Methodology

Competency

 Chooses appropriate quantitative research design CS_RS12-IIa-c-1

 Describes sampling procedure and sample CS_RS12-IIa-c-2
 Constructs an instrument and establishes its validity and reliability CS_RS12-IIa-c-3
 Describes intervention (if applicable) CS_RS12-IIa-c-4
Short Discussion

Lesson 1 Quantitative Research Designs

Research design is defined as the rational and coherent overall strategy that the
researcher uses to incorporate all the vital components of the research study. Hence, in order to
find meaning in the overall process of doing your research study, a step-by-step process will be
helpful to you.

Types of Quantitative Research Design

Quantitative Research Designs have five general classifications: descriptive,
correlational, ex post facto, quasi-experimental, and experimental.

1. Descriptive Research
When little is known about the research problem, then it is appropriate to use descriptive
research design. It is a design that is exploratory in nature. The purpose of descriptive
research is basically to answer questions such as who, what, where, when, and how
much. So, this design is best used when the main objective of the study is just to
observe and report a certain phenomenon as it is happening.
2. Correlational Research
The main goal of this design is to determine if variable increases or decreases as
another variable increases or decreases. This design seeks to establish an association
between variables. It does not seek cause and effect relationship like descriptive
research; it measures variables as it occurs. It has two major purposes: (a) to clarify the
relationship between variables and (b) predict the magnitude of the association.
However, the extent of the purpose of correlational research depends on the scope and
delimitation of the study.
3. Ex Post Facto
If the objective of the study is to measure a cause from a pre-existing effect, then Ex
Post Facto research design is more appropriate to use. In this design, the researcher
has no control over the variables in the research study. Thus, one cannot conclude that
the changes measured happen during the actual conduct of the study.
The last two types of quantitative research designs are identifiable for the existence of
treatment or intervention applied to the current research study. Intervention or treatment
pertains to controlling or manipulating the independent variable in an experiment. It is
assumed that the changes in dependent variables were caused by the independent
variable.
There are also two groups of subjects, participants, or respondents in quasi-
experimental and experimental research. The treatment group refers to the group
subjected to treatment or intervention. The group not subject to treatment or intervention
is called the control group.
4. Quasi-Experimental
The term means partly, partially, or almost – pronounced as kwahz-eye. This research
design aims to measure the causal relationship between variables. The effect measured
is considered to have occurred during the conduct of the current study. The partiality of
quasi-experimental design comes from assigning subjects, participants, or respondents
into their groups. The groups are known to be already established before the study, such
as age educational background and nationality. Since the assignment of subjects,
participants, or respondents are not randomly assigned into an experimental or control
groups, the conclusion of results is limited.
5. Experimental Research
This research design is based on the scientific method called experiment with a
procedure of gathering data under a controlled or manipulated environment. It is also
 known as true experimental design since it applies treatment and manipulation more
extensively compared to quasi-experimental design. Random assignment of subjects or
participants into treatment and control group is done increasing the validity of the study.
Experimental research, therefore, attempts to affect a certain variable by directly
manipulating the independent variable.

Lesson 2 Sampling Procedure and the Sample

Determining the correct sample size and how the samples are selected are crucial in
ensuring the accuracy and precision of an estimate leading to valid research findings. Sampling
is securing some of the elements of a population. An element is a member of a population who
can provide information for the population. A population consists of the total elements about
which you can make inferences based on the data gathered from a determined sample size.

Sample Size Determination

A sample (n) is a selection of respondents for a research study to represent the total
population (N). Making a decision about sample size for a survey is important. Too large a
sample may mean a waste of resources, both human and financial. On the other hand, too
small a sample decreases the utilization of the results.

The following are some reasons for the use of samples:

1. A sample saves time compared to doing a complete census which requires more time.
2. A sample saves money because it is less costly than conducting a complete census.
3. A sample allows more particular attention to be given to a number of elements than
when doing a census.
4. There is a greater error in reporting results of a census caused by inexperienced
interviewers. There is less sampling error in a survey.
5. Some research studies in the industry may only be performed on a sample of items. For
example, testing the length of time a battery will last.

SLOVIN'S Formula in Determining the Sample Size

The following information is needed to be able to determine the sample size using the
Slovin's formula.

 Population (N) consists of members of a group that a researcher is interested in studying

the members of a group that usually have common or similar characteristics

 Margin of error is the allowable error margin in research. A confidence interval of 95%
gives a margin of error of 5%; a 98% gives a margin of error of 2%; a 99% confidence
interval gives a 1% margin of error.

 The sample size can be obtained by the formula:

N
n= 2
1+ N e
Where
n = sample Size
N = total population
e = margin of error2

Example
A researcher wants to conduct a survey. If the population of a big university is 35,000.
Find the sample size if the margin of error is 5%.

Using the formula

N
n= 2
1+ N e

Substituting the given data

 35,000
n=
1+(35,000)¿ ¿

35,000
¿
1+(35,000)¿ ¿
35,000
¿
1+ 87.5
35,000
¿
88.5
n=395

Sampling Procedures
Sampling is a formal process of choosing the correct subgroup called a sample from a
population to participate in a research study. The subgroup shall be the representative of the
large group from where they were selected. To create a sample, you may follow any of the
following categories of sampling techniques: probability sampling and non-probability
sampling schemes.

Probability Sampling Procedures

The most important characteristics of probability sampling procedure is the random
selection of the samples. Specifically, each sample (n) or element from the population (N) has
an equal chance of selection under a given sampling technique. Four (4) probability sampling
procedures are described below:

 Simple Random Sampling

This is the most frequently used type of probability sampling technique. This is
characterized by the idea that the chance of selection is the same for every member of
the population.
For example, assume that you want to conduct a survey of 100 senior high school
students in a certain private school. To get the desired sample size of 100, you can do
the selection process, either manually or electronically, ensuring that each student in the
population has an equal chance of being drawn from the total population of senior high
school students in that school.

 Systematic Random Sampling

Systematic random sampling follows specific steps and procedures in doing the random
selection of the samples. It requires a list of the elements and every nth element in the
list is drawn for inclusion in the sample. If for instance, you have a list of 5,000 persons
and you need a sample of 500, here are the steps to follow:
 Divide the number of elements in the population by the desired sample size. In
this case, you divide 5,000 by 500 which gives a value of 10.
 Choose a random number between one and the value you obtained from Step 1.
In this example, you choose a number between 1 and 10, let's say you choose 5.
 Starting with the number you picked which is 5, you take every tenth (10th) (from
Step 1) and you use 5 as your starting point. Thus, you have to select the
samples whose numbers are 5, 15, 25, 35, 45 and so on until you reach the
desired sample size of 500.

 Stratified Random Sampling

In this type of probability sampling procedure, the population is first divided into two or
more mutually exclusive categories based on your variables of interest in the research
study. The population is organized into homogeneous subsets before drawing the
samples. With stratified random sampling, the population is divided into subpopulation
called strata. If your variable of interest is economic status based on the family combined
income level, you can divide the population into strata of different income levels (low,
 average, high income with specific numerical value of annual family income per level).
When these have been determined, you may draw a sample from each stratum with a
separate draw from each of the different strata. The sample sizes within the strata can
now be determined.
The primary advantage of this technique is that cases from each stratum of the
population are given importance, as in the other groupings. To illustrate the procedure to
be followed in this probability sampling technique - suppose you're interested in how
frequent internet use varies by level among junior high school students. To explore this
inquiry, rather than taking simple random samples from the school's population of junior
high school students, you need to ensure that an appropriate number of students are
drawn from all levels of the junior high school track.
In this case, you have to stratify by level (first year, second year, third year and
fourth year). When these have been determined, you may draw a sample from each
stratum with a separate draw from each of the different strata. The sample sizes within
the strata should be pre-determined.
The primary advantage of this technique is to ensure that cases from each
stratum of the population are given importance as in the other groupings.
To illustrate the procedure to be followed in this probability sampling, suppose
you are interested in how frequent Internet use varies by level among junior high school
students. To explore this inquiry, rather than taking a simple random sample from the
school population you need to ensure that appropriate number of students are drawn
from each level in proportion to the percentage of the population as a whole.
In this example, if there are 1,200 junior high school students, here are the steps
to follow:
 Get the population of junior high school students per level. In this case, the
following data were recorded:
First Year 350
Second Year 300
Third Year 280
Fourth Year 270
Total 1,200
 Divide each number of students per level by the total population of 1200 and then
multiply by the desired sample size of 300.
First Year 350 / 1200 x 300 = 87.5
Second Year 300 / 1200 x 300 = 75
Third Year 280 / 1200 x 300 = 70
Fourth Year 270 / 1200 x 300 = 67.5
Total 300

You can now randomly draw out 88 from the first year level, 75 samples from the
second year, 70 from third year and 67 from the fourth year level of junior high school
students. This gives a sample that represents the whole proportionately per level.

Stratified random sampling is preferred by researchers who want to study

subpopulations where categorization of homogeneous characteristics of each stratum is
being considered.

 Cluster Sampling
Most large scale surveys use cluster sampling method. Cluster sampling is used when
the target respondents in a research study is spread across a geographical location. In
this method, the population is divided into groups called clusters which are
heterogeneous in nature and are mutually exclusive. A random sampling technique is
used on relevant clusters to be included in the study.

Cluster sampling may be classified as either single-stage, two-stage cluster sampling or

there also exists multi-stage cluster sampling. In single-stage cluster sampling, all the
 members from each of the selected clusters are used in the sampling process. In two-
stage cluster sampling, a subset of elements within each selected cluster is randomly
selected for inclusion in the sample. In multi-stage sampling, more than two steps are
taken in selecting clusters from clusters. Examples are those which consider
geographical clustering as provinces, towns or cities. Thus, multi-stage sampling takes a
large population into account.

Non-Probability Sampling Procedures

There are situations when the researcher cannot employ random selection. In cases
where probability sampling is not applicable, you may consider some non-probability sampling
alternatives.

 Convenience Sampling
This is a method of selecting samples that are available and are capable of participating
in a research study on a current issue. This method is sometimes called haphazard or
availability sampling. An example would be conducting a survey or interview on a captive
audience inside a mall or park or school to obtain a quick response of public opinion on
an issue about election of public officials.

 Snowball Sampling
Snowball sampling is a technique where the researcher identifies a key informant about
a research of interest and then ask that respondent to refer or identify another
respondent who can participate in the study. The identification of the samples follows a
multiplier effect, that is, one person is asked to refer the researcher to another
respondent and so on. This technique is applicable when researchers find difficulty in
locating special numbers of a population. The chain referral procedure allows the
researcher to reach the desired samples. For example, an ethnographic research of the
indigenous groups called Mangyans who are living in the island of Mindoro used
snowball sampling to locate respondents. Based on this unpublished research study, the
total population of the eight (8) ethnic groups called Mangyans may be around 100,000
according to official records. But according to the researcher, they are difficult to locate
because of distance (remote areas) and some have little contact with the lowlanders or
the outside world.

 Purposive Sampling
Purposive sampling sometimes called judgmental or subjective sampling employs a
procedure in which samples are chosen for a special purpose. It may involve members
of a limited group of population. For example, you may want to conduct a study on why
Grade 11 students chose the Voc-Tech track over the Academic track. You, therefore,
find your samples and your first question would be "Are you planning to go to the
university?" Those who will say "No" would not be included in the study.

 Quota Sampling
Quota Sampling is gathering a representative sample from a group based on certain
characteristics of the population chosen by the researcher. Usually the population is
divided into specific groups. If the specific condition, for example, is for both genders,
males and females are to be represented equally in the sample group, then if 60
representatives are needed, then you get 30 males and 30 females from each group.

The main difference between stratified random sampling and quota sampling can be
explained in a way that in quota sampling, you use non-random selection.

Lesson 3 Research Instrument, Validity and Reliability

 Research Instruments are basic tools researchers used to gather data for specific
research problems. Common instruments are performance tests, questionnaires, interviews,
and observation checklist. The first two instruments are usually used in quantitative research,
while the last two instruments are often in qualitative research. However, interviews and
observation checklists can still be used in quantitative research once the information gathered is
translated into numerical data.

Characteristics of a Good Research Instrument

 Concise
Have you tried answering a very long test, and because of its length, you just pick the
answer without even reading it? A good research instrument is concise in length yet can
elicit the needed data.
 Sequential
Questions or items must be arranged well. It is recommended to arrange it from simplest
to the most complex. In this way, the instrument will be more favorable to the
respondents to answer.
 Valid and reliable
The instrument should pass the tests of validity and reliability to get more appropriate
and accurate information.
 Easily tabulated
Since you will be constructing an instrument for quantitative research, this factor should
be considered. Hence, before crafting the instruments, the researcher makes sure that
the variable and research questions are established. These will be an important basis for
making items in the research instruments.

Ways in Developing Research Instrument

1. Adopting an instrument from the already utilized instruments from previous related
studies.
2. Modifying an existing instrument when the available instruments do not yield the exact
data that will answer the research problem.
3. The researcher made his own instrument that corresponds to the variable and scope of
his current study.

Common Scales Used in Quantitative Research

 Likert Scale
This is the most common scale used in quantitative research. Respondents were asked
to rate or rank statements according to the scale provided.
 Semantic Differential
In this scale, a series of bipolar adjectives will be rated by the respondents. This scale
seems to be more advantageous since it is more flexible and easier to construct.

Types of Validity of Instrument

A research instrument is considered valid if it measures what it supposed to measure.
When measuring oral communication proficiency level of students, speech performance using
rubric, or rating scale is more valid than students are given multiple choice tests. Validity also
has several types: face, content, construct, concurrent, and predictive validity.
 Face Validity
It is also known as “logical validity.” It calls for an initiative judgment of the instruments
as it “appear.” Just by looking at the instrument, the researcher decides if it is valid.
 Content Validity
An instrument that is judged with content validity meets the objectives of the study. It is
done by checking the statements or questions if this elicits the needed information.
Experts in the field of interest can also provide specific elements that should be
measured by the instrument.
 Construct Validity
 It refers to the validity of instruments as it corresponds to the theoretical construct of the
study. It is concerning if a specific measure relates to other measures.
 Concurrent Validity
When the instrument can predict results like those similar tests already validated, it has
concurrent validity.
 Predictive Validity
When the instrument can produce results similar to those similar tests that will be
employed in the future, it has predictive validity. This is particularly useful for the aptitude
test.

Reliability of Instrument
Reliability refers to the consistency of the measures or results of the instrument.
 Test-retest Reliability
It is achieved by giving the same test to the same group of respondents twice. The
consistency of the two scores will be checked.
 Equivalent Forms Reliability
It is established by administering two identical tests except for wordings to the same
group of respondents.
 Internal Consistency Reliability
It determines how well the items measure the same construct. It is reasonable that when
a respondent gets a high score in one item, he will also get one in similar items. There
are three ways to measure the internal consistency; through the split-half coefficient,
Cronbach’s alpha, and Kuder-Richardson formula.

Lesson 4 Research Intervention

Nature of Research Intervention

In experimental research, the researcher decides the nature of intervention or treatment.
Intervention pertains to what is going to happen to the subjects of the study. This decision
covers who will receive the intervention and to what extent it will be applied to them.

Steps in Describing the Research Intervention Process

A section that explains the details of research intervention is added in the research
paper if it is an experimental design. In this section, the procedure of research intervention is
explained clearly.
 Write the Background Information
It is an introductory paragraph that explains the relevance of the intervention to the study
conducted. It also includes the context and duration of the treatment.

 Describe the Differences and Similarities between the Experimental and Control
Group
State what will happen and what will not both in the experimental and control groups.
This will clearly illustrate the parameters of the research groups.

 Describe the Procedures of the Intervention

Describe how will the experimental group receive or experience the condition. It includes
how will the intervention happens to achieve the desired result of the study. For
example, how will the special tutorial program will take place?

 Explain the Basis of Procedures

The reason for choosing the intervention and process should clear and concrete
reasons. The researcher explains why the procedures are necessary. In addition, the
theoretical and conceptual basis for choosing the procedures is presented to establish
the validity of the procedures.
Generalization
 In order to integrate all the components of the research study, the research design
describes the overall strategy of the research. Types of quantitative research are
descriptive, correlational, ex post facto, quasi-experimental, and experimental research.
 Population refers to all the members of a particular group relevant to the research.
Sample is a part of the population that serves as a representative. Sample are chosen
through sampling which is a process of selecting of who will participate. The usual
sampling procedures in quantitative research are simple random sampling, stratified
random sampling, cluster sampling, and systematic sampling.
 Research Instrument refers to the tools used in research for the purpose of gathering the
data. Common scales used in quantitative research are Likert Scale and Semantic
Differential.
 It is important in quantitative research to use valid instruments. Validity refers to the
appropriateness of the research instrument. Types of validity are face, content,
construct, concurrent, and predictive validity.
 The consistency in research findings provided by instruments refers to reliability. Types
of reliability are test-retest, equivalent forms, and internal consistency.
 For quasi-experiment and experimental research designs, intervention is applied in order
to know who will receive the intervention and to what extent.