PHY-SE-4014

BASIC INSTRUMENTATION SKILLS

Unit V: Signal Generators and Analysis Instruments (Lectures 4)

SIGNAL GENERATOR

Definition: A signal generator is an equipment that is used to produce signals

of varying amplitude and frequency. It is usually a source for generating
sinusoidal signals. However, it can also produce a signal in the form of a
square wave, triangular wave or sawtooth wave etc.
The adjustable frequency range of the generated signal falls between a few
Hz and MHz. While the amplitude can be adjusted from some millivolts to
volts.

How a signal generator differs from an oscillator???????????

An oscillator also generates sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal waveforms.

But, a signal generator holds the ability to modulate the output signal with
another signal.

USE OF THE SIGNAL GENERATOR

The major use of the signal generator is to provide proper signals for the
purpose of testing, calibrating or troubleshooting of electronic circuits.

Usually, the signal generated (output) can be amplitude or frequency

modulated. However, it is not necessary that every time only the modulated
signal is produced.
BLOCK DIAGRAM AND WORKING OF SIGNAL GENERATOR

The figure here shows the block diagram representation of an

AM(Amplitude Modulated) signal generator:

In the above figure, it is clearly seen that an RF oscillator is placed at the

beginning of the arrangement. This oscillator generates a carrier signal
having a frequency range 100 KHz to 30 MHz. The frequency of this
carrier signal can be varied by making use of a selector switch.

Also, a modulation oscillator is placed that produces a modulating signal. As

we can see in the above figure that two input lines are provided in this
modulation oscillator. One is for frequency or amplitude adjustment and other
is for the selection of waveform.

This waveform selector is basically used to have sinusoidal or non-sinusoidal

waveforms at the output.
The radio frequency carrier signal through a buffer amplifier (its use: the
buffer amplifier acts as an isolator in order to provide good isolation between
the oscillator and output amplifier. This reduces the effects of distortion in the
generated signal.) is fed to an output amplifier along with the modulating
frequency signal. This output amplifier is a wideband amplifier.

So, the generated signal gets amplified in the output amplifier

This amplified output is then given to an attenuator. The reason for providing
the output voltage to an attenuator is to adjust the voltage of the signal
generated at the output in the range of 1 µV to 0.1 V.

In the case of low-frequency signals, either resistive or waveguide attenuators

are used. However, in the case of high-frequency signal waveguide
attenuators are used.

REQUIREMENTS OF A SIGNAL GENERATOR

• It must produce a signal of stable amplitude.

• The frequency of the waveform should be controllable.
• The generated signal must be free from harmonics and distortion.
So, from the above discussion, we can clearly say that a signal generator is
able to produce modulated signals of different waveforms

TYPES OF SIGNAL GENERATOR

Signal generators are majorly classified as follows:

1. Function generator
2. Sweep frequency generator
3. Pulse generator
Function generator:

Function generators are electronic devices that generate repetitive non-

sinusoidal waveforms. They are commonly used to create test signals for
measuring and adjusting electronic equipment.

They generate various types of waveforms at its output like a sinusoidal wave,
sawtooth wave, a triangular wave, square wave etc. It offers variable
frequency in the range of few Hz to several KHz.

The generation of a variety of waveforms proves its versatility as various

waveforms are utilized in different applications.

Sometimes different waveforms (generally 2) can also be generated at the

same time by a function generator.

IT’S USE:

Function generators are typically used in electronics to generate various waveforms; they
are also beneficial in acoustics, seismology, and geophysics applications.

Sweep frequency generator:

It is a type of signal generator that has the ability to generate variable

frequency sinusoidal waveform. Basically, in a sweep frequency generator,
the output frequency automatically varies between 2 selected values.

But, in this case, the amplitude of the signal is kept constant with the variation
on frequency.

Its frequency range has 3 bands i.e., 0.001 Hz to 100 KHz, 100 KHz to 1500
MHz and 1200 GHz.

Pulse generator:

A pulse generator is a compact electronic device that generates voltage, current, or power pulses.

Thus they produce pulsed waveform at its output. More specifically, this type
of generators produces rectangular pulses at its output.

Pulse generators use a clock signal or some other source of periodic timing to generate a
train of identical pulses.
These pulses occur by an external event, such as pressing a button or turning on a light
switch.

Either analog, digital or combination of the two techniques can be utilized by

the pulse generator. By varying the width of the pulses various forms of
pulsed signals can be achieved.

IT’S USE:

Pulse generators are valuable in testing and measurement instruments and industrial
control applications such as switching appliances on and off under program control.

Pulse Generators are sound in industrial, scientific, and medical areas to provide a clean
and precise source of electronic pulses

These devices are helpful in medical equipment to measure heart rates and other vital
functions.

RADIO FREQUENCY (RF) SIGNAL GENERATORS:

A radio frequency (RF) signal generator is an electronic device that generates

electromagnetic signals in the RF (radio frequency) portion of the spectrum.

RF signal generators are helpful in terms of testing and troubleshooting purposes,

especially in the development stages of consumer electronics devices, such as mobile
phones.

RF signal generators have two primary uses:

1. Generating a carrier signal for electronics testing and

2. Calibration of a source of modulated RF signals for electronic component failure
analysis.
RF signal generators produce sinusoidal and pulse-modulated RF signals with an arbitrary
waveform and modulation. It makes RF signal generators a valuable tool for testing many devices,
including wireless receivers from cell phones to Wi-Fi receivers
DISTORTION FACTOR OR TOTAL HARMONIC DISTORTION (THD )

Harmonic distortion tends to widen the frequency spectrum of the output emissions from a device by
adding signals at multiples of the input frequency. Hence it distorts the original signal.
THD is a measurement of the harmonic distortion present in a signal.
THD or distortion factor is defined as the ratio of the sum of the powers of all harmonic components
to the power of the fundamental frequency.
The THD is usually expressed in percent or in dB relative to the fundamental as distortion
attenuation.
In audio systems, lower distortion means the components in a loudspeaker, amplifier or
microphone or other equipment produce a more accurate reproduction of an audio recording.

MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION:

When a sinusoidal signal of frequency ω passes through a non-ideal, non-linear device, additional
content is added at multiples nω (harmonics) of the original frequency. THD is a measure of that
additional signal content not present in the input signal.

• If we want to know the contribution of the original frequency with respect to its
harmonics , then the measurement of THD is most commonly defined as the ratio of the
RMS (Root Mean Square ) amplitude of a set of higher harmonic frequencies(i.e., 2nd, 3rd,
4th…….and so on) to the RMS amplitude of the first harmonic, or fundamental frequency and
is represented by THDF.

Where V1 is the RMS value of the fundamental component(1st harmonic) and V2,V3,V4…… are the
RMS value of the 2nd, 3rd ,4th harmonics and so on.
Measurements for calculating the THD are made at the output of a device under specified
conditions.

A variant definition uses the fundamental plus harmonics as the reference, though usage is
discouraged.
These can be distinguished as THDF (for "fundamental"), and THDR (for "root mean square").

DISTORTION FACTOR METER

Distortion meter (or more precisely distortion factor meter) is an electronic measuring instrument
which displays the amount of distortion added to the original signal by an electronic circuit.

A distortion factor meter is actually a level-meter with two switchable parallel circuits at the input.
The first circuit measures the total signal at the output of a system. (For low distortion levels this will
be almost equal to fundamental). That value is adjusted to read 100% or, equivalently, to 0 dB. The
second circuit is a high pass filter which removes (as much as practical) the fundamental frequency.
This can be a notch filter, one which passes all but the fundamental, with negligible attenuation at
other frequencies (including whatever harmonics might be present). Alternatively, if the distortion
products are at higher frequencies, a high-pass filter can be used if its cutoff rate is sufficiently steep
to not affect the expected distortion products. The output of the filter is measured as a percentage of
the fundamental, and the reported value will be the distortion value.