Competency

 Plans data collection procedure CS_RS12-IIa-c-5

 Plans data analysis using statistics and hypothesis testing (if appropriate) CS_RS12-
IIa-c-6
 Presents written research methodology CS_RS12-IIa-c-7
Short Discussion

Lesson 1 Planning Data Analysis

Data analysis in research is a process in which gathered information are summarized
in such a manner that it will yield answers to the research questions. During quantitative data
analysis gathered information were break down and ordered into categories in order to draw
trends or patterns in a certain condition. In quantitative research, the numerical data
collected is not taken as a whole. In order to understand it better, it is analyzed into
components based on the chosen research variables and research questions you are going
to answer.
These numerical data are usually subject to statistical treatment depending on the
nature of data and the type of research problem presented. The statistical treatment makes
explicit the different statistical methods and formulas needed to analyze the research data.

Types of Quantitative Data Collection Procedures

Observation
This method of gathering data is usually used in situations where the respondents cannot
answer the researcher's question to obtain information for a research study. The observation
is structured to elicit information that could be coded to give numerical data. As a researcher,
you have to prepare a checklist using an appropriate rating scale that may categorize the
behavior, attitude or attribute that you are observing to answer the questions posed in your
study. As you observe, you will record your observation by using checkmarks or cross marks
on your checklist.

Survey
Quantitative data can be collected using four (4) main types of survey:
 Sample survey
The researcher collects data from a sample of a population to estimate the attributes
or characteristics of the population. Example of sample survey pertains to customer
satisfaction, health care, politics, market research, academic or education surveys. At
the current time surveys concerning feedbacks from parents and teachers on the K-
12 implementation are very timely.
 Administrative data
This is a survey on the organization's day-to-day operations. This kind of data is now
supported with various ICT tools and software making it easy for organizations
especially government, schools, industry, NGO to update their records efficiently and
effectively and put up their own Management Information Systems (MIS).
 Census
The researcher collects data from the selected population. It is an official count on
survey of a population with details on demographics, economic and social data such
as age, sex, education, marital status, household size, occupation, religion,
employment data, educational qualifications, and housing. The collected data are
usually used by government or private firms for planning purposes and development
strategies. racer studies
 Tracer studies
 In school settings, tracer studies are used by educational institutions to follow up their
graduates. The survey is usually sent to a random sample after one or two years
after graduation from their courses. Tracer studies gather data on work or
employment data, current occupation and competencies needed in the workplace to
determine gaps in curriculum and other related activities between academe and
industry.

Quantitative Interview
The interview may be used for both quantitative and qualitative research studies. In
conducting a quantitative interview, the researcher prepares an interview guide or schedule.
It contains the list of questions and answer options that the researcher will read to the
respondent.

Questionnaire
A questionnaire may be standardized or researcher-made. A standardized questionnaire has
gone through the process of psychometric validation, has been piloted and revised.

Lesson 2 Planning your Data Analysis

Purpose of Data Analysis Plan

The purpose of a data analysis plan is to gather useful information to find solutions to
research questions of interest. It may be used to:
 describe data sets;
 determine the degree of relationship of variables;
 determine differences between variables:
 predict outcomes; and
 compare variables.
All of the above could be manipulated by using any or a combination of the following data
analysis strategies:
 Exploratory Data Analysis
This type of data analysis is used when it is not clear what to expect from the data.
This strategy uses numerical and visual presentations such as graphs. Since the
research of interest is new, it is possible to find some inconsistencies, such as
missing values, distribution of the data or unusually small or too large values or
invalid data.

 Descriptive Data Analysis

This type of data analysis is used to describe, show, or summarize data in a
meaningful way, leading to a simple interpretation of data. Descriptive data analyses
do not allow you to formulate conclusions beyond the data that you have described.
The commonly used descriptive statistics are those that analyze the distribution of
data such as frequency, percentage, measures of central tendency and measures of
dispersion.
 Inferential Data Analysis
Inferential statistics tests hypotheses about a set of data to reach conclusions or
generalize beyond merely describing the data. Inferential statistics include tests of
significance of difference such as the t-test, Analysis of Variance (ANOVNA); and
tests of relationship such as Product Moment Coefficient or Correlation or Pearson r,
Spearman rho, linear regression, and Chi-square test.

A. Descriptive Data Analysis

1. Measures of Central Tendency
Suppose senior high school students were asked how many hours they spent
on the computer, and in what subject they often used the computer for. Results of the
survey could indicate that on the average, the senior high school students spent two
(2) or more hours with a range of one (1) to four (4) hours. A typical senior high
school student spent more than two hours studying his/her research subject using
the computer.
In the above example, the findings are presented as averages. The use of the
phrase "on the average" and the word "typical" denote that one is interested to
determine the center or middle of a set of data.
The common measures of central tendency, sometimes called measures of
location or center, include the mean, median and mode.

1.1 Mean
Often called the arithmetic average of a set of data, the mean is the sum of the
observed values in the distribution divided by the number of observations. It is
frequently used for interval or ratio data. The symbol X̅ (x bar) is used to denote the
arithmetic mean.
The mean is calculated by summing up the observations (items, height, scores, or
responses) and dividing by the number of observations.
Mean ¿

The formula is:

n
Xi
X =∑
i=1 n

Or
X=
∑x
n

The following examples show the calculation of the mean for ungrouped data, that is
a list of data that is not recognized in any way.
 For Ungrouped data
Example 1: Find the mean of the measurement 18, 26, 27, 29, & 30
Solution:
Substitute the measurement using the formula.

X=
∑ x = 18+26+27 +29+30 = 130 =26
n 5 5
Note that the mean falls near the middle of the data set.
Answer: X̅ = 26

Example 2: Find the mean of the following:

Scores in the National
Achievement Test (NAT)
90 95 96 87 110
102 95 98 87 117
115 96 91 95 95
93 105 86 103 106

Mean (X )=
∑ x = 1960 =98
n 20
 You can use the mean when the numbers you have can be added or when
characteristics are measured on a numerical scale like those used to describe
height, weight, or scores on a test.
 For Grouped Data
When the observations are grouped into classes, the formula for grouped data is
as follows:
frequency of each class
Mean ( X )= x class midpoint
total number of observation

1.2 The Weighted Mean

The weighted average or weighted mean is necessary in some situations.
Suppose that you are given the means of two or more measurements and you
wish to find the mean of all the measure combined into one group. The formula
for weighted mean is given by:

X w=
∑ fx
n
where:
f = frequency
x = numerical value or item in a set of data
n = number of observations in the data set
Example 1: Find the mean of the heights of 50 senior high school students
summarized as follows
Heights in Frequency Height x
inches) Frequency
56 6 336
57 15 855
58 12 696
59 8 472
60 5 300
61 2 122
62 2 124
∑ f =50 ∑ fx=2905
Solution:
Using the above data, the weighted mean is equal to the sum of the column fx,
divided by the total number of observations.

Weighted Mean X w =
∑ fx = 2905 =58.1inches
n 50
When the data is grouped into classes, the class midpoint represent the “X” in
the formula.
Example 2 : Solve for the mean of the data below.
Class Frequency Class Midpoint fx
(f) (x)
76-80 3 78 234
71-75 5 73 365
66-70 6 68 408
61-65 8 63 504
56-60 10 58 580
51-55 7 53 371
46-50 7 48 336
41-45 3 43 129
 36-40 1 38 38
Total 2965

Solution:

Mean ( X )=
∑ fx = 2965 =59.3
n 50
1.3 Median
The median is the midpoint of the distribution. It represents the point in the data
where 50% of the values fall below that point and 50% fall above it. When
distribution has an even number of observations, the median is the average the
two middle scores. The median is the most appropriate measure of central
tendency for ordinal data.

 For Ungrouped Data

The median may be calculated from ungrouped data by doing the following
steps:
1. Arrange the items (scores, responses, observations) from lowest to
highest.
2. Count to the middle value. For an odd number of values arranged from
lowest to highest, the median corresponds to value. If the array contains
an even number of observations, the median is the average of the two
middle values.
Example 1:
Consider these odd numbers of numerical values:
7,8, 8, 9, 10, 12, 23
By inspection, the median is 9 because half of the values (7, 8, 8) are below 9
and half (10, 12, 23) are above 9. Since n = 7 is odd, the median has rank
th th
n+1 7+ 1 th
( ) =( ) =4 item and is equal to 9.
2 2
Answer: The Median is 9.

Example 2:
Consider these even numbers of numerical values:
12, 15, 18, 22, 30, 32.
The two middle values are 18 and 22. If the average of the two middle numbers
is taken, that is, 18 + 22 = 40 and divided by 2, the median is 20
Answer: The Median is 20.

Example 3:
Find the median for the set of measurements.
15, 20, 12, 26, 3, 30, 14
Solution
We first rank the measurements from the smallest to the largest 3, 12, 14, 15,
20, 26, 30. Since the number of cases is odd, the median has rank
Answer: The Median is 15.
Suppose the last number is 32 (rather than 30), the median is still 15. Unlike the
mean, the median is not affected by extreme values in the distribution

 For Grouped Data

If the data are grouped into classes, the median will fall into one of the classes
th
n
as the ( ) value. The process involves several steps and has for its general
2
formula the following

n
−F
2
Median=L+i( )
f
Where:
L = exact lower limit of the class containing the median (median class)
i = interval size
n = total number of items or observations
F = cumulative frequency in the class preceding the median class
f = frequency of the median class

In the following examples, the use of the step by step procedure will be
illustrated:

Example 1
The following data show the distribution of the ages of people interviewed for a
survey on a topic about climate change.
Class Frequency Cumulative
Interval (f) Frequency (F)
11-20 20 20
21-30 14 34
31-40 22 56
41-50 18 74
51-60 14 88
61-70 12 100
f= 100
th
n
Since there are 100 values in the data set, the median will represent the ( ) or
2
th
100
the ( ) that is the 50th largest value.
2
Determine in which class the 50th value falls. The first two classes have a
cumulative frequency of 34 classes.
We need another 16 values to reach 50. Thus, the 50th value falls in the next
class which contains 22 values. The median class then is 31-40.
Thus,
L = 30.5
n = 100
F = 34
f = 22
i = 10
Substitute all these values using the following formula.

n
−F
2
Median=L+i( )
f
=30.5+10 ((50-34)/22)
= 30.5 + 10 (16/22)
 = 30.5 + 160/2
= 30.5 + 7.27
= 37.77

This means that 50% or 50 of the 100 ages will fall below 37.77 and 50% or 50
will fall above it.

1.4 Mode
The mode is the most frequently occurring value in a set of observations. In
cases where there is more than one observation which is the highest but with
equal frequency, the distribution is bimodal (with 2 highest observations) or
multimodal with more than two highest observations. In cases where every item
has an equal number of observations there is no mode. The mode is
preproperate for nominal data.

Example 1:
The ages of fifteen (15) persons assembled in a room are as follows:
16, 18, 18, 18, 25, 25, 25, 30, 34, 36 and 38.
Solution:
An age of 25 is the mode because it has been recorded three times in the
sample, more than any other age.
Answer: Mode = 25

Example 2:
The number of hours spent by 10 students in an internet café was as follows.
2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5
Solution:
Both 2 and 4 have a frequency of 3. The data is therefore bimodal.
Answer: Mode = 2 and 4

Example 3:
Referring to the data on the distribution of the ages of 100 people interviewed for
a survey on a topic on national interest, the modal class is 31-40. The mode
31+ 40
which corresponds to the class midpoint would be =35.5
2

2. Measures of Dispersion
Suppose you ask a group of senior high school students to rate the quality of
food at the school canteen and you find out that the average rating is 3.5 using
the following scale: 5 (Excellent); 4 (Very Satisfactory); 3 (Satisfactory); 2 (fair);
and 1 (Poor).
How close are the ratings given by the students? Do their ratings cluster
around the middle point of 3, or are their ratings spread or dispersed, with some
students giving ratings of 1 and the rest giving ratings of 5?
The extent of the spread, or the dispersion of the data is described by a group
of measures called measures of dispersion, also called measures of variability.
The measures to be considered are the range, average or mean deviation,
standard deviation and the variance.

2.1 The Range

The range is the difference between the largest and the smallest values in a set
of data. Consider the following scores obtained by ten (10) students participating
in mathematics contest:
6, 10, 12, 15, 18, 18, 20, 23, 25, 28
 Thus, the range is 22. The scores range from 6 to 28.

2.2 Average (Mean) Deviation

This measure of spread is defined as the absolute difference or deviation
between the values in a set of data and the mean, divided by the total number of
values in the set of data:
In mathematics, the term "absolute" represented by the sign "I I" simply means
taking the value of a number without regard to positive or negative sign.

 For Ungrouped Data

The formula based on the definition is:

|x−x|
Average Deviation ( AD )=∑
n
Example 1:
Consider a set of values which consists of 20, 25, 35, 40, 45. Solving for the
20+25+35+ 40+45
mean, , the mean is 33. Find the average deviation.
5
Solution:

( AD )=|20 – 33|+|25 – 33|+|35 – 33|+|40 – 33|+¿ 45 – 33∨ ¿ ¿

5

¿|−13|+|−8|+|2|+|7|+¿ 12∨ ¿ ¿
5

13+8+2+7+12
¿
5

42
¿
5

AD = 8.4
Thus, on the average, each value is 8.4 units from the mean.

2.3 Standard Deviation

The standard deviation (SD) is a measure of the spread or variation of data about
the mean.
SD computed by calculating the average distance that the average value is from
the mean.

 For Ungrouped Data

The formula for calculating the standard deviation for ungrouped data is given
by

Example 1:
SD=
√ ∑ (x−x )2
n−1

Let us consider the same data used in the illustration for using the range. The
values are 6, 10, 12, 15, 18, 18, 20, 23 , 25, 28.
Solution:
1. Compute the mean

6+10+12+15+18+ 20+23+25+28
x=
10

175
¿
10

x=17.5
2. Subtract the x from each score (x), or x-x ̅
3. Square each difference from Step 2, or (x−x )2
Score (x) ( x−x ) (x−x )
2

6 (6-17.5) = -11.5 132.25

10 (10-17.5) = -7.5 56.25
12 (12-17.5) = -5.5 30.25
15 (15-17.5) = -2.5 6.25
18 (18-17.5) = 0.5 0.25
18 (18-17.5) = 0.5 0.25
20 (20-17.5) = 2.5 6.25
23 (23-17.5) = 5.5 30.25
25 (25-17.5) = 7.5 56.25
28 (28-17.5) = 10.5 110.25
∑ (x−x )2 =428.5
4. Sum all the squares from Step 3 or (x−x )2
5. Divide the number in Step 4 by n-1. The number of items or scores is
denoted by n. The quantity n-1 is called the degree of freedom, a
statistical concept that produces a more accurate estimate of the data.

SD=
√ ∑ (x−x )2
n−1

¿
√ 428.5
10−1

¿ √ 47.61

¿ 6.9
Interpretation of the Standard Deviation
The standard deviation allows you to reach conclusions about scores in
the distribution the following conclusions can be reached if that distribution
of scores is normal:
1. Approximately 68% of the scores in the sample falls within one
standard deviation of the mean
2. Approximately 95% of the scores in the sample falls within two
standard deviations of the mean
3. Approximately, 99% of the scores in the sample falls within three
standard deviations of the mean
4. In our example, with ai of 17.5 and a standard deviation of 6.95, we
can say that,
 68% of the scores will fall in the range
= (17.5-6.95) to (17.5+6.95)
= 10.5 to 24.45
5. Likewise, 95% of the scores will fall in the range
= 17.5- (2)(6.95) to 17.5+ (2)(6.95)
= (17.5-13.9) to (17.5+13.9)
= 3.6 to 31.4

 Inferential Data Analysis

Inferential statistics refers to statistical measures and techniques that allows
us to use samples to make generalizations about the population from which
the samples were drawn.
Below is a list of common statistical measures to measure significant
differences and relationships between variables.
1. Test of Significance of Difference (T-test)
 Between Means
for independent samples (i.e when the respondents consist of
two different groups as boys and girls, working mothers and non-
working mothers, healthy and malnourished children and the like

Case 1: δ 1 δ 2 unkown∨n1 ≥30∧n2 ≥30

z=¿ ¿

Case 2: δ 1 ≠ δ 2 unkown∨n1< 30∧n 2< 30

(x 1−x 2)−(μ1−μ 2)
t= ¿

√
2 2
s s
1 2
+
n1 n 2

Case 3: δ 1 ¿ δ 2 unkown∨n1 <30∧n2 <30

(x 1−x 2)−(μ1−μ 2)
t= ¿

√
2 2
sp sp
+
n1 n 2

Where

2 ( n1−1 ) s 21+(n 2−1) s 2❑2

s=
p
n1+ n2−2

for correlated/dependent samples (i.e when the same set of

respondents or paired sets of respondents are involved)

d−μd
t= (df =n−1)
sd
√n
 Between Proportions and Percentages
 For independent samples

z=¿ ¿

For correlated/dependent samples

p 1 − p2
D− A z=

√
z= a+ d
√ A +D
N
 Analysis of Variance
ANOVA is used when significance or difference of means or two or more
groups are to be determined at one time.

One-way Analysis of Variance

A typical ANOVA Table
Source of Degrees of Sum of Mean F-ratio p
variation Freedom Squares Square
Between groups
Within Groups
Total
ANOVA relies on the F-ratio to test the hypothesis that the two
variances are equal; that is, the subgroups are from the same population.
“Between groups’ refers to the variation between each group mean and the
grand or overall mean.

2. Test of Relationship
 Spearman Rank-Order Correlation or Spearman rho. This is used
when data available are expressed in terms of ranks (ordinal

6∑ D
2
ρ=1− 2
N (N −1)
 Chi-Square Test for independence. This is used when data are
expressed in terms of frequencies or percentages (nominal
variables).

Case 1: Multinomial

Case 2: Contingency Table

( 0−E )2
x =∑ E [ df = ( r−1 ) ( c−1 ) ] ¿
2

Where

(row total)(column total )

E=
grand total
  Product – Moment coefficient of Correlation or Pearson r.
This is used when data are expressed in terms of scores such
as weights and heights or scores in a test (ratio or interval)

Case 1: When deviations from the mean are used

r=
∑ ( x−x)( y− y )
¿¿¿
 T-test to test the Significance of Pearson r. The T-test to
test the significance of Pearson r is used to determine if the
value of the computed coefficient of correlation is significant.
That is, does it represent a real correlation or is the obtained
coefficient or correlation merely brought by
2
( f o−f e )
x =∑ ¿¿
2
fe
¿
The formula

Where
t=r
√n−2
1−r 2

r = correlation coefficient
n = number of samples

The coefficient of determination (r2) can also be used to indicat

what proportion of the total variation in the dependent variable
is explained by the linear relationship with the independent
variable. You can multiply by 100 to convert the coefficient of
determination to percent.

Lesson 3 Testing the Hypothesis

Hypothesis testing is an important part of the data analysis plan in conducting a
research study. If the researcher wishes to draw some inferences from data taken from a
sample which may have wider generalizability, this is referred to as inferential statistics and it
is more complex than descriptive statistics.
Inferences applied to the total population are valid under two conditions, namely
there is a target population and when appropriate random sampling has been used in the
selection of the samples.

Population and Sample

A measure based on a population is called a parameter while a measure based on a
sample is called a statistic. The population mean is called a parameter and is represented by
the symbol "K" (a Greek letter). The sample mean is a statistic and is represented by X.
Inferential statistics requires that the sample be drawn by random sampling. If there
is bias in sampling, it is possible for the inference to be wrong. To determine if the inference
is valid, testing the statistical significance is very important. To be statistically significant, any
relationship or difference must be due to planned interventions rather than by chance.

Statistical Significance
Statistically Significant means that a relationship between two or more variables is
caused by something other than by random chance. Significant also means probably true
(not due to chance). When the result is highly significant, it means that it is very probably
true.
The level of significance shows how likely the results of your data are due to chance.
A chance of being true indicates that the finding has a five percent chance of not being true.
A level of significance means that there is a chance that the finding is true.
Statistical hypothesis testing is used to determine whether the result of a data set is
statistically significant.

Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a preconceived idea, assumed to be true and mus be tested for its
truth or falsity. Let us suppose a researcher is concerned with testing the relationship
between variables. Through inferential statistical measures, the researcher can discover
important information even if no relationship is established between the variables. It is
possible for the researcher to discover differences and, therefore may test individual or
Consequently, the researcher should think of inferential statistics in terms of whether
it tests for relationship or association or whether it tests for comparison or difference.

The two types of hypothesis are the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis.
 Null hypothesis is denoted by H 0
The null hypothesis is the hypothesis that is always tested by a researcher. The
hypothesis indicates that there is no difference between the group means in the
comparison.
 Alternative hypothesis is denoted by H a
The alternative hypothesis on the other hand, indicates that there is a true
difference between the group means.

The results will show that (1) either there is a meaningful difference between the two
groups, thus, you reject the null hypothesis or (2) the difference between the two groups is
not large enough to conclude that the groups are different thus you fail to reject the null
hypothesis. If the null hypothesis is rejected, then the alternative hypothesis is
accepted.

Type I and Type I Errors

 Type I error is committed when a researcher rejected a null hypothesis when in fact
it is true.
 The second type of error, Type II error, is the error that occurs when the data from
the sample produce results that fail to reject the null hypothesis when in fact the null
hypothesis is false and should be rejected.

Parametric and Nonparametric Statistics

Two types of significance tests that are usually used by researchers are called
parametric and nonparametric statistics.
 Parametric tests are used for interval and ratio scales of measurement. They
require that the samples and observations are drawn from normally distributed
populations and that the selection of each case should be independent of the other.
The population should have equal variances.
 Nonparametric tests do not specify normally distributed populations and similarity of
variances. Nonparametric tests are the only tests used with nominal data or ordinal
from sample data and generalized to population phenomena is not due to chance.

Steps in Hypothesis Testing

1. State the null hypothesis.
 The null ( H 0) hypothesis is a statement that no difference exists between the
averages.

Example:
Let us suppose that an advertising agency is conducting an experiment using
two different methods of marketing strategies (X and Y) to grade 11 students.
The results of the experiment will be measured using the monthly sales of the
company.
 Strategy X is equal to strategy that is, (X = Y)
 Strategy X is better than strategy Y, that is, (X > Y)
 Strategy X is poorer than strategy Y, that is, (X < Y)
Outcome A forms the basis of the null hypothesis, a statement of no
difference in monthly sales in the populations being compared

Outcomes B and C are statements of differences between populations

and are the alternate hypothesis. For the experiment, the following are the
hypothesis:
 ( H 0) Respondent in the population where strategy X will be used
to product monthly sales equal to that of the population where
strategy Y will be used.
 ( H 1) Respondents in the population where Method X will be used
to show either more or less monthly sale than those where
strategy Y will be used. Therefore, Outcomes B and C are
combined into a single alternate hypothesis. This hypothesis is
called a non direction hypothesis and a two-tailed test is needed
for this kind of experiment.
However, if the alternate hypothesis was that respondents using strategy
X got higher monthly sales than those using Method Y, the result would
be a directional hypothesis that should be tested by a one-tailed test.

2. Choose the statistical test and perform the calculation.

A researcher must determine the measurement scale, the type of variable, the type
of data gathered and the number of groups or the number of categories.

3. State the level of significance for the statistical test.

The level of significance is determined before the test is performed. It has been
traditionally accepted by various schools of thought to use alpha x, to denote the
level of significance in rejecting the null hypothesis. It is equivalent to the amount of
risk regarding the accuracy of the test that the researcher is willing to accept. The
levels most frequently used are .05, .01, and .001. An o level of significance implies
that the probability of committing an error by chance is 5 in 100.

4. Compute the calculated value.

Use the appropriate formula for the significance test to obtain the calculated value.

5. Determine the critical value the test statistic must attain to be significant.
After you have computed the calculated measure, you must look at the critical value
in the appropriate table for the distribution. The critical value defines the region of
rejection from the region of acceptance of the null hypothesis. The areas of
acceptance and rejection in a standard normal distribution, using α= .05, is illustrated
below.
Generalization

These important point/s of this Self Learning Kit (SLK) is/are listed below.
Formula
For Ungrouped Data

X=
∑x
n
Mean
For Grouped Data

X w=
∑ fx
n
Measures of For Ungrouped Data
th
Central n+1
n is odd = ( ) term
Tendency 2
n is even = X of two middle terms
Median For Grouped Data

n
−F
2
Median=L+i( )
f
For Ungrouped Data
Mode
-the most frequent
Range Highest score – Lowest Score
For Ungrouped Data
Average
Deviation |x−x|
Measures of Average Deviation ( AD )=∑
n
Dispersion For ungrouped Data
Standard
Deviation

Spearman
SD=
6 ∑
√ D
2
∑ (x−x )2
n−1
Correlation ρ=1−
Rank-Order 2
N (N −1)
Coefficient
correlation
Pearson r=
∑ ( x−x)( y− y )
Product ¿¿¿