ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEM

MODULE 1
What is Ecology?

• The word ecology is derived from Greek words ‘Oikos’ meaning house, habitat or place of living
and ‘Logos’ meaning to study. The meaning of the word ecology was given by German Biologist
Ernst Haeckel in 1869.
• The study of interrelationship and interaction of different organisms with each other and with their
environment.
• It is concerned with the general principles that apply to both animals and plants.

OBJECTIVES OF ECOLOGICAL STUDIES

It is important for humanity to understand its environment because we have the ability to modify the
environment through the use of technology. Therefore, ecology is more than just the understanding of the
interrelationships between organisms and their environment; it also has social, political, economic, and
technological dimensions. It also is a study of the evolutionary development of organisms, biological
productivity, and energy flow in the natural system to develop mathematical models to relate the
interaction of parameters and to predict the effects.

CLASSIFICATION OF ECOLOGY

Based on the study area:

1. Autecology: It deals with the study of an individual species of organisms and its population. This
study the behavior and adaptations of particular species to the environmental condition at every
stage of that individual’s life cycle. It is also called species ecology.

2. Synecology: It deals with the study of communities, their composition, their behavior, and their
relation with the environment. It is also called as Ecology of communities.
Based on Environment or habitat:

1. Aquatic ecology: The study of the interaction of organisms in the water

Marine water ecology – Ocean, Deep Sea, Estuary
Freshwater Ecology – Letic (Running water) – River, Stream, Spring
Lentic (Standing Water) – Pond, Lake

2. Terrestrial Ecology: The study of the interaction of organisms on land surfaces and is divided into
grassland ecology, forest ecology & desert ecology.
 Based on Advancement in the field of ecology

a. Productive ecology

b. Population ecology

c. Community ecology

d. Ecosystem ecology

e. Microbial ecology

f. Radiation ecology

g. Pollution ecology

h. Space ecology

TYPES OF ECOLOGY LEVELS

Organism Ecology
Organismal ecology is the study of an individual organism’s behaviour, morphology, physiology, etc. in
response to environmental challenges. Ecologists research how organisms are adapted to these non-living
and living components of their surroundings. Individual species are related to various adaptations like
physiological adaptation, morphological adaptation, and behavioural adaptation.

Population Ecology
It deals with factors that alter and impact the genetic composition and the size of the population of same
species. Population ecology examines the population distribution and density. Population density is the
number of individuals in a given volume or area. This helps in determining whether a particular species is
in endanger or its number is to be controlled and resources to be replenished.

Community Ecology
It deals with how community structure is modified by interactions among living organisms. Ecology
community is made up of two or more populations of different species living in a particular geographic
area.

Ecosystem Ecology
It deals with the entire ecosystem, including the study of living and non-living components and their
relationship with the environment. This science researches how ecosystems work, their interactions, etc.

Landscape Ecology
It deals with the exchange of energy, materials, organisms and other products of ecosystems. Landscape
Ecology study the habitat fragmentation (such as deforestation) or the migration of organisms between
ecosystems, etc.

Biosphere
It deals with interactions among earth’s ecosystems, land, atmosphere, and oceans. It helps to understand
the large-scale interactions and their influence on the planet, the role of greenhouse gases, the effects of
climate change on ecosystems and organisms, etc.
ECOSYSTEM
Introduction
An ecosystem is a biological community where the living and non-living components interact with each
other as their physical environment. It is the functional unit of nature and varies greatly in size.

Types of Ecosystems
1. Natural ecosystem
a) Aquatic Ecosystem. Eg- Running water, standing water, Marine ecosystem
b) Terrestrial Ecosystem. Eg- Grassland, forest, desert ecosystem.

2. Artificial ecosystem - Man-made ecosystem – operated and maintained by man himself

Eg : Cropland, Gardens.

STRUCTURE (or) COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM

The structure of an ecosystem explains the relationship between the abiotic (non –living) and the biotic
(living) components. An ecosystem has two major components.

• Biotic (living) components.

• Abiotic (non-living) components.
Biotic components

The living organisms (or) living members in an ecosystem collectively form their community called biotic
components (or) biotic community. Examples:-Plants (producers), animals (consumers) and micro
organisms (decomposers). The members of biotic components of an ecosystem are grouped in to three,
based on how they get food.

● Producer (plants)
● Consumer (Animals)
● Decomposers (Micro-organisms)

Producers (Autotrophs)(self-feeders)
Make their own food from compounds that are obtained from their environment. They are the source of all
food in an ecosystem. On land, most producers are green plants. In freshwater and marine ecosystems,
algae and plants are the major producers near shorelines. In open water, the dominant producers are
phytoplankton (most of them microscopic) that float or drift in the water.
Most producers capture sunlight to make carbohydrates (such as glucose) by photosynthesis. Eg
Photosynthesis The green pigments called chlorophyll, present in the leaves of plants, converts CO2 and
H2O in the presence of sunlight into carbohydrates.

6CO2 + 12H2O ----> C6H12O6 + 6O2 +6H2O

Consumers (Heterotrophs) (“other feeders”)

Get their energy and nutrients by feeding on other organisms or their remains.
• Primary consumers: Are those that eat producers (plants) as a source of food. They are also known
as herbivores.
• Secondary consumers or carnivores: Eat other animals.

• Tertiary Consumers: Large Carnivores which feed on secondary consumers.

• Quaternary Consumers: Largest Carnivores that feed on tertiary consumers. They are not eaten by
any animals.
Omnivores: Have mixed diet that include both plants and animals.
Decomposer:

Mostly certain types of bacteria and fungi are specialized consumers that recycle organic matter in
ecosystems. They do this by breaking down (biodegrading) dead organic material to get nutrients and
releasing the resulting simpler inorganic compounds into the soil and water, where they can be taken up as
nutrients by producers.

Abiotic components

Consists of Non-living chemical & physical components such as water, air, nutrients in the soil or water &
Solar Energy. Physical & chemical factors that influence living organisms in land (terrestrial) ecosystem
& aquatic life zones. Abiotic factors can act as limiting factors that keep a population at a certain level.
Abiotic Components are mainly of two types they are Climatic factors and Edaphic factors
Climatic Factors: which include rain, temperature, light, wind, etc.
Edaphic Factors: which include soil, pH, Topography, Minerals, etc.

ECOLOGICAL BALANCE
Ecological balance is a term used to describe the equilibrium between living organisms such as human
being, plants, and animals as well as their environment. Human being plays a key role to maintain
ecological balance because they have the highest thinking capacity as compared to other living organisms.
Sufficient food availability to all living organisms and their stability reflect the existence of ecological
balance. Therefore, this balance is very important because it ensures survival, existence and stability of
the environment. For example, human activities such as farming and resources exploitation are checked to
prevent excessive destruction of the forests. Deforestation leads to drought. Drought reduces food
production resulting to insufficient food. Insufficient food leads to starvation and later death occurs, hence
reducing the existence of some species.

ECOLOGICAL IMBALANCE

Ecological imbalance is when a natural or human-caused disturbance disrupts the natural balance of an
ecosystem. A disturbance is any change that causes a disruption in the balance of an ecosystem. Examples
of natural disturbances are volcanic eruptions, floods, and natural fires. Examples of human caused
disturbances are introducing a new species against nature logging a forest, pollution, and overhunting of a
species.

Environmental Issues Related to Ecological Imbalance

Global problems: These are problems that affect different nations and can only be resolved through the
solidarity of affected nations. Some global problems are global warming or the greenhouse effect, acid
rain, pollution (Air and Marine Pollution), depletion of the ozone layer in the atmosphere, and radioactive
fallout because of nuclear war.

National problem: These are problems that affect a country and can only be resolved within the country.
These national environmental issues are pollution (air, water and soil), degradation of natural resources
such as soil erosion, deforestation, depletion of wildlife, shortage of energy, degradation of marine
ecosystems and depletion of mineral resources and alteration and inconsistent land use like the conversion
of agricultural land into industrial estates, conversion of mangrove swamps into fishponds and salt beds.

Greenhouse effect:
When the Sun’s energy reaches the Earth’s atmosphere, some of it is reflected back to space and the rest is
absorbed and re-radiated by greenhouse gases. Greenhouse gases include water vapour, carbon dioxide,
methane, nitrous oxide, ozone and some artificial chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). The
problem we now face is that human activities – particularly burning fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas),
agriculture and land clearing – are increasing the concentrations of greenhouse gases. This is the enhanced
greenhouse effect, which is contributing to warming of the Earth.
Acid Rain:
Acid rain refers to rain which is acidic in nature. It is generally complex mixture of ��2S04 along with
��2S��3 and HN��3 along with HN��2. The SO2 and NOX react with water, oxygen and other
chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. These then mix with water and other materials before falling
to the ground. The major sources of SO2 and NOX in the atmosphere are burning of fossil fuels to
generate electricity -Two thirds of SO2 and one fourth of NOX in the atmosphere come from electric
power generators, vehicles and heavy equipment, manufacturing, oil refineries and other industries.

Theories of balance

Gaia hypothesis
The entire range of living matter on Earth from whales to viruses and from oaks to algae could be
regarded as constituting a single living entity capable of maintaining Earth’s atmosphere to suit its overall
needs and endowed with faculties and powers far beyond those of its constitute parts” . Two ways Gaia
accomplishes this include:
1. Allowing evolution so species may meet new environmental changes
2. Ensuring a great diversity of life.

Chaos Hypothesis:
Chaos theory, in mechanics and mathematics, the study of apparently random or unpredictable behavior in
systems governed by deterministic laws. Chaotic behavior exists in many natural systems, such as weather
and climate. It also occurs spontaneously in some systems with artificial components, such as road traffic.

Maintaining The Ecological Balance

1. Manage Natural Resources Carefully

2. Control the Population
3. Protect the Water
4. Reduce Logging
5. Reduce chlorofluorocarbon
6. Stop open burning (RA 9003)
BIOSPHERE

The biosphere is made up of the parts of Earth where life exists. The biosphere extends from the deepest
root systems of trees, to the dark environment of ocean trenches, to lush rain forests and high mountain
tops.
The biosphere is made of three parts, called
• Lithosphere - Earth
 • Atmosphere - Air
• Hydrosphere - Water

LITHOSPHERE

The lithosphere is the terrestrial part of the biosphere. The deeper parts of the lithosphere, known as the
lower mantle and the core, do not support life, other parts of lithosphere supports a variety of life from
bacteria to large mammals and trees. The weathering of the lithosphere crust forms soil, which provides
minerals and organic waste to support life. This solid, rocky crust is composed of a number of different
rocks that have been grouped into three categories are metamorphic rocks, igneous rocks and sedimentary
rocks.
• Metamorphic rocks – Metamorphic rocks are formed by heat and pressure from pre-existing rocks.

• Igneous rocks – igneous rocks are formed by the cooling of hot molten rock also known as magma.
When the hot magma cools it begins to harden meaning once it had fully cooled it create what is
known to be an igneous rock
• Sedimentary rocks – sedimentary rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks. When rocks erode and
mix with other dirt, clay and particles then settle together the mix together to form a sedimentary
 rock

ATMOSPHERE
The atmosphere is the gaseous envelope surrounding a planet. On Earth, it is also called air. The lower
regions of the atmosphere contain gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide that are essential for plant and
animal respiration. Birds, insects and other life can be found up to approximately 2,000 meters above the
earth’s surface. The atmosphere also plays critical roles in shaping the biosphere by deflecting harmful
radiation from the sun and determining weather patterns.
Layers of the Atmosphere

• Troposphere - the lowest layer, which contains 90% of the atmosphere's mass. This is also where all
living things are found and where all weather occurs. Airplanes fly at the very top of the
troposphere, so they can fly over the weather, which causes turbulence. The troposphere is also
the thinnest layer, only about 10 miles high.
• Stratosphere - the second layer up from the ground. This layer extends from about 10-30 miles, and
unlike the troposphere, it increases in temperature with elevation. It starts out from about -60°F at
the bottom to about 32°F, at the top). This is because ozone molecules form here and absorb the
warm ultraviolet radiation from the sun.
• Mesosphere - the third and middle layer. This layer extends from 30-50 miles in altitude, and unlike
the stratosphere below, it absorbs very little solar radiation. This layer is incredibly cold, going
from freezing at the bottom to about -130°F at the top.
• Thermosphere - the largest layer, extending from 50-300 miles. Satellites orbit Earth here, and this
layer actually increases in temperature with increasing altitude. The ionosphere is a sub-layer
found at the top of the mesosphere and the bottom of the thermosphere and gets it because it is ion
rich. This region is a special place in the sky because this is where displays of light in the sky
called auroras.
• Exosphere – the final layer and it is on the outside like an exoskeleton. This layer begins at about
300 miles from the ground but, as mentioned before, slowly fades into space, so it's hard to tell
exactly where it ends.

HYDROSPHERE

The hydrosphere is the aquatic part of the biosphere. This includes oceans, rivers, lakes and other
bodies of water. The hydrosphere is always in motion as seen through the movement and flow of
water in rivers, streams and the ocean. Plant and animal organisms rely on the hydrosphere for their
survival as water is essential. The hydrosphere is also home to many plants and animals and it
believed that the hydrosphere covers approximately 71% of the earth’s surface. The hydrosphere also
plays an important part in atmosphere formation. The frozen part of Earth's hydrosphere is made of
ice: glaciers, ice caps and icebergs. The frozen part of the hydrosphere has its own name, the
cryosphere.
 RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY
RENEWABLE ENERGY
Renewable energy, often referred to as clean energy, comes from natural sources or processes that are
constantly replenished. The five major renewable energy resources are solar, wind, water, also called
hydro, biomass, or organic material from plants and animals geothermal, which is naturally occurring heat
from the earth.
1. Solar Energy
Sunlight is one of our planet’s most abundant and freely available energy resources. The amount
of solar energy that reaches the earth’s surface in one hour is more than the planet’s total energy
requirements for a whole year.
2. Wind Energy
Wind is a plentiful source of clean energy. Wind energy generates electricity by turning wind
turbines. The wind pushes the turbine’s blades, and a generator converts this mechanical energy
into electricity. This electricity can supply power to homes and other buildings, and it can even be
stored in the power grid.
3. Hydro Energy
As a renewable energy resource, hydro power is one of the most commercially developed. By
building a dam or barrier, a large reservoir can be used to create a controlled flow of water that
will drive a turbine, generating electricity. This energy source can often be more reliable than
solar or wind power and also allows electricity to be stored for use when demand reaches a peak.
4. Biomass Energy
Biomass energy is the conversion of solid fuel made from plant materials into electricity.
Although fundamentally, biomass involves burning organic materials to produce electricity, and
nowadays this is a much cleaner, more energy-efficient process. By converting agricultural,
industrial and domestic waste into solid, liquid and gas fuel, biomass generates power at a much
lower economic and environmental cost.
5. Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy comes from the heat generated deep within the Earth’s core. Geothermal
reservoirs can be found at tectonic plate boundaries near volcanic activity or deep underground.
Geothermal energy can be harnessed by drilling wells to pump hot water or steam to a power
plant. This energy is then used for heating and electricity.

NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY
Non-renewable energy resources are available in limited supplies, usually because they take a long time to
replenish. The advantage of these non-renewable resources is that power plants that use them are able to
produce more power on demand. The non-renewable energy resources are coal , nuclear , oil and natural
gas.

Fossil fuels were formed within the Earth from dead plants and animals over millions of years. They are
found in underground layers of rock and sediment. Pressure and heat worked together to transform the
plant and animal remains into crude oil, coal, and natural gas. The energy in the plant and animal remains
originally came from the sun; through the process of photosynthesis, solar energy is stored in plant tissues,
which animals then consume, adding the energy to their own bodies. When fossil fuels are burned, this
trapped energy is released. Crude oil is a liquid fuel fossil fuel that is used mostly to produce gasoline and
diesel fuel for vehicles, and for the manufacturing of plastics. It is found in rocks below Earth’s surface
and is pumped out through wells.
Natural gas is widely used for cooking and for heating homes. It consists mostly of methane and is found
near oil deposits below Earth’s surface. Natural gas can be pumped out through the same wells used for
extracting crude oil. Coal is a solid fossil fuel that is used for heating homes and generating power plants.
It is found in fossilized swamps that have been buried beneath layers of sediment. Since coal is solid, it
 cannot be extracted in the same manner as crude oil or natural gas; it must be dug up from the ground.
Nuclear energy comes from radioactive elements, mainly uranium, which is extracted from mined ore and
then refined into fuel. Unfortunately, human society is for the time being dependent on non-renewable
resources as primary source of energy. Approximately 80 percent of the total amount of energy used
globally each year comes from fossil fuels.

NATURAL RESOURCES
Natural resources are resources that exist without any actions of humankind. This includes all valued
characteristics such as commercial and industrial use, aesthetic value, scientific interest and cultural value.
Major Natural Resources are:

• Land

• Soil

• Water

• Natural Vegetation

Land
Land is the most important natural resources. It covers only about thirty per cent of the total area of the
earth’s surface. The supporter of natural vegetation, wildlife, human life, economic activities, transport
and communication systems. Land is used for different purposes such as agriculture, forestry, mining,
building houses, roads and setting up of industries.

The use of land is determined by physical factors such as topography, soil, climate, minerals and
availability of water. Human factors such as population and technology are also important determinants
of land use pattern.
Soil
The thin layer of grainy substance covering the surface of the earth is called soil. It is closely linked to
land. Landforms determine the type of soil. Soil is made up of organic matter, minerals and weathered
rocks found on the earth. This happens through the process of weathering. The right mix of minerals and
organic matter make the soil fertile.

Water
About 97% of the earth’s water supply is in the ocean. Due to high salt content, it is unfit for human
consumption as well as other activities. Out of the remaining 3 percent, 2.3 percent is locked in polar ice
caps. Subsequently, balance 0.7 percent is available as freshwater of which 0.66 percent is groundwater.
Thus leaving a mere 0.03 percent available to us as freshwater in rivers, lakes, and streams. Therefore
despite the earth’s surface being covered with water, a very small percentage is usable. Thus there is a
need for conservation of water.
Natural vegetation
Natural vegetation refers to a plant community which has grown naturally without human aid as well as
has been left undisturbed by humans for a long time. The following major categories of forests.
Tropical Evergreen Rain Forests - precipitation is more than 200 cm.
Deciduous or Monsoon Type of Forests - The precipitation in this area is between 100 cm and 200
cm. Dry Deciduous Forests - precipitation is between 50 cm and 100 cm.

Mountain Forests - slopes of the mountain

Tidal or Mangrove Forests - Forests grow by the side of the coast and on the edges of the deltas

Semi-Desert and Desert Vegetation’s - receives rainfall of less than 50 cm

HUMAN ACTIVITIES AFFECTING HEALTH AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Human activities in an ecosystem have many drawbacks, unless we are approaching it in an
environmentally friendly way. The atmosphere, fertile soils, freshwater resources, the oceans and the
ecosystems they support, play a key role in providing humans with shelter, food safe water and the
capacity to recycle most wastes. However, pressures exerted by humans, on the environment, in the form
of pollution, resource depletion, land use changes and others affect environmental quality. Degradation of
environmental quality can, in turn, lead to adverse human exposures and eventual health effects.

Household Wastes
1. Gaseous household wastes – arise mainly from heating and cooking. They contribute substantially
to both outdoor and indoor air pollution.
2. Liquid wastes are the by-products of domestic activities.
3. Solid waste - consists mainly of non-hazardous materials such as paper and plastic packaging
material, glass, food scraps and other residues.

Land use and agricultural development

Competition for land appears to be intensifying between sectors and production systems. Agriculture, in
particular, can be expected to become an even more dominant form of land use. Population increases and
the finite extent, to which further land can be converted to agricultural uses, mean that per capita arable
land availability is becoming an issue.

Agricultural production carries several risks. Thus extension and intensification of agricultural production
systems, together with fluctuation in the supply of and demand for agricultural produce are causing shifts
in the environmental determinants of the health status of local communities.

Erosion

Soil is the most fundamental and basic natural resource for all life to survive. Soil erosion refers to the
wearing away of a field's topsoil by the natural physical forces of water and wind. Water and wind erosion
are two main agents that degrade soils. Runoff washes away the soil particles from sloping and bare lands
while the wind blows away loose and detached soil particles from flat and unprotected lands.

Erosion is a major problem affecting soils all over the world. The rapid growth of the world’s population
has resulted in increased cultivation of land. This puts more pressure on land and leads to soil losing its
structure and cohesion, which means that it can be eroded more easily. Heavy farming machinery can also
‘compact’ soil, which causes water to run straight off the surface after rain, taking soil particles with it,
instead of infiltrating into the soil. The total land area subjected to human-induced soil degradation is
estimated at about 2 billion ha. Of this, the land area affected by soil degradation due to erosion is
estimated at 1100 Mha by water erosion and 550 Mha by wind erosion.

Industrialization

Industrialization is central to economic development and improved prospects for human well-being. But,
if proper abatement technology is not used, industry becomes a major source of air, water and soil
pollution, hazardous wastes and noise. Industrial workers are often at highest risk of health impacts.
Furthermore, developed countries have exacerbated the environmental problems now being experienced
by developing countries through transfer of hazardous wastes industries and technologies.

Major industrial impacts also arise from small-scale industry. In developing countries, small-scale industry
contributes substantially to economic development, but can create problems for environment and health if
environmental safeguards are not used.

Energy

Energy plays a critical role in basic human survival. Energy has important implications for health. Energy
is also crucial to transportation and industrial processes. However, production and use of energy, if not
properly controlled may be accompanied by adverse health and environment impacts.
In developing countries, biomass accounts for about one-third of all energy use, and in some of least
developed countries, for as much as two-thirds. Open fires impair indoor air quality, add to the risk of
accidents and jeopardize food hygiene.

In general, the adverse effects on the environment of human activities are many and appear to be growing
in intensity, and affecting larger and larger areas. Current and future potential pressures on the
environment have major implication for health.

ENVIRONMENTAL THREATS TO HUMAN HEALTH

Environmental threats to human health are numerous. These threats can be divided into

two: a. Traditional Hazard (associated with lack of development)

Traditional hazards related to poverty and “insufficient” development are wide-ranging and include:
• Lack of access to safe drinking water

• Inadequate basic sanitation in the household and the community

• Indoor air pollution from cooking and heating using coal or biomass fuel

• Inadequate solid waste disposal.

b. Modern Hazard (associated with unsustainable development)

Modern hazards are related to development that lacks health and environmental safeguards, and
to unsustainable consumption of natural resources. They include:
• Water pollution from populated areas

• Industry and intensive agriculture

• Urban air pollution from motor cars, coal power stations, and industry resulting in climate change,
stratospheric ozone depletion, and transboundary pollution.

Some causative agents of environmental diseases:

• Polluted air and water

• Excessive levels of noise

• Nuclear weapons fall-out

• Overcrowded slums

• Toxic waste dumps

• Inadequate or overly adequate diet, stress, food contaminants, medical X-rays, drugs, cigarettes,
unsafe working conditions.