Categorical

Propositions

Square of Opposition of
Proposition.
● This chapter is devoted to deductive arguments.

● A deductive argument is one whose premises are claimed to

provide conclusive grounds for the truth of its conclusion. If that
claim is correct—that is, if the premises of th argument really do
assure the truth of its conclusion with necessity—that deductive
argument is valid.

● Every deductive argument either does what it claims, or it does

not; therefore, every deductive argument is either valid or
invalid.

● If it is valid, it is impossible for its premises to be true without its

conclusion also being true.
● The theory of deduction aims to explain the relations of
premises and conclusion in valid arguments.

● It also aims to provide techniques for discriminating between

valid and invalid deductions.

● To accomplish this, two large bodies of theory have been

developed. The first is called classical logic (or Aristotelian logic)

● The second is called modern logic or modern symbolic logic,

developed mainly during the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries.

● Classical logic is the topic of this chapter.

Classes and Categorical Propositions
Classical logic deals mainly with arguments based on the relations
of classes of objects to one another. By a class we mean a collection
of all objects that have some specified characteristic in common.

1. All of one class may be included in all of another

class.

2. Two classes may have no members in common.

3. Some, but not all, of the members of one class may be included
in another class.
● These three relations may be applied to classes or categories.

● In a deductive argument we present propositions that state the

relations between one category and some other category. The
propositions with which such arguments are formulated are
therefore called categorical propositions.

● Categorical Propositions are the building blocks of argument, in

the classical account of deductive logic.

No athletes are vegetarians.

All body builders are athletes.
Therefore no body builders are vegetarians.
 The Four Kinds of Categorical Propositions

There are four and only four kinds of standard-form categorical

propositions.

Here are examples of each of the four kinds:

1. All politicians are liars.

2. No politicians are liars.
3. Some politicians are liars.
4. Some politicians are not liars.
Universal affirmative propositions.

In these we assert that the whole of one class is included or

contained in another class. “All politicians are liars” is an example; it
asserts that every member of one class, the class of politicians, is a
member of another class, the class of liars. Any universal affirmative
proposition can be written schematically as

All S is P

where the letters S and P represent the subject and predicate

terms, respectively. Propositions in this standard form are called
universal affirmative propositions. They are also called A
Categorical propositions are often represented with diagrams,
using two interlocking circles to stand for the two classes involved.
These are called Venn diagrams
Universal Negative Proposition

The second example above, “No politicians are liars,” is a proposition

in which it is denied, universally, that any member of the class of
politicians is a member of the class of liars. It asserts that the
subject class, S, is wholly excluded from the predicate class, P.
Schematically, categorical propositions of this kind can be written
as

No S is P

S and P represent the subject and predicate terms. It tells us that no

members of S are members of P.
Propositions in this standard form are called universal negative
propositions. They are also called E propositions.
Particular Affirmative Proposition

“Some politicians are liars,” affirms that some members of the class
of all politicians are members of the class of all liars. But it does not
affirm this of politicians universally. Only some particular politician
or politicians are said to be liars. This proposition does not affirm or
deny anything about the class of all politicians. Nor does it say that
some politicians are not liars.

“Some” is an indefinite term. Does it mean “at least one,” “at least
two,” or “at least several”? How many does it mean? Context might
affect our understanding of the term as it is used in everyday
speech, but logicians, for the sake of definiteness, interpret “some”
A particular affirmative proposition may be written schematically as
Some S is P

Propositions in this standard form are called particular

affirmative propositions. They are also called I propositions.
The diagram for the I proposition indicates that there is at least one
member of S that is also a member of P by placing an x in the region
in which the two circles overlap.
Particular Negative Propositions.

“Some politicians are not liars”, does not refer to politicians uni-
versally, but only to some member or members of that class; it is
particular. However, it does not affirm the inclusion of some
member or members of the first class in the second class; this is
precisely what is denied

Some S is not P

which says that at least one member of the class from the subject
term which is excluded wholly from the class of predicate term.
The denial is not universal. Propositions in this standard form are
called particular negative propositions. They are also called O
propositions.
Singular Proposition :
There is another sub-class of propositions, on the basis of quantity.
This is singular proposition. A Singular proposition is one in which
the predicate is affirmed or denied of as single definite individual. It
means the subject of a Singular proposition is a singular term.

Traditional logicians considered singular proposition to be Universal

Proposition. This is because in a singular proposition, the
affirmation or the denial is of the whole subject. A Singular
Affirmative proposition is treated as Universal Affirmative
proposition i.e. ‘A’ Proposition & a Negative Singular proposition is
considered as Universal Negative Proposition i.e. ‘E’
Proposition.
For eg:-

(1) Smruti is smart.

(Singular Aff. Proposition)

(2) Yogesh is not a coward

(Singular Neg. Proposition)
Propositions in ordinary language :

One already knows that a typical Categorical proposition uses

the words ‘all’ or ‘some’ to denote the quantity of the subject.

However in everyday life, one does not always use these words.
Ordinary language has variety of words, that denote these
quantities.

For Eg:-
1. Parents are always caring.

2. A few voters are patriot

(1) All Indians are Patriotic. (17) Not even one lady is old.
(2) No Managers are Engineers. (18) Most high-ways are broad.
(3) Most Actors are famous. (19) Some families are not nucler.
(4) Some flowers are not fragrant. (20) All sports-men are energetic.
(5) Every Exam is challenging. (21) No illiterates are employed.
(6) Not a single class-room is bright. (22) Some websites are informative.
(7) Some leaders are social reformers. (23) Some pens are not blue.
(8) A few leaves are not green. (24) Efforts are never wasted.
(9) Any attendance is mandatory. (25) Every proposition is a sentence.
(10) Many mobile games are addictive. (26) Some actors are great scientists.
(11) Some Taxies are not black. (27) A few artists are feminists.
(12) Toys are always colourful. (28) No social workers are managing
(13) Salesmen are never introvert. directiors.
(14) Some singers are not dancers. (29) All medicines are not bitter.
(15) Any Professor is knowledgeable. (30) Not a single radio jockey is a
(16) Some arguments are valid. football player.
Quality, Quantity, and Distribution
QUALITY:

Every standard-form categorical proposition either affirms, or

denies, some class relation, as we have seen. If the proposition
affirms some class inclusion, whether complete or partial, its quality
is affirmative.

So the A proposition, “All S is P,” and the I proposition, “Some S is P,”

are both affirmative in quality.

Their letter names, A and I, are thought to come from the Latin
word, “AffIrmo,” meaning “I affirm.
If the proposition denies class inclusion, whether complete or
partial, its quality is negative. So the E proposition, “No S
is P,” and the O proposition, “Some S is not P,” are both negative in
quality.

Their letter names, E and O, are thought to come from the Latin
word, “nEgO,” meaning “I deny.”

Every categorical proposition has one quality or the other,

affirmative or negative.
QUANTITY:

The quantity of a standard-form categorical proposition is revealed

by the word with which it begins—“all,” “no,” or “some.” “All” and “no”
indicate that the proposition is universal; “some” indicates that the
proposition is particular.
Every standard-form categorical proposition must be either
affirmative or negative, and must be either universal or
particular, the four names uniquely describe each one of the
four standard forms by indicating its quantity and its
quality: universal affirmative (A), particular affirmative (I),
universal negative (E), particular negative (O).

Terms are constituents of a proposition. The two terms i.e.

the subject and predicate of the proposition are unified by
the means of a copula. Thus a proposition has three
constituent elements, namely :subject, predicate and
copula.The order of the three elements in a proposition
is Subject-Copula-Predicate.
Eg. ‘All apples are red’.

In the above example ‘Apples’ is the subject, ‘red’ is the predicate

and the word ‘are’ which unifies both ‘apple’ and ‘red’ is the copula.

(subject term) copula (predicate term).

Distribution of terms:

In A type of proposition the subject term is distributed

because each and every member of the Subject Class
(MANGOES) is totally included in the Predicate Class
(SWEET THINGS). Where as predicate term is
undistributed because each and every member of
Predicate Class (SWEET THINGS) is not the member of
Subject Class ( MANGOES)
In E type of proposition the subject term is distributed
because each and every member of Subject Class
(MANGOES) is totally excluded from the Predicate Class
(SWEET THINGS). Where as the predicate term is also
distributed because each and every member of Predicate
Class (SWEET THINGS) is totally excluded from the
subject class.
In I type of proposition the subject term is undistributed
because there is at least one member that is partially
included in the class of predicate term. Where as
predicate term is also undistributed because there is at
least one member of predicate class that is partially
included in the subject class.
In O type of proposition the subject term is undistributed
because there is at least one member that is partially
excluded from the class of predicate term. Where as the
predicate term is distributed because it is totally excluded
from the subject class.
TYPES OF PROP. SUBJECT PREDICATE

A Distributed Undistributed

E Distributed Distributed

I Undistributed Undistributed

O Undistributed Distributed
 Types of Inference
Inference is the process of deriving the conclusion on the basis of
observed facts.
Inference is of two types, namely Inductive & Deductive
Inference.
In Inductive inference, one proceeds from particular to general
proposition.
In Deductive inference, one proceeds from general to particular
proposition.
Deductive inference is of two types :

(1) Immediate (2) Mediate

Immediate inference is a kind of Deductive

inference in which the conclusion is drawn directly from one
premise without the mediation of any other premise.

Traditionally there are two types of Immediate Inferences :

(1) Inference by Opposition of Propositions

(2) Inference by Eduction.
Inference by Opposition of Propositions:
Opposition of Propositions is the
relation between any two kinds of Categorical
propositions having the same subject and
predicate terms, but differing in either quantity,
quality or both quantity and quality.

Considering A, E, I, O in pairs we get four kinds

of oppositions.
 Contrary relation [Contraries]:

Traditinally, a pair of Universal Propositions having the same subject

and predicate terms but which differ in quality are contraries. Thus
‘A’ Proposition and ‘E’ Proposition are contraries.

For example : ‘All artists are creative persons’, is ‘A’ Proposition and
‘No artists are creative persons’, is ‘E’ Proposition.

The contraries cannot be true together, but may be false together.

 Sub-Contrary relation [Sub-Contraries] :

Traditionally, a pair of Particular Propositions having the same

subject and predicate terms but which differ in quality are
Sub-contraries. Thus ‘I’ Proposition and ‘O’ Proposition are
Sub-contraries.
For example : ‘Some rich men are handsome’, is ‘I’ Proposition and
‘Some rich men are not handsome’, is ‘O’ Proposition.

The Sub-contraries, cannot be false together but may be true

together.
 Contradicatory relation
[Contradictories] :
Two standard forms of categorical propositions that have the same
subject and predicate terms, but differ from each other in both
quantity and quality are contradictories. Thus ‘A’ Proposition and ‘O’
Propositions are contradictories. Similarly ‘E’ Proposition and ‘I’
Propositions are contradictories as well.

For example : ‘All lawyers are fighters’ & ‘Some lawyers are not
fighters’.
‘No pilots are Marine Engineers’, & ‘Some pilots are Marine
Engineers’.
Both the contradictories cannot be true together and the
contradictories cannot be false together.
 Sub-Altern relation :
When two Categorical propositions with the same subject and
predicate terms, agree in quality but differ in quantity, are called
corresponding propositions. Thus ‘A’ Proposition and ‘I’
Propositions are corresponding. Similarly ‘E’ Proposition and ‘O’
Propositions are corresponding propositions as well.

This opposition between an Universal proposition and its

corresponding Particular proposition is known as Sub-altern.
In any such pair of corresponding propositions, the Universal
proposition is called subalternant and the Particular proposition is
called sub-alternate.

For eg :-
‘No Monkeys are donkeys’,
‘Some Monkeys are not donkey’
If universal proposition in any one pair is true then its
corresponding Particular proposition is also true and if universal
proposition in any one pair is false then its corresponding Particular
proposition is doubtful.

If Particular proposition in any one pair is true then its

corresponding Universal proposition is doubtful and if the
Particular proposition in any one pair is false then its corresponding
Universal proposition is also false.