ELE-601 Industrial Electronics

Lecture 6 – Sensors and Transducers

Dr. Arslan Dawood Butt

CLO 1 - Section 3
 Type of Transducer
• Temperature Transducer
• Pressure Transducer
• Flow Transducer
• Hall Effect Transducer
• Proximity Transducer
 Temperature Transducer
 Temperature transducers can be divided into
three main categories.
1. Resistance temperature detectors (RTD).
2. Thermocouples.
3. Thermistors.
Resistance temperature detectors (RTD)
 Resistance temperature detectors (RTD)

 The relationship between temperature and resistance of

conductors can be calculated from the equation.

R = R0 (1 +   T )
Where
R = The resistance of the conductor at temperature t (°C)
Ro= The resistance at the reference temperature, usually 20°C
 = The temperature coefficient of resistance
T = The difference between the operating and the reference
Temperature
 Resistance temperature detectors (RTD)

 EXAMPLE:-
A platinum resistance thermometer has a resistance of 150 at
20oC. Calculate its resistance at 50oC ( 20 =0.00392).
Solution:-
R = R0 (1 +   T )
= 150  [1 + 0.00392(50 − 20) o C ]

= 167.64 
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 Resistance Temperature Detector(RTD)

 One of the most common RTDs is

“PT100” which consists of a thin film
of Platinum on a plastic film and
shows a resistance of 100Ω at 32°F.
 Its resistance varies with temperature,
and it can typically measure
temperatures from -330 to 1560°F.
 The relationship between resistance
and temperature of PT100 is relatively
linear.
 Thermocouples

• One the most commonly used methods of measuring

temperature in science and industry depends on the
thermocouple effect.

• When a pair of wires made of different metals are joined

together at one end, temperature difference between this
end and the other end of the wires produces a voltage
between the wires.
 Thermocouples

• The magnitude of this voltage depends on the materials

used for the wires and the amount of temperature
difference between the joined ends and the other ends.

• The junction of the two wires of the thermocouple is called

the sensing junction. In normal use this junction is placed in
or on the material being tested, and the other ends of the
wire are connected to the voltage-measuring equipment.
12
Thermocouples
Thermocouples

Fig (9) Schematic representation of a thermocouple assembly.

 Thermocouples
 The magnitude of the emf depends on the wire
materials used on the temperature difference between
the junctions. Figure (11) shows emf for some common
thermocouple materials. The values shown are based on
a reference temperature of 32°F. The effective emf of
thermocouple is given as

𝐸 = 𝑐(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) + 𝑘(𝑇12 − 𝑇22 )

Where,
 c and k =constants of the thermocouple materials
 T1 =the temperature of the "hot" or sensing junction
 T2 =the temperature of the "cold" or "reference"
junction
Thermocouples

Fig (10) Thermocouples and thermocouple assemblies. (a) Uninsulated thermocouple. (b) Insulated
thermocouple. (c) Probe assembly. (d) Thermocouple well.
Thermocouples

Fig (11) Calibration curves for several thermocouple combinations.

 Thermocouple
• In comparison with RTDs, Thermocouples are self-
powered and require no external excitation current
source.
• Thermocouples are commonly used for furnaces, Gas
Turbine combustion chamber, high-temperature exhaust
ducts, etc.
• The main restriction of Thermocouples is the “accuracy”
which doesn’t make it the best solution for precise
applications.
 Thermocouples
 EXAMPLE :-
During experiments with a T-type copper- constantan
thermocouple it was found that c = 3.75 x 10-2 mV/°C
and k =4.50x10-5 mV/°C2. If T1 =100°C and the cold
junction T2 is kept in ice, compute the resultant
electromotive force.
Solution:- E = c (T1 − T2 ) + k (T 1 − T 2)
2 2

mV
= 3.75 x 10 − 2o
(100 o
C − 0 o
C)
C
mV
+ 4.50 x 10 −5 o 2 (1002 − 0 2 ) o C 2
C
= 3.75 mV + 0.45 mV = 4.20 mV
 Thermistors
• Thermistor are thermally sensitive resistors that exhibit change in
resistor with the change in temperature.
• The electrical resistance of most materials changes with the
temperature. By choosing materials that are very sensitive to
temperature, we can make devices that are useful in temperature
control circuits as well as in temperature measurement.
• Thermistor are more accurate than RTD and Thermocouple, but
thermistor have limited temperature range.
 Type of Thermistor
• NTC
• PTC
 PTC Thermistor

• PTC Thermistor have low and constant

resistance below a threshold temperature (Tr)
beyond which resistance increases rapidly
• PTC thermistors are made from compounds of
barium, lead and strontium titanate.
• The positive Temperature Coefficient thermistor
used for protection of transformer and Motor
winding.
 NTC Thermistor
 NTC Thermistors are made from oxides of Iron,
manganese and magnesium.
 NTC Thermistors

• Resistance at 25°C for typical commercial units ranges

from the 100 to over 1 MΩ . A graph showing
resistance versus temperature for a family of NTC
Thermistors is given in Fig (12). The resistance value
marked at the bottom end of each curve is the value at
25°C.
• In addition to the choice of resistance values, choices of
power rating, physical size and shape, resistance
tolerance, and thermal time constant are also available.
 NTC Thermistors

Fig (12) Typical thermistor resistance-versus-temperature curves. (Courtesy Fenwal Electronics, Framingham, Mass.)
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 Thermistor Application

• In the presence of fire, the increase in temperature

lowers the resistance of an NTC thermistor, which
increases current and activates an alarm.
Pressure Transducer
 A pressure sensor is a transducer that changes
resistance with a corresponding change in pressure.
 Pressure Transducer
 Pressure is general term defined as force per unit
area that fluid exerts on wall of container that hold
it.
 A pressure transducer is a device which converts an
applied pressure into a measurable electrical signal.
 A pressure transducer consists of two main parts, an
elastic material which will deform when exposed to
a pressurized medium and a electrical device which
detects the deformation.
Pressure Transducer
• Sensor (transducer) module is part of the transmitter.
• Sensor will become active only when the transmitter is powered.
(Attenuation)
• Output Electronics in the transmitter translates the user able
electrical signal from the sensor into a standard output signal.
Output Electronics
Output Electronics

Diaphragm Sensor
Sensor Module Seal Module
 Types of Pressure Transducer
 Variable Capacitance
 Strain Gauge
 Piezoelectric Effect
 Variable Inductance
 Variable Capacitance Pressure Transducer
The capacitance C between the two plates of capacitive
transducers is given by:
C = εo x εr x A/ d
Where C is the capacitance of the capacitor or the variable
capacitance transducer
• The product of εo & εr is also called as the dielectric
constant of the capacitive transducer.
• A is the area of the plates
• D is the distance between the plates
Thus the capacitance of the variable capacitance
transducer can change with the change of the dielectric
material, change in the area of the plates and the distance
between the plates
 Variable Capacitance Pressure Transducer
• A capacitance pressure transducer is
based on the fact that dielectric
constants of liquids, solids and gases
change under pressure
• A variable capacitance pressure
transducer has a capacitive plate
bonded to one side of the diaphragm
and another capacitive plate bonded to
an unpressurized surface in close
proximity to the diaphragm. A change in
pressure will widen or narrow the gap
between the two plates which varies
the capacitance.
 Variable Capacitance Pressure Transducer
• Distortion of sensing diaphragm
proportional to the pressure
• Position of sensing diaphragm detected
by capacitor plates
• These pressure transducers are
generally very stable and linear, but are
sensitive to high temperatures.

Differential capacitance translated to 4-

20mA or 10-50mA output dc signal.
 Strain Gauge based Pressure Transducer
• Strain gauge based pressure transducers convert a pressure
into a measurable electrical signal.
• Their function is based on the piezoresistive effect: the
ability of the strain gauges to change their resistance value
in response to the physical deformation of a material caused
by pressure
 Strain Gauge based Pressure Transducer
 Because the changes in strain, and therefore resistance,
are extremely small, you have to use additional circuitry to
amplify the changes in resistance. The most common
circuit configuration is called a Wheatstone bridge.
 Advantage and disadvantage of strain Gauge

Advantages Disadvantages

•Inability to provide lower ranges (all)

•Fast response time •Low level outputs (all)
•Ease of compensation for •Sensitive to environmental vibration
temperature effects (unbonded)
•Relative freedom from •Media compatibility (semiconductor)
acceleration effects •Long term drift (all)
•Creep due to adhesive agents
(semiconductor)
 Pressure Transducer based on Piezoelectric Effect
Process Pressure
• Piezoelectric crystal is a
natural or a synthetic crystal
that produces a voltage when
pressure is applied to it.
• Voltage produce by crystal
increases with increases in
pressure and vice-versa.
• The produced small voltage is Diaphragm
then amplified to a standard
control signal.
Piezoelectric
Crystal

Control Signal Amplifier &

electronics
 Variable Inductance based pressure transducer

• An inductive pressure transducer uses the principle of

inductance to convert the flexing of a diaphragm into the
linear movement of a ferromagnetic core. The movement of
the core is used to vary the induced current generated by an
AC powered primary coil on another secondary pick-up coil.
 Variable Inductance based Pressure Transducer
• Inductance is the opposition
to a change in current flow
• Alternating current pass
through the coil
• Elastic element connected to
core
• Applied pressure deflects
elastic element
• Position of core changes
relative to coil resulting in
change in inductance
• Resistor connected in series
with inductor to measure
change in voltage.
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 Flow Transducer
• A flow detection sensor can be used to monitor product
flow in a pipe.
 Flow Transducer
• A flow detection sensor can be used to monitor airflow in
painting or welding exhaust system applications.
 Flow transducer types
• Turbine Flow meter
• Target Flow meter
• Magnetic Flow meter
 Turbine Flow Meter

• The rotating shaft with

turbine type angular blades is
placed inside the flow pipe.
• The fluid flowing through the
pipeline will cause rotation of
turbine whose speed of
rotation can be measured of
the flow rate.
 Turbine Type Flowmeter
 The volumetric flow rate can be related with angular speed
of blade by using given equation
 Advantage and Disadvantage of Turbine Flow Meter

Advantages Disadvantages
• High Accuracy • Only for low viscosities
• Suitable for extreme • Moving parts
temperatures and pressures • Sensitive to flow profile
• It can be used on gas and • Require clean fluids
liquid
Applications of Turbine Flow Meters
Liquid Turbine Flow Meter
Gas Turbine Flow Meter
 Target Flow meter
• Target type flow meter consists of
flat disk with an extension rod,
oriented perpendicularly too the
direction of flow.
• It measure the force on the target
disc and converts it to flow
velocity
• The flow velocity is converted
into electrical signal
 Magnetic Flowmeter
• Magnetic Flowmeter is known as Electromagnetic or
induction Flowmeter.
• The coil in Magnetic Flowmeter setup magnetic field. If a
conductive liquid flow through the magnetic field, voltage is
induced that proportional to average flow velocity.
 Optical Level Switch
 Pros – Compact, no moving parts, high pressure and
temperature capability, can detect tiny amounts of
liquids
 Cons – Invasive as the sensor requires contact with the
liquid, requires power
 Applications – tank level measurement
and leak detection applications
 The switch has an LED and a phototransistor inside the
sensor housing. When the sensor tip is in air, the
infrared light inside the sensor tip is reflected back to
the detector. When in liquid, the infrared liquid is
refracted out of the sensor tip, causing less energy to
reach the detector. Being a solid-state device, these
compact switches are ideal for a vast range of point
level sensing applications, especially when reliability is
essential. Optical liquid level switches are suitable for
high, low or intermediate level detection in practically
any tank, large or small. They are also suitable for
detecting leaks preventing costly damage.
 Capacitance Based Level Sensor
• Pros – Solid-state, compact, accurate, suitable for Liquid
and bulky Solid
• Cons – May require calibration, can only be used in
certain liquids
• Applications – Tank level monitoring in chemical, food,
water treatment, power and brewery industries.
• Capacitance level sensors operate in the way that
process fluids have dielectric constants, significantly
different to air. As the liquid is introduced between the
electrodes of the capacitor the capacitance changes
progressively and liquid level can be determined.
• The principle of capacitive level measurement is based
on the capacitance change of a capacitor. The probe and
the tank wall form a capacitor whose capacitance is
dependent on the amount of product in the tank: An
empty tank has a lower, a filled tank a higher
capacitance.
 Ultrasonic Based Level Sensor
• Pros – No moving parts, compact, reliable
• Cons – expensive, performance can be affected by
various elements in the environment
• Applications – Noncontact applications with highly
viscous and bulk solids. Used in systems that require
remote monitoring
• Ultrasonic sensors measure levels by calculating the
duration and strength of high frequency sound
waves that are reflected off the surface of the liquid
and back to the sensor – the time taken is relative to
the distance between the sensor and the liquid. The
time taken by the sound wave to return is directly
proportional to the distance between the sensor and
the material in the tank. This time duration is
measured by the sensor which is then further used
to calculate the level of liquid in the tank.
 Hall Effect Transducer
• The Hall Effect Transducer are used to detect the proximity and
strength of magnetic field
• When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field
,voltage will be generated perpendicular to current and magnetic field.
This principle is known as Hall effect.
 Hall Effect Transducer
• A Hall generator is a thin strip of semiconductor material
gallium arsenide (GaAs) through which a constant control
current is passed.
 Hall Effect Transducer
• Hall effect sensors are available in a variety of packages for
different applications.
 Hall Effect Transducer
• In head-on actuation, a magnet is oriented perpendicular to
the surface of the sensor and is usually centered over the
point of maximum sensitivity.
 Hall Effect Transducer
• Each change in polarity results in an output from a Hall
effect sensor used in a shaft speed sensor application.
 Hall Effect Transducer
 A Hall effect sensor can be used to monitor the level of
liquid in a tank.
 Hall Effect Transducer
 Hall effect sensors may be installed in the base of a machine
to indicate the level or degree of tilt.
 Proximity Sensor
• A proximity sensor detects an object when the object approaches
within the detection range and boundary of the sensor.

• Proximity sensor includes all the sensor that perform non contact
detection in comparison to sensors such as limit switch, that detect
the object by physically contacting them.
 Proximity Sensor
 Proximity sensors are available in an assortment of sizes and
shapes to meet as many application requirements as
possible.
 Inductive Proximity Sensor
• An inductive proximity sensor is an electronic proximity
sensor , which detects metallic object without touching
them.
• Inductive proximity sensors are used to detect both ferrous
metal (containing Iron) and nonferrous metal (copper,
Aluminum and Brass)
• Their operating principle is based on a coil and high
frequency oscillator that creates a field in the close
surrounding of the sensing surface.
• The operating distance of the sensor depends on the coil’s
size as well as the target‘s shape, size and material.
 Inductive Proximity Sensor
 Inductive proximity sensors use a magnetic field to detect
the presence of a metallic target.
 Construction and Working
• The main components of the inductive proximity sensor
are. coil, oscillator, detector and the output circuit
• the coil generates the high frequency magnetic field in front
of the face. when the metallic target comes in this magnetic
field, eddy current are induced in the surface of object.
• The eddy currents on the object absorb some of radiated
energy from the sensor, resulting the loss of energy and
change of strength of oscillator
• The sensor detection circuit monitors the oscillator strength
and triggers the solid-state output at specific level.
 Inductive Proximity Sensor
• Hence the oscillator field is affected. the rise or fall of such
oscillation is identified by a threshold circuit. That changes
the output of the sensor.
Advantages
• They are very accurate compared to other technologies.
• Have high switching rate.
• Can work in harsh environmental conditions.
Disadvantages
• It can detect only metallic target.
• Operating range may be limited.
 Capacitive Proximity sensor
• Capacitive proximity sensors use a capacitive field to detect
the presence of a target
 Capacitive Proximity Sensors
 Capacitive sensor are used for non contact detection of metallic
object and non metallic object (liquid, plastic, wooden material
etc.)
 Capacitive proximity sensor produce an electrostatic field
instead of electromagnetic field
 Capacitive proximity sensors use the variation of capacitance
between the sensor and object being detected.
 Capacitance methods are very sensitive ,distance down to one
micro inch can be measured.
 Construction and working
• The main components of the capacitive
proximity sensor are plate, oscillator, threshold
detector and the output circuit.
• The plate inside the sensor acts as one plate of
the capacitor and the target acts as another
plate and the air acts as the dielectric between
the plates.
• The capacitive sensor can detect any targets
whose dielectric constant is more than air
 Capacitive Proximity Sensor

• As the object comes close to the plate of the capacitor the

capacitance increases and as the object moves away the
capacitance decreases
• An electronic circuit inside the sensor begins to oscillate. the rise
or the fall of such oscillation is identified by a threshold circuit
and based on that output switches.
 Capacitive Proximity Sensor
• Capacitive sensors work based on the dielectric constant of
the material to be sensed.
Advantages
• It can detect both metallic and non metallic targets.
• good stability
• high speed
• capacitive sensors are good in terms of power usage
• low cost
Disadvantages
• They are affected by temperature and humidity
• difficulties in designing
• capacitive proximity sensors are not as accurate compare to
inductive sensors.
 Optical Sensor
• The proximity of the object is detected by the action of the travelling
light move.
• These sensors use light sensitive elements to detect objects and are
made up of an transmitter (light source) and a receiver
• The object within the range of the sensor can detect the presence.
 Optical Sensor
• The light emitted by the transmitter focuses on the object
which reflects to be received by the receiver photo diode.
• The reflected waves travel back and received by the solid-
state photo diode, through the receiver lens.
Advantages
• They are useful and can help many security problems.
Disadvantages
• They can easily be set off and cause problems.
• They are expensive than inductive and capacitive proximity sensor
Application
• Optical proximity sensors mostly apply in automobile/process eng. for
distance measurement, level sensing etc.
 Q&A

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