapeseed), have been largely used as feedstock for biogas production in countries
like Austria or Germany. Besides energy crops, all kinds of agricultural residues,
damaged crops, unsuitable for food or resulting from unfavourable growing and weather
conditions, can be used to produce biogas and fertiliser. A number of animal by-products,
not suitable for human consumption, can also be processed in biogas plants.

6. 2.5 Reduced odours and flies

Storage and application of liquid manure, animal dung and many organic wastes are
sources of persistent, unpleasant odours and attract flies. AD reduces these odours by
up to 80%. Digestate is almost odourless and the remaining ammonia odours disappear
shortly after application as fertiliser.

6. 2.6 Veterinary safety

Application of digestate as fertiliser, compared to application of untreated manure and

slurries, improves veterinary safety. In order to be suitable for use as fertiliser, digestate
is submitted to a controlled sanitation process. Depending of the type of feedstock
involved, sanitation can be provided by the AD process itself, through a minimum
guaranteed retention time of the substrate inside the digester, at thermophilic
temperature, or it can be done in a separate process step, by pasteurisation or by
pressure sterilisation. In all cases, the aim of sanitation is to inactivate pathogens, weed
seeds and other biological hazards and to prevent disease transmission through digestate
application.

7. Main applications of biogas

The production of biogas from AD is widely used by modern society for the treatment of
livestock manure and slurries. The aim is to produce renewable energy and to improve
their fertiliser quality. In countries with significant agricultural production, the
23 AN OVERVIEW OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION

strengthening of environmental legislation and regulation of manure and vegetable

wastes recycling increased the interest for AD as a cheap and environmental friendly
solution. Latest developments in Europe, USA and other parts of the world have shown
increasing interest among farmers to cultivate energy crops, used as feedstock for biogas
production. AD is today standard technology for stabilisation of primary and secondary
sewage sludge, for treatment of organic industrial waste from food-processing and
fermentation industries as well as for the treatment of the organic fraction of municipal
solid waste. A special application is biogas recovery from existing landfills.

7.1 Agricultural biogas plants

The agricultural biogas plants are considered those plants which are processing
feedstock of agricultural origin. The most common feedstock types for this kind of plants
are animal manure and slurries, vegetable residues and vegetable by products, dedicated
energy crops (DEC), but also various residues from food and fishing industries etc. Animal
manure and slurries, from cattle and pig production, are the basic feedstock for most
agricultural biogas plants in Europe, although the number of plants running on DEC was
increasing the last years.

AD of animal manure and slurries is considered to improve their fertiliser value for the
reasons listed below:

•Manure and slurries from different animals (cattle, pig, poultry etc.) are mixed and
codigested, providing a more balanced content of nutrients.

•AD breaks down complex organic material such as organic nitrogen compounds,
increasing the amount of plant-available nutrients.

•Co-digestion of manure with other substrates adds various amounts of nutrients to the
feedstock mixture.
24 AN OVERVIEW OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION

The design and technology of biogas plants differ from country to country, depending on
climatic conditions and national frameworks (legislation and energy policies), energy
availability and affordability. Based on their relative size, function and location, agricultural
AD plants can be classified as:
-Family scale biogas plants (very small scale)
-Farm scale biogas plants (small or medium to large scale)
- Centralised/ joint co-digestion plants (medium to large scale)

7.1.1 Family scale biogas plants

In countries like Nepal, China or India operate millions of family scale biogas plants,
utilising very simple technologies. The AD feedstock used in these biogas plants originate
from the household and/or their small farming activity and the produced biogas is used
for the family cooking and lighting needs. The digesters are simple, cheap, robust, easy
to operate and maintain, and can be constructed with local produced materials. Usually,
there are no control instruments and no process heating (psychrophilic or mesophilic
operation temperatures), as many of these digesters operate in warmer climates and
have long HRT.

a) The Chinese type is an underground reactor of typically 6 to 8 m³. It is supplied

with household sewage, animal manure and organic household waste. The reactor
is operated in a semi-continuous mode, where new substrate is added once a day
and a similar amount of decanted mixed liquid is removed once a day. The reactor
is not stirred, so the sedimentation of suspended solids must be removed 2-3 times
per year, occasion when a large portion of the substrate is removed and a small
part (about one fifth of the reactor content) is left as inoculum.
25 AN OVERVIEW OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION

b) The Indian type is similar to the Chinese type as it is a simple underground reactor
for domestic and small farming waste. The difference is that the effluent is collected
at the bottom of the reactor and a floating gas bell functions as a biogas reservoir.

c) Another small scale biogas plant is the displacement type, which consists of a
horizontal cylindrical reactor. The substrate is fed at one end and the digestate is
collected at the opposite end. The substrate moves through the reactor as a plug
flow, and a fraction of the outlet is re-circulated to dilute the new input and to
provide inoculation.

7.1.2 Farm-scale biogas plants

A farm scale biogas plants is named the plant attached to only one farm, digesting the
feedstock produced on that farm. Many farm scale plants co-digest also small amounts
of methane rich substrates (e.g. oily wastes from fish industries or vegetable oil residues),
aiming to increase the biogas yield. It is also possible that a farm scale biogas plant
receives and processes animal slurries from one or two neighbouring farms (e.g. via
pipelines, connecting those farms to the respective AD unit).

There are many types and concepts of farm scale biogas plants around the world. In
Europe, countries like Germany, Austria and Denmark are among the pioneers of farm
scale biogas production. The interest of European farmers in AD applications is growing
nowadays, not only because agricultural biogas production transforms waste products
into valuable resources and produces high quality fertiliser but also because it creates
new business opportunities for the involved farmers and gives them a new status, as
renewable energy providers.
26 AN OVERVIEW OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION

7.1.3 Centralised (joint) co-digestion plants

Centralised co-digestion is a concept based on digesting animal manure and slurries,

collected from several farms, in a biogas plant centrally located in the manure collection
area. The central location of the biogas plant aims to reduce costs, time and manpower
for the transport of biomass to and from the biogas plant. Centralised AD plants co-digest
animal manure with a variety of other suitable co-substrates (e.g. digestible residues from
agriculture, food- and fish industries, separately collected organic household wastes,
sewage sludge). The centralised co-digestion plants (also named joint co-digestion
plants) were developed and are largely applied in Denmark, but also in other regions of
the world, with intensive animal farming.

Animal manure and slurries are collected from the pre-storage tanks or from the slurry
channels at the farm and transported in special vacuum container trucks to the biogas
plant, according to an established schedule. At the biogas plant, manure is mixed with
the other cosubstrates, homogenised and pumped inside the digester tank. The transport
of fresh manure from the farmers to the biogas plant and of digestate from the biogas
plant to the farmer’s storage facilities, placed close to the fields where digestate is applied
as fertiliser, is the responsibility of the biogas plant. The storage facilities for digestate are
sometimes shared by several farmers.

Like in the case of farm plants, the digestion process can be mesophilic or thermophilic.
The HRT is of 12-25 days. According to European legislation, a controlled sanitation
process of certain types of substrates of animal origin must be performed prior accessing
the digester, which provides effective reduction of pathogens and weed seeds and
ensures safe recycling of digestate.
27 AN OVERVIEW OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION

8. Biogas storage

Biogas production must be maintained as stable and constant as possible. Inside the
digester, biogas is formed in fluctuating quantities and with performance peaks. When
biogas is utilised in e.g. a CHP unit, the demand for biogas can vary during the day. To
compensate for all these variation, it is necessary to temporarily store the produced
biogas, in appropriate storage facilities.

Various types of biogas storage facilities are available today. The simplest solution is the
biogas storage established on top of digesters, using a gas tight membrane, which has
also the function of digester cover. For larger biogas plants, separate biogas storage
facilities are established, either as stand-alone facility or included in storage buildings.
The biogas storage facilities can be operated at low, medium or high pressure.

Correct selection and dimensioning of biogas storage facility brings substantial

contribution to the efficiency, reliability and safety of the biogas plant while ensuring
constant supply of biogas and minimising biogas losses.

All biogas storage facilities must be gas tight and pressure-resistant, and in case of
storage facilities which are not protected by buildings, they must be UV-, temperature-
and weather proof. Before starting-up the biogas plant, the gas storage tanks must be
checked for gas tightness. For safety reasons, they must be equipped with safety valves
(under-pressure and over-pressure) to prevent damages and safety risks. Explosion
protection must also be guaranteed and an emergency flare is required. The gas storage
facility must have the minimum capacity corresponding to one fourth of the daily biogas
production. Normally, a capacity of one or two days gas production is recommended.
28 AN OVERVIEW OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION

8.1 Low pressure tanks

The frequently used low pressure tanks have an overpressure range of 0,05 to 0,5 mbar
and are made of special membranes, which must meet a number of safety requirements.
The membrane tanks are installed as external gas reservoirs or as gas domes/covers, in
top of the digester.

External low-pressure reservoirs can be designed in the shape of membrane cushions/

gas balones. The membrane cushions are placed in buildings for weather protection or
equipped with a second membrane.

If the digester or the post-digester is used for biogas storage, both must be covered with
gas tight membrane domes (double membrane reservoirs) as shown in left, fixed on the
upper edge of the digester. A supporting frame can be installed in the digester to hold the
membrane when it is empty. The membrane expands according to the volume of gas
contained. In order to limit the membrane expansion, a special net can be mounted over
it.

8.2 Medium and high pressure biogas storage

Biogas can also be stored in medium and high pressure reservoirs, at pressures between
5 and 250 bar, in steel pressure tanks and bottles. These kinds of storage types have
high operation costs and high energy consumption. For gas reservoirs up to 10 bar,
energy requirements of up to 0,22 kWh/m³ must be considered and for high pressure
reservoirs with 200 to 300 bar, the energy requirement is of about 0,31 kWh/m³. Because
of their high costs, these kinds of biogas storage are rarely used in agricultural biogas
plants.
29 AN OVERVIEW OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION

8.3 Biogas flares

There are situations where more biogas is produced than it can be used for energy
generation. This can happen due to extraordinary high gas production rates or through
breakdown/maintenance of the energy recovery system. In such cases, back-up solutions
are necessary, such as additional biogas storage or additional energy production
systems. Storage of biogas is possible for short periods without compression, but for
periods of more than a few hours it is generally not feasible due to the large volume. The
additional energy production unit (i.e. a second CHP plant) is not economically feasible.
For this reason, each biogas plant is equipped with a biogas flare. In situations where
there is an excess of biogas, which cannot be stored or used, flaring is the ultimate
solution, necessary to eliminate any safety risks and to protect the environment. In
exceptional situations, flaring could be the solution for safe disposal of the biogas
produced by AD processes, where energy recovery is not feasible.

The combustion process determines the benefits of one flare type over another. Flaring
of biogas is regulated through emission standards and performance criteria for the used
flares. Two parameters, temperature and residence time, form the performance
specification for most advanced flares. The design of flares aims to maximise the
conversion of methane and thus to minimise the release of unburned methane and of any
other products of incomplete oxidation (e.g. carbon monoxide). Several unwanted by-
products of biogas combustion may be formed, depending on the ratio of air, temperature
and on the kinetics of the combustion reactions. In order to optimise the flaring process,
the temperature range must be kept between 850-1200oC and the residence time of
minimum 0,3 seconds.

Irrespective of the type of flare, safe and reliable operation of a flare requires a number
of features, in addition to burner and enclosure. Essential safety features include a
flamearrestor, failsafe valve and ignition system, incorporating a flame detector. A gas
blower is also essential, to raise the pressure of the gas to 3-15 kPa at the burner. The
necessity of gas cleaning or conditioning depends on the biogas quality and whether the
30 AN OVERVIEW OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION

gas is used in an energy recovery plant, where there is lower tolerance for entrained
particulates and for a number of acidic gases formed during combustion. There are two
basic types of biogas flares: open flares and enclosed flares.

An open flare is essentially a burner, with a small windshield to protect the flame. Gas
control is rudimentary - in many cases, a coarse manual valve. The rich gas mixture, lack
of insulation and poor mixing lead to an incomplete combustion and a luminous flame,
which is often seen above the windshield. Radiant heat loss is considerable and this leads
to cool areas at the edge of the flame and quenching of combustion reactions to yield
many undesirable by- products.

Historically, open flares have been popular in the past, because of their simplicity and low
cost and because of permissive or absent legislation and control regarding emissions
standards. Henceforward, strict regulation and emission control is likely to limit their use

9. Use and application

Biogas covers a variety of markets, including electricity, heat and transportation fuels.
Whereas using the gas for direct combustion in household stoves and gas lamps is
common in some countries, producing electricity from biogas is still relatively rare in most
developing countries. In industrialized countries, power generation is the main purpose
of biogas plants; conversion of biogas to electricity has become a standard technology.
To improve overall efciency of biogas utilization, combined heat and power plants are
often used. After fermentation the biogas is normally cooled, dried of water vapour and
cleaned of hydrogen sulphide to produce a good combustion gas for gas engines. Te
illustration above gives an overview about the diferent ways to use biogas.
31 AN OVERVIEW OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION

10. Upgrading

Biogas produced from anaerobic digestion cannot be used directly as vehicle fuel or
injected into a gas grid; it must be upgraded to biomethane frst. The gas is cleaned of
particles, water and hydrogen sulfide to reduce the risk of corrosion. The gas is upgraded
by removing carbon dioxide to raisethe energy content and create a gas with constant
quality [5] consisting of about 98% methane [4]. Several techniques for removing carbon
dioxide from biogas exist today and they are continually being improved. These methods
include water scrubbing, pressure swing absorption (PSA), organic physical scrubbing,
chemical scrubbing and upgrading using membrane technology.

11. Biogas around world

Around the world, the implementation of domestic biogas technology has occurred in
countries where governments have been involved in the subsidy, planning, design,
construction, operation and maintenance of biogas plants. The giant biogas countries
China and India (April 2010 to March 2011) produced 2.8 million and 150,000 biogas
plants respectively in 2011, arriving at impressive cumulative numbers of 42.8million and
4.5 million units installed of all sizes from a few m3 volume upwards. [46] The Netherlands
Development Organization, SNV, supports national programs on domestic biogas that
aim to establish commercially viable domestic biogas sectors in which local companies
market, install and service biogas plants for households in developing countries. The
countries [47] supported by SNV have installed a total of more than 475,000 plants by the
first half of 2012. Financial support was provided by a wide spectrum of national and
international organizations.

11.1 The united States

Te U.S. has over 2,200 sites producing biogas: 191 anaerobic digesters on farms,
approximately 1,500 anaerobic digesters at wastewater treatment plants (only 250
32 AN OVERVIEW OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION

currently use the biogas they produce) and 576 landfll gas projects. By comparison,
Europe has over 10,000 operating digesters; some communities are essentially fossil fuel
free because of them. [48]

11.2 Europe

In order to reach the EU member state targets for renewable energies for 2020 and to
fulfll European waste management directive requirements, anaerobic digestion is seen to
be one of the key technologies. In total, 21.1 billion m³ of biogas, corresponding to 12.7
billion m³ biomethane, was produced in 2010 in the European Union.Te electricity
production from biogas in 2011, with a growth rate of 18.2% reached 35.9 TWh, while
over the same period biogas heat sales to factories or heating networks increased by
16%. [49]

11.3 Germany: Industrial scale

Germany is Europe’s biggest biogas producer and the market leader in biogas
technology. [50] In 2012, the number of biogas plants reached 7470, including 80 units
producing biomethane. [51] Te total electric output produced by biogas in 2012 was 20
TWh, equating to the supply of 5.7 million houses with electricity. [52] Biogas already
provides more than 3% of the whole of Germany’s electricity consumption, as well as
signifcant amounts of industrial heat, transport fuels, and volume injected into the natural
gas grid. (53)

11.4 Sweden: World leader in the use of biogas for transport

Sweden is a world leader in upgrading and use of biomethane for transport, and has many
‘biogas vehicles’, including private cars, buses, and even a biogas train and a biogas-
powered touring car team. At the end of 2012, there were nearly 44,000 gas vehicles in
Sweden: 1800 buses, nearly 600 trucks and the rest being cars and light transport
33 AN OVERVIEW OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION

vehicles (often part of municipal feets). Compared to the end of 2011 (one year later), the
number of gas vehicles increased by about 14 percent [54]. Over a similar period of time
the number of upgrading plants has reached 47 plants, representing a 22% growth in
numbers since 2008.

11.5 China: leader in household biogas plants

In China the renewable energy policy is driving the steady development and
implementation of biogas. As of 2013, China has nearly 42 million small biogas
digestersin operation, producing biogas for households, for cooking, and a further 60,000
small, medium and large scale installations producing biogas for industrial purposes.
Total biogas output in 2010 is estimated at 15 billion m³ biogas, equivalent to 9 billion m³
biomethane. China has ambitious targets for 2020 [45]

.10000 new agricultural biogas projects

.6000 new industrial biogas projects
.total biogas output 50 billion m3 biogas
equivalent to 30 billion m³ of biomethane. In Chine it is envisaged that in the future a
percentage of the biogas produced will be upgraded and subsequently injected into the
gas grid network for use as transport fuel, CHP or industry.
34 AN OVERVIEW OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION

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