EC4040

Signals and Systems

1. What is signals?
It conveys information from one point to another point.

2. How it is generated?
a. It may be generated by electronic means.
b. It may be generated by natural means, such as talking, walking, earthquake

3. Examples of signals
a. Electrical signals – voltage and current in circuits
b. Acoustic signals – speech signals
c. Mechanical signals – velocity of a car over time
d. Video signals – intensity of a pixel over time
e. Stock market price

4. How we can represent the signals?

a. Signals are represented as a function of one or more independent variable.
b. It does not necessarily be represented as time/more variables
c. For example, electric charge over an object is a function of independent
variable, space.

5. Classification of signals
a. Continuous-time and discrete time signals
b. Analogue and digital signals
c. Periodic and aperiodic signals
d. Energy and power signals
e. Deterministic and random signals
f. Casual and non-casual signals
g. Even and odd signals

A. Continuous-time (CT) and discrete time (DT) signals

CT signals take on real or complex values signals as a function of an independent variable

that ranges over the real numbers and are denoted as x(t).

DT signals take on real or complex values as a function of an independent variable that

ranges over the integers and are denoted as x[nl.

Note the subtle use of parentheses and square brackets to distinguish between CT and DT
signals.
 B. Analogue and digital signals

• If amplitude of the signal can take any value in the continuous range that is called
Analogue signal.
• If amplitude of the signal can take a value from only a finite number of values that is
called Digital signal.

C. Periodic and aperiodic signals

• Periodic signals have the property that x(t+T) = x (t) for all t.
• The smallest value of T that satisfies the definition is called the fundamental period of
x(t).
• Eg: Asin(t) is periodic signal
 D. Deterministic and random signals

Deterministic signals :
• Behavior of these signals is predictable w.r.t time
• There is no uncertainty with respect to its value at any time.
• These signals can be expressed mathematically.
• For example x(t) = sin(3t) is deterministic signal.

Random Signals:
• Behavior of these signals is random i.e. not predictable w.r.t time.
• There is an uncertainty with respect to its value at any time.
• These signals can't be expressed mathematically
• For example: Thermal Noise generated is non deterministic signal.

E. Casual and non-casual signals

• A signal is causal if it is zero for all negative time

• A signal is anti-causal if it is zero for all positive values
• A signal is non-causal if it has non zero values for positive and negative time

F. Even and odd signals

• Even signals xe(t) and odd signals xo(t) are defined as

xe(t) = xe(-t) and xo(t) = - xo(-t).
 G. Energy and power signals

Question 1:
State whether x(t) = Sin2 (t) is Energy signal or Power signal?

Question 2:
State whether x(t) = et is Energy signal or Power signal?
• This signal has infinite average energy and power. Therefore, this signal belongs to
neither of these two signals.
è This signal cannot be power and energy
 Basic operations on Signals
There are two variable parameters in general:
1. Amplitude
2. Time

(1) The following operation can be performed with amplitude:

Amplitude Scaling

C x(t) is a amplitude scaled version of x(t) whose amplitude is scaled by a factor C.

Addition

Addition of two signals is nothing but addition of their corresponding amplitudes. This can be
best explained by using the following example:
Subtraction

subtraction of two signals is nothing but subtraction of their corresponding amplitudes. This
can be best explained by the following example:

Multiplication

Multiplication of two signals is nothing but multiplication of their corresponding amplitudes.

This can be best explained by the following example:
(2) The following operations can be performed with time:

Time Shifting

x(t ±t0) is time shifted version of the signal x(t).

x (t + t0) → negative shift

x (t - t0) → positive shift

Time Scaling

x(At) is time scaled version of the signal x(t). where A is always positive.

|A| > 1 → Compression of the signal

|A| < 1 → Expansion of the signal

Note: u(at) = u(t) time scaling is not applicable for unit step function

Time Reversal

x(-t) is the time reversal of the signal x(t).

Elementary Signals or Basic Signals:

Unit Step Function

Unit step function is denoted by u(t).

It is defined as u(t) = 1 when t ≥ 0 and

0 when t < 0
 • It is used as best test signal.
• Area under unit step function is unity.

Unit Impulse Function

Impulse function is denoted by δ(t).

0, 𝑡 ≠ 0
δ(𝑡) = $
∞, 𝑡 = 0
Multiplying by unit impulse function

Q(t) δ(t) = Q(0) δ(t) à signal multiplication

Q(t) δ(t - T) = Q(T) δ(t - T) à Time shifting

!
δ(at) = |#|
δ(t) à Time scaling

$ &(()
δ(t) = $(

Ramp Signal

Ramp signal is denoted by r(t), and it is defined as

r(t) =

Area under unit ramp is unity

Exercise
 Exponential Signal

Real Exponential signal is in the form of x(t) =eαt .

The shape of exponential can be defined by α

Casei:if α= 0→x(t) = e0= 1

Caseii: if α< 0 i.e.-ve then x(t) = e−αt

The shape is called decaying exponential.

Caseiii: if α> 0 i.e.+ve then x(t)= eαt

The shape is called raising exponential.
Complex CT Exponential signal can be defined by:

𝑓(𝑡 ) = 𝐴 𝑒 !" s = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔

= 𝐴 𝑒 ($%&')" = 𝐴 𝑒 $" 𝑒 &'"

= 𝐴 𝑒 $" (Cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑗 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡) àEuler's Rules (1)

Re (𝑓(𝑡)) = 𝐴 𝑒 $" Cos 𝜔𝑡

Im (𝑓(𝑡)) = 𝐴 𝑒 $" Sin 𝜔𝑡

Conjugate of s is s* = 𝜎 − 𝑗𝜔

𝐴 𝑒 !∗" = 𝐴 𝑒 $" (Cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑗 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡) (2)

From Eq. (1) and (2),

𝑒 $" Cos 𝜔𝑡 = ½ (𝑒 !" + 𝑒 !∗" )

Special cases of exponential function

1. s = 0 à 𝐴 𝑒 !" = 𝐴 𝑒 *" = 𝐴 à constant

2. 𝜔 = 0 à s = 𝜔 à a monotonic exponential function, 𝑒 $"
3. 𝜎 = 0 à s = ±𝜔𝑡 à sinusoid, cos 𝜔𝑡
4. s = 𝜎 ± 𝑗𝜔 à 𝑒 $" Cos 𝜔𝑡 à exponentially varying sinusoid

Question: Draw the signal x(t) = 𝑒 +$" 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡)

(a) 𝜎 = 0 (b) 𝜎 < 0 (c) 𝜎 > 0

 Systems
System process input signals to produce output signals.

A system takes signal as an input and transform it into another signal.

Multiple inputs and multiple outputs are possible.

Classification of Systems:

Systems are classified into the following categories:

• Liner and Non-liner Systems

• Time Variant and Time Invariant Systems
• Liner Time variant and Liner Time invariant systems
• Static (memoryless) and Dynamic (with memory) Systems
• Causal and Non-causal Systems
• Invertible and Non-Invertible Systems
• Stable and Unstable Systems
Linear and Non-linear Systems

A system is said to be linear when it satisfies superposition and homogenate principles.

Consider two systems with inputs as x1(t), x2(t), and outputs as y1(t), y2(t) respectively. Then,
according to the superposition and homogenate principles,

T [a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t)] = a1 T[x1(t)] + a2 T[x2(t)]

∴ T [a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t)] = a1y1(t) + a2 y2(t)

From the above expression, is clear that response of overall system is equal to response of

individual system.

Example:

1. y(t) = x2(t)

Solution:

y1 (t) = T[x1(t)] = 𝑥!* (t)

y2 (t) = T[x2(t)] = 𝑥!* (t)

T [a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t)] = [ a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t)]2

Which is not equal to a1y1(t) + a2 y2(t). Hence the system is said to be non linear.

2. y(t) = f(2t) + 3 f(t)

Solution:

y1 (t) = f1(2t) + 3 f1(t)

y2 (t) = f2(2t) + 3 f2(t)

T [a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t)] = {a f1(2t) + b f2(2t)} + 3{af1(t) + b f2(t)}

= a (f1(2t) + 3 f1(t)) + b (f2(2t) + 3 f2(t))

= a y1 (t) + b y2 (t)

Hence the system is said to be linear

Time Variant and Time Invariant Systems

A system is said to be time variant if its input and output characteristics vary with time.
Otherwise, the system is considered as time invariant.

The condition for time invariant system is:

y (n , t) = y(n-t)

The condition for time variant system is:

y (n , t) ≠ y(n-t)

Where y (n , t) = T[x(n-t)] = inputchange

y (n-t) = output change

Example:

1. y(n) = x(-n)
y(n, t) = T[x(n-t)] = x(-n-t)

y(n-t) = x(-(n-t)) = x(-n + t)

∴ y(n, t) ≠ y(n-t). Hence, the system is time variant.

2. y(t) = x (t - 2) + x(2 – t)

Liner Time variant (LTV) and Liner Time Invariant (LTI) Systems

If a system is both liner and time variant, then it is called liner time variant (LTV) system.

If a system is both liner and time Invariant then that system is called liner time invariant
(LTI) system.

Example:

1. check y(t) = t x(t) + 4 is LTI System

Static and Dynamic Systems

Static system is memory-less whereas dynamic system is a memory system.

Example 1: y(t) = 2 x(t)

For present value t=0, the system output is y(0) = 2x(0). Here, the output is only dependent
upon present input. Hence the system is memory less or static.

Example 2: y(t) = 2 x(t) + 3 x(t-3)

For present value t=0, the system output is y(0) = 2x(0) + 3x(-3).

Here x(-3) is past value for the present input for which the system requires memory to get this
output. Hence, the system is a dynamic system.

Causal and Non-Causal Systems

A system is said to be causal if its output depends upon present and past inputs, and does not
depend upon future input.

For non causal system, the output depends upon future inputs also.

Example 1: y(n) = 2 x(t) + 3 x(t-3)

For present value t=1, the system output is y(1) = 2x(1) + 3x(-2).
Here, the system output only depends upon present and past inputs. Hence, the system is
causal.

Example 2: y(n) = 2 x(t) + 3 x(t-3) + 6x(t + 3)

For present value t=1, the system output is y(1) = 2x(1) + 3x(-2) + 6x(4) Here, the system
output depends upon future input. Hence the system is non-causal system.

Invertible and Non-Invertible systems

A system produces output y(t) from input x(t). if x(t) can be obtained using some operation
on y(t), then it is called invertible system. Otherwise, it is non invertible system.

A system is said to invertible if the input of the system appears at the output.

Y(S) = X(S) H1(S) H2(S)

= X(S) H1(S) · 1(H1(S))

Since H2(S) = 1/( H1(S) )

∴ Y(S) = X(S) → y(t) = x(t)

Hence, the system is invertible.
If y(t) ≠ x(t), then the system is said to be invertible system.

Example 1: y(t) = |x(t)| à non invertible system

Example 1: y(t) = 3x(t) + 4 à invertible system

Stable and Unstable Systems

The system is said to be stable only when the output is bounded for bounded input. For a
bounded input, if the output is unbounded in the system then it is said to be unstable.

Note: For a bounded signal, amplitude is finite.

Example 1: y (t) = x2(t)

Let the input is u(t) (unit step bounded input) then the output y(t) = u2(t) = u(t) = bounded
output.

Hence, the system is stable.

Example 2: y (t) = ∫x(t)dt

Let the input is u(t) (unit step bounded input) then the output y(t) = ∫u(t)dt = ramp signal

(unbounded because amplitude of ramp is not finite it goes to infinite when t → infinite).
Hence, the system is unstable.

Examples

1. Draw the below graphs

a. Time shift x(t-2)

b. Time reversal x(-t)
c. Time scaling x(2t)
d. x(3t-5)
 e. x(1-t)

!"#$
2. Determine the fundamental period of following signal, x(t) = 𝑒 %

3. Suppose x(t) is periodic and a> 0, is y(t) = x(at) periodic?

(
4. Y(t) = ∫+, 𝑥(𝑡)𝑑(𝑡), Is it causal system?
5. Y(t) = 2x2 (t-1) + x(3t), Proof it is stable system?
6. Y(t) = tx(t), Is it time variant or invariant signal?