PHYSCIS LABORATORY MANUAL

SCIENCE SUBJECT AREA: DIPLOMA LEVEL

INTRODUCTION

The aim of the laboratory exercise is to give the student an insight into the significance
of the physical ideas through actual manipulation of apparatus, and to bring him or her
into contact with the methods and instruments of physical investigation. Each lab
practical is designed to teach or reinforce an important law of physics which, in most
cases, has already been introduced in the lecture and textbook. Thus the student is
expected to be acquainted with the basic ideas and terminology of an experiment before
coming to the laboratory.

The practical exercises, in general, involve measurements, graphical representation of

data, calculations analysis of results and conclusion. The student should bear in mind
that equipment can malfunction and final results may differ from expected values by
what may seem to be large amounts. This does not mean that the exercise is a failure.
The success of an experiment lies rather in the degree to which a student has:

 Mastered the physical principles involved,

 Understood the theory and operation of the instruments used, and
 Realised the significance of the final conclusions.

The student should know well in advance which practical is to be done during a specific
laboratory period. The practical instructions and relevant section of the text should be
read before coming to the laboratory. All of the apparatus at a practical work area is
entrusted to the care of the student working at that place and he/she is responsible for it.
At the beginning of each laboratory period it is the duty of the student to check over the
apparatus and be sure that all of the items listed in the instructions are present and in
good condition. Any deficiencies should be reported to the supervisor or technician
immediately.

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GOALS OF THE LAB SESSIONS

The laboratory sessions should

1. Provide you with hands-on experience that relates to Physics concepts.

2. Provide training in making measurements, recording, organising and analysing data.
3. Provide you with the experience in elementary problem solving.

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LABORATORY REGULATIONS

1. Prepare for the lab experiment/activity by reading it over first prior to the lab session.
2. Be punctually to each lab session and mobiles must be switched off.
3. Experiments will be performed in pairs. Stay with the same person throughout the term.

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4. Attendance is compulsory. Absence for some reasons should be notified in advance to
the instructor.
5. Do not leave batteries running continuously even during an experiment as they will
quickly go flat. Always insert a switch immediately after the positive pole in any
designed circuit.
6. Do not allow meters (ammeters, voltmeters, galvanometers etc) to go off scales.
Always watch the scales of the meters carefully when you connect the battery or
power supplies.
7. You must complete all experimental work during the lab session. Every
observation/results made must be recorded directly on the laboratory notebook which
must be checked and signed by your instructor.
8. You are required to submit the complete lab report in your next laboratory session (or on
a stated due date).

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LAB REPORTS

All the laboratory reports should be written in the same format described below in the
order the sections occur. Write the report impersonal and in the past tense, (i.e. third
person passive tense – “The apparatus were set as shown in Fig 1”)

1. Title: the title should include the Lab number and a simple descriptive phrase,
centred at the top of the first page. Also include your name below title, date and
name(s) of your partner(s)

2. Aim/Objective: what is the main purpose, main goal of the experiment?

3. Theory: Gives a description of the theory underlying the experiment to be

performed, what does theory predicts, and what assumptions have been made.
Define the quantities to be determined and how they are related to the directly
measured variables. The theory can be best analytically expressed in form of
equations, numbered for reference’s sake.

4. Equipment: Apparatus used to perform experiment.

5. Experimental procedure: This is a step-by-step outline of what was done in the lab,
what was measured and how was it measured. Include a simple diagram of
apparatus when necessary. Include the hazards or safety requirement in this section
when necessary.

6. Data, Calculations and results

 Tabulate raw and calculated data on a neat table(s). Raw data refer to measured
values.
 Display the data on graphs
 Obtain gradient(s), intercept(s) to deduce unknown variables
 Error analysis should also be done.

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7. Analysis: This section, usually, where questions that accompany the experimental
handout are answered. The answers must be in complete sentences and
calculations clearly shown.

8. Conclusion and Comments (or Discussion): Was the objective of the experiment
met? Were the experimental results consistent with theoretical expectations? What
were the sources of error in collecting the data and how did they influence the
results. Suggestions for improvement of the experiment should/can also be included.

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TABULATION OF DATA

1. Data tables should be organised in columns.

2. Every column should be headed with the quantity name and the unit. There must be
a demarcating mark between quantity and unity e.g. L/m or L(m), In(x/m) and T2/s2.
3. Each table should have a descriptive title at the top, stating the number for easy
reference e.g. (Table 1: Observed values of distance and time and calculated
speeds).
4. The first column of the raw data should be the independent variable. The
independent variables should be arranged in increasing or decreasing order.
5. Intervals between independent variables should be regular.
6. Raw data are given to the same degree of precision for each column (should be
consistent) (i.e. the same number of decimal places)
7. Raw data appears on the left hand side of the graph, followed by processed data on
the right hand side.
8. Processed data must have the correct number of significant figures.

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SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

The number of significant figures means the number of digits known in a number. The
number of significant figures does not necessarily means the number of digits in the
number. The rules of determining the number of significant figures in a number are:

 All non-zero digits are significant; e.g. 3456 ( has 4 significant figures)
 Zeros between nonzero digits are significant; e.g. 230504 (has 6 s.f.)
 Leading zeros to the left of nonzero digit are not significant. Such zeros only
indicate position of decimal point. e.g. 0.0032 (2 significant figures)
 135700 (4 s.f.) the two rightmost zeros are not significant because there is no
decimal point.
 1030. (has 4 s.f.); there is a decimal point, so all four numbers are significant.
 Trailing zeros to the right of decimal point are significant; e.g. 0.03400 (has 4 s.f.)
 When adding or subtracting numbers, the final answer is rounded off to the
decimal place equal to the number with the least decimals (refer table 1).

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  When multiplying or diving numbers, the final answer is rounded off to the
same number of significant figures equal to the number with the least significant
figures (refer Table 1).

Reporting Uncertainties

The number of significant digits in a result refers to the number of digits that are relevant.
When you record a result you should use the calculated error to determine how many
significant digits to keep.

Assume you measure the diameter of a circle to be d = 1.6232 cm, with an uncertainty of
0.102 cm. You round your uncertainty to one significant digit (i.e. ± 0.1 cm, which is one
decimal place). So the average diameter is also rounded one decimal place, d = 1.6 cm.

The final result with its uncertainty will be correctly written as; d = (1.6 ± 0.1) cm.

Table 1: Guidelines to Significant Figure and Decimals in Data Processing

Mathematical Operation Guidelines Example

Addition: A + B = C The decimal place of C and 10.25 + 2.4 = 12.7 (1 d.p.)
D should follow the value
Subtraction A – B = D with the least number of 9.382 – 8.5 = 0.9 (1 d.p.)
decimal places (i.e. either A
or B)

Aav will have the same

number of decimal places
as A1, A2, or A3

Multiplication: A B=E 2.735 3.2 = 8.752

E and F should be written to = 8.8 (2 s.f.)
the least number of
significant figures (i.e.
Division: =F either A or B)

T should follow the

significant figures of . The
Division: T = s.f. in n is not taken into
account as it has no
inherent error/not measured
Square: A2 =G G should be written to the 6.422 = 41.2164
same number of significant = 41.2 (3 s.f.)
figures as A.

H should be written to the

Reciprocal: =H same number of significant
figures as A.

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GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF DATA

Graphs are an important technique for presenting scientific data from tables. Graphs can
be used to suggest physical relationships, and to determine parameters such as
intercepts, slopes for straight lines etc. The following steps should be followed when
preparing a graph:

1. Give each graph a proper title and number (e.g. Figure 1: Mass vs temperature).
2. Decide which quantity is to be plotted on the x-axis (usually the independent
variable), and which on the y-axis (usually the dependent variable). Label the
quantity in each axis with corresponding units where applicable.
3. Choose a convenient scale so that the plotted points will occupy a substantial part of
the graph paper, more than ½ the graph paper.
4. Choose a nice interval like 1, 2, 5, 10 etc. avoid intervals that are difficult to plot such
as 3, 6, etc.
5. Decide whether or not the origin is to appear on the graph.
6. Plot all the points. The recommended style is dot surrounded by a small circle. A
small cross or plus sign may also be used, e.g. or x.
7. The size of the plot must be ½ of the smallest square.
8. For “straight line graph”, draw the best straight line ‘best fit’ that most nearly goes
through all of the data points.
9. If the graph is a curve, do not simply join one point to another. Instead draw a
smooth curve that comes reasonably through or close to all of the plotted points.
10. The line you draw should be clear, thin and even
11. If the slope/gradient of the line is to be determined, choose two points on the line
whose values are easily read and that span almost the full width of the graph (A
triangle can be drawn, and should cover at least ¾ the length of the line in the plotted
region). The chosen points must not be original data points.
12. Determination of the intercept
 The intercept can be read off directly from the graph if the axis starts from zero.
 If the axis does not start from zero, the intercept can be calculated by substituting
the gradient of the line and the co-ordinates of one point on it into the linear
equation (centroid values mostly preferred when calculated).
13. Calculations should not be performed on the graph paper.
14. The uncertainty of the slope can found from the following equations (ref: Figure 1)

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LINEAR GRAPHS

1) : is the equation of a straight line graph. A plot of y vs x is straight

line with slope = m and intercept = C.

2) is a linear graph equation. A plot of y vs x is straight line passing through

the origin with slope = m

Linearising non-linear equations

3) (is a inverse low). A plot of y vs produces a straight line with gradient = k.

4) (is power low). A plot of y vs produces a straight line with gradient = k

Some non-linear functions such as the power low and the exponential functions can be
linearised by taking logarithms of both sides of the equation.

5) The exponential function: If

then, In(y) = In(A) + Bx. Plotting In(y) vs x produces a straight line with gradient = B
and intercept = In(A).

6) Power low. If

then, In(y) = In(A) + B In(x). Plotting In(y) vs In(x) produces a straight line with
gradient = B and intercept = In(A).

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ACCURACY AND PRECISION

Accuracy is how close a measured value (mean value) is to the true value.

Precision is the degree of closeness of the measured values to each other. High
precision does not necessarily imply high accuracy.

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EXPERIMENTAL ERROR/ UNCERTAINTY

All measurements are subject to errors. There are three types of errors, which are
classified as personal, systematic, or random.

Personal Errors: personal errors are not really errors in the same sense as the other
two types of errors. Instead, they are merely mistakes made by the experimenter. They
arise:
 From personal bias or carelessness in reading an instrument (e.g. parallax)
 In recording observations
 In mathematical calculations on the original data.

Systematic errors: errors that tend to be in the same direction for repeated
measurements, giving results that are either consistently above the true value or
consistently below the true value. Such errors are caused by:
1. some flaw in the experimental apparatus, e.g.
 a zero offset on the scale
 improper calibration of measuring instruments
2. failure to consider all the variables that are important in the experiment (ignoring
friction on an experiment on forces and acceleration)

Random errors: characterised by deviations that change in size and sign when you
repeat a measurement. They are produced by unpredictable and unknown variations in
the total experimental process. The variations are caused by:
 an observer’s inability to estimate the last digit the same way every time
 fluctuations in temperature or line voltage
 mechanical vibrations of experimental setup.

Random errors are sometimes called statistical errors. It has been found empirically that
random errors often are distributed according to a particular statistical distribution
function called the Gauss distribution function, which is also referred to as the normal
error function. Random measurement errors are said to be normally distributed when a
histogram of the frequency distribution of the results of a large number of repeated
measurements produces a bell-shaped curve with a peak at the mean of the
measurements. The histogram of the frequency distribution is simply a graph of the
number of times the measurements fall within a certain range versus the measured
values.

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MEAN AND STANDARD ERROR IN THE MEAN (SEM)

Assume a series of repeated measurements is made in which there are no systematic or

personal errors, and thus only random errors are present. Assume that there are N
measurements made of some quantity , and the value obtained is where varies
from 1 to N. Statistical theory says that the mean is the best approximation to the true
value. Mathematically, the mean (which has a symbol of ) is given by the equation

For example, assume that four measurements are made of some quantity , and that the
four results are 18.6, 19.3, 17.7, and 20.4. Equation 1 is simply shorthand notation for
the averaging process given by

The deviation of each measurement from the mean is by . The sum of squares
of the deviations is give by the equation:

Statistical theory, furthermore, states that the precision of the measurement can be
determined by calculating a quantity called the standard deviation from the mean of the
measurements. The symbol for standard deviation from the mean is , and it is defined
by the equation

For the data given, the standard deviation is calculated from Equation 3 to be the following:

The sample standard deviation , is a measure of the precision of the measurement in

the following statistical sense. It gives the probability that the measurements fall within a
certain range of the measured mean. From the sample standard deviation and tables of
the standard error function, it is possible to determine the probability that the
measurements fall within any desired range about the mean. The common range to be
quoted is the range of one standard deviation as calculated by Equation 3.

Probability theory states that approximately 68.3% of all repeated measurements should
fall within a range of plus or minus from the mean. Furthermore, 95.5% of all repeated

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measurements should fall within a range of from the mean. For the example given
above, 68.3% should fall in the range 19.0 ± 1.1 (from 17.9 to 20.1), and 95.5% should
fall in the range 19.0 ± 2.2 (from 16.8 to 21.2). As a final note on the expected
distribution for measurements that follow a normal error curve, 99.73% of all
measurements should fall within of the mean. This implies that if one of the
measurements is or farther from the mean, it is very unlikely that it is a random error.
It is much more likely to be the result of a personal error.

A second issue that can be addressed by these repeated measurements is the precision
of the mean. After all, this is what is really of concern, because the mean is the best
estimate of the true value. The precision of the mean is indicated by a quantity called the
standard error. The standard error in the mean (SEM), which has a symbol of , is
defined by

For the example given above with = 1.1 and N = 4; the value of i.e.

In this laboratory manual, students will often be asked to make repeated measurements
of some quantity and to determine the mean. If represents the uncertainty in the value
of the mean, by convention one significant figure in is retained and the least significant
figure in the mean will be the one with the same decimal places as . In this context the
appropriate procedure is to originally calculate the mean and to more significant
figures than it is assumed are needed, and then allow the value of to determine the
significant figures to be retained in the mean.

The result is quoted in the form: MEAN ± SEM i.e.

This method of calculating an error is appropriate when we have made a reasonably

large number of readings, usually N = 4 or greater

In the example given above, the result should be stated as 19.0 ± 0.6. Notice that as
described above, only one significant figure has been retained in , and the mean has
its least significant digit in the same decimal place as .

Example 1: Precision and Accuracy

To illustrate how the concepts of the mean and standard error apply to accuracy and
precision, consider the following sets of three measurements of the acceleration due to
gravity made by four students named Alf, Beth, Carl, and Dee. The results for each
measurement, the means, the sample standard deviations , and the standard errors
are given for each student.

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The accuracy of each student’s data is determined by comparing the mean with the true
value of 9.80. Dee’s value of 9.76 is the most accurate, Alf’s value of 9.43 is second,
Beth’s value of 9.26 is third, and Carl’s value of 8.74 is the least accurate. Using the
values of the standard errors of the mean as a criterion for precision, Carl’s value is the
most precise, Dee’s is second, Beth’s is third, and Alf’s value is the least precise. In fact,
the situation is not quite as simple as has been presented. There is interplay between
the concepts of accuracy and precision that we must consider. If a measurement
appears to be very accurate, but the precision is poor, we do not know if the results are
meaningful.

Table 2
Alf Beth Carl Dee
Measurement 1 7.83 9.53 8.70 9.72
Measurement 2 11.61 9.38 8.75 9.86
Measurement 3 8.85 8.87 8.77 9.70
Mean 9.43 9.26 8.74 9.76
Standard Deviation 1.96 0.35 0.036 0.087
Standard Error 1 0.2 0.02 0.05

Consider Alf’s mean of 9.43, which differs from the true value of 9.80 by only 0.37, and
thus appears to be quite accurate. However, all of his measurements have large
deviations from the true value, and his standard error is very large. It seems much more
likely, then, that Alf’s mean of 9.43 is due to luck rather than to a careful measurement.
In contrast, it seems likely that Dee’s mean of 9.76 is meaningful because the value of
her standard error is small.

Carl’s results are an example of a situation that is common in the interplay between
accuracy and precision. Carl’s precision is extremely high, yet his accuracy is not very
good. When a measurement has high precision but poor accuracy, it is often the sign of
a systematic error, and in this case it seems very likely that Carl has some systematic
error in his measurements.

Example 2: SEM calculation

The diameter of a steel wire has been measured with a micrometer screw gauge.
Random fluctuations occur in the wire and these might be of the order of accuracy of the
screw gauge. The diameter was measured at five places along the length of the wire,
each time in two perpendicular directions and the results are tabulated in table 3.

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Table 3: Calculation of the SEM in the diameter of a steel wire
Diameter (mm) Deviation (mm) Deviation2 (mm2 x 10-6)
(i.e. ) (i.e. ) (i.e. )
0.309 - 0.002 4
0.310 - 0.001 1
0.315 +0.004 16
0.312 + 0.001 1
0.317 + 0.006 36
0.308 - 0.003 9
0.309 - 0.002 4
0.310 - 0.001 1
0.312 + 0.001 1
0.311 -0.000 0

= = 73 x 10-6

The result for the diameter is therefore

Diameter =

Note: the SEM is rounded off to 1st significant figure. Thus the mean is rounded off to
the same number of decimal places as the SEM.

Two further examples:

If and then and
If and then and

PERCENTAGE ERROR
In several experiments, the true value of the quantity being measured will be considered
to be known. In those cases, the accuracy of the experiment will be determined by
comparing the experimental result with the known value. Normally this will be done by
calculating the percentage error of your measurement compared to the given known
value. The percentage error is error is given by:

If E stands for the experimental value, and K stands for the known value, then:

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SIMPLIFIED UNCERTANTY RULES

Sum

Difference

Product

Quotient

Multiplication by a Constant

Square Root

Powers

Functions

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USE OF THE COMPUTER

The computer provides a powerful tool in collecting and analysing your data and
displaying it graphically. Data plotting software enables you to input data easily and to
plot the corresponding graph in minutes. The graph can be printed through the use of a
printer and included with your lab report.

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SAFETY IN THE PHYSICS LABORATORY

By following certain common sense in the physics lab, you can make the lab safe not
only for yourself but for all those around you. (Robinson, 2002)

1. Never work in the lab unless a lecturer/technician is present and aware of what you
are doing.

2. Never leave a Bunsen burner unattended. In case, turn off the gas immediately.

3. Dress appropriately for a laboratory. Avoid wearing bulky or loose-fitting clothes or

dangling jewellery. Pin or tie back long hair, and roll up loose sleeves.

4. Keep the work area free of any books and materials not needed for what you are
working on.

5. Wear safety goggles when working with flames, heated liquids or glassware.

6. Never throw anything in the laboratory.

7. Use the apparatus only as instructed in the manual or by the lecturer or technician. If
you wish to try an alternate procedure, obtain approval from supervisor or technician
first.

8. If a thermometer breaks, inform your lecture or technician immediately. Do not touch

either the mercury or the glass with your bare skin.

9. Do not force glass tubing or thermometer into a dry rubber stopper. The hole and the
glass should both be lubricated with glycerine or soapy water, and the glass should
be gripped through a paper towel to protect the hands.

10. Do not touch anything that may be hot, including burners, hot plates, rings, beakers
electric immersion heaters and electric bulbs. Use a damp paper towel, a pot holder
or some other appropriate holder to pick up something that is hot.

11. When working with electrical circuits, be sure that the current is turned off before
making adjustments in the circuit.

12. If you are connecting an electrical circuit, have the connections be approved by the
supervisor before you turn the current on.

13. Report any injuries, accidents, or breakages to your lecturer immediately. Also report
anything you suspect may be malfunctioning.

14. Work quietly so that you can hear any announcements concerning cautions and
safety.

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15. Know the locations of fire extinguishers, fire blankets and the near exit.

16. When you have finished your work check that the water and gas are turned off and
the electric circuits are disconnected. Dismantle and return all material and
apparatus to places designated by teacher/ technician. Follow your teacher’s
directions for disposal of any waste materials

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CHAPTER 1: EXPERIMENTAL SKILLS

ACTIVITY ES1: DATA PROCESSING

Aim
 To record data to appropriate decimal places or significant figures

PRE – PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT 1

1. State the number of significant figures in each of the following numbers and explain
your answer.
a) 37.60 = __________________________________________________________

b) 0.0130 = _________________________________________________________

c) 13000 = _________________________________________________________

d) 1.3400 = _________________________________________________________

e) 2.42 102 = ______________________________________________________

2. Calculate the following problems giving answers to appropriate decimal places or

significant figures.

a) 5.24 + 4.1 = ____________________________________________________

b) 26.28 – 19.2 = __________________________________________________

c) 1.43 + 5.0 – 0.368 = _____________________________________________

d) 24 14.8 = ____________________________________________________

e) 82 12.3 = ___________________________________________________

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3. Mass of the planet Saturn is 5.69 1026 kg and its radius is 6.6 107 m. Calculate its
density.

4. The calculated circumference of a circle, c = 5.099433195 and the uncertainty in the

circumference, ∆c = ± 0.3204424507. Write the appropriate value of the
circumference with its uncertainty in the format, c ± ∆c.

5. A rectangle piece of iron is (3.70 ± 0.01) cm long and (2.30 ± 0.01) cm wide.
Calculate its area.

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ACTIVITY ES2: DATA PROCESSING AND GRAPH PLOTTING

Aim

 To identify errors found in tabulation of readings and to process data in tables

 To practise plotting a graph

PRE – PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT 2

Procedure

1. The results in Table 4 were obtained in the experiment to determine the resistance of
a resistor. The current I is measured with an ammeter and potential difference V, is
measured with a voltmeter.
2. Identify all errors in Table 4 and fill in Table 5 with the correct format of the data.
3. Compute the values of resistance, R, and fill in Table 5 with these data.

Table 4: Incorrect tabulation

I V R = V/I
0.10 A 2.30
0.20 A 2
0.30 A 1.85
0.40 A 1.65
0.50 A 1.35
0.20 A 1.1

Table 5: Correct tabulation

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ACTIVITY: ES3 PLOTTING OF GRAPHS

AIM

To practise plotting a graph

PRE – PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT 3

Procedure

1. The readings obtained by a student for an experiment to determine the mass of

water, m, boiling off from an electric kettle after time, t, are shown in Table 6.

Table 6: tabulated values of mass of water m at a given time t.

t/s m/g
0 0
60 50
120 101
180 152
240 202
300 252
360 303

(a) Plot a graph of m on the y-axis against t on the x-axis.

(b) Draw the line of best fit.
(c) Determine the gradient of the graph.
(d) From the graph, what can you conclude about the relationship between m and t?
Justify your answer.

2. The readings obtained by a student in a certain experiment are shown in Table 7.

Table 7: Values of h versus t.

h/cm t/s
10 0.90
15 0.98
20 1.05
25 1.12
30 1.18
35 1.22
40 1.26

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 (a) Plot a graph of t on the y-axis against h on the x-axis. Start your graph at t = 0.8 s
and h = 0 cm.
(b) Draw the best fit curve through the points.
(c) Use your graph to determine the value of h when t = 1.00 s.

3. The readings obtained by a student in another experiment are shown in Table 8.

Table 8: Tabulated values of y and corresponding values of x.

y/cm x/cm

1.4 0.4
2.8 1
4 1.5
5 2
6 2.2
7.4 2.8
9 3.3
10 4
= =

(a) Identify all errors in Table 8 and redraw the table filling in with the correct format
of the data. Also calculate the centroid values for the data.
(b) Plot a graph of y against x.
(b) Draw the best fit line through the plotted points.
(c) Also draw the greatest or least slope; and
(c) Hence determine the error in the slope.

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REFERENCES

Amend, B. (2011). Physics 16 Laboratory Manual. Amherst College, Spring 2011

Columbia University (2012). Experiments in Physics: Physics 1291, General Physics I

Lab. Physics Department: Columbia University.

Fairbank, M. (2012). Physics Laboratory and Activity Manual, Second Addition.

Loyd, D., H. (2008). Physics Laboratory Manual; Third Edition. Angelo state University

Robinson, P. (2002). Laboratory manual: Conceptual Physics, The High School Physics
Program. Prentice Hall: Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

The LMN Institute of information Technology (2013-14). Physics Laboratory Manual for
undergraduates 2013-14: Rupa ki Nangal, Post-Sumel, Via-Jamdoli, Jaipur - 302031,
Rajasthan, India

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