Bricks

• Bricks are made from clay and are also known as clay products

• The bricks are being commonly used for constructing walls, columns, roofs,
paving floors and as course aggregate for concrete work in foundations, under
floors, etc.

• The bricks do not require dressing and laying bricks is so simple that the
brickwork can be carried out with the help of unskilled labourer's

• At places where stones are not easily available, but if there is plenty of clay
suitable for the manufacture of bricks, the bricks replace stones

2
Comparison of stone and brick
Stone Brick
It is heavier than brick It is lighter than stone
It is obtained from rocks Made from clay
Free for clay holes and flaws Free from lumps flaws and cracks
Hard and tough Hard and sound
It absorbs heat more than a brick It absorbs less heat comparatively
Water absorption less than 5% Water absorption less than 16%
It is uniform in colour and can be Uniform in colour, shape and size
shaped to the desired size
It has high durability which depends Its durability is less than that of stone
upon its chemical composition and its
physical structures
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Contd.,
Stone Brick
Particular suitable for construction Acid and smoke resistance is good but less
work in industrial area as it acid and than that of stone
smoke proof
Quarrying-dressing and Overall cost of manufacture less than
transportation costly stone
Labour cost for laying is high Easily laid to form walls of required
uniform thickness, labour cost brick
masonry much less

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CONSTITUENTS OF BRICK EARTH

• Brick earth is derived by the disintegration of igneous rocks

• Potash feldspars, orthoclase or microcline are mainly responsible for

yielding clay minerals in the earth

• A good brick earth should be such that it can be easily moulded and dried

without cracking and warping.

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Chemical Composition of Brick Earth
• Alumina or clay = 20-30 per cent by weight

• Silica or sand = 35-50 per cent by weight

• Silt = 20-25 % by weight

• Other Ingredients

• Iron Oxide

• Magnesia (Mgo)

• Lime (cao)

• Sodium Potash

• Potash feldspars, orthoclase or microcline are mainly responsible for yielding clay minerals in the earth

• A good brick earth should be such that it can be easily moulded and dried without cracking and warping

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Function of Constituents of Brick Earth
Function of various constituents/ingredients of brick earth ae described below:

1. Alumina or clay
• It is the principal constituent of every kind of brick earth.

• It provides plasticity to the earth and makes the brick hard.

• If not mixed with sand shrinkage and warping results.

2. Silica or sand
• It exists in brick earth either in chemical combination with alumina as silicate of alumina or mechanically mixed
with clay as sand.

• If silica in suitable proportion is added to clay it imparts hardness to the brick and checks in shrinkage, cracking
and wrapping drying but if added in greater proportion makes the brick brittle.

• Addition of silica also increases hardness, durability and resistance to heat.

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3. LIME
• It prevents shrinkage of bricks on drying.
• It causes silica in clay to melt on burning and thus helps to bind it.
• Excess of lime causes the brick to melt and brick looses its shape.

4. IRON OXIDE
• It gives red colour to the bricks.
• It improves impermeability and durability.
• It gives strength and hardness.
• If present in excess, then the colour of brick becomes dark blue or blakish.
• If the quantity of iron oxide is comparatively less, the brick becomes yellowish in colour.

5. MAGNESIA
• Magnesium in brick earth imparts yellow tint to the brick.
• It is responsible for reducing shrinkage
• Excess of magnesia leads to the decay of bricks.

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Harmful Ingredients In Brick Earth
1. Lime stone and Kankar nodules:
• The presence of limestone and kankar nodules in the brick earth is harmful and crops up serious troubles.
• On heating limestone is converted into lime which on contact with water swells and causes the brick to split and
crumble to pieces.
2. Alkalies:
• If alkalies are present in the brick earth, they lower the fusion point of clays and cause the bricks to fuse, twist and
warp during burning.
• When the moisture dries up a greyish white deposit is left behind which spoils the appearance of the structure,
the effect being known as efflorescence.
3. Pebbles of stones and gravel:
• They do not exercise any harmful effect chemically, but do not permit the clay to be thoroughly mixed and thus
impair the uniformity of a bricks.
4. Iron pyrites:
• Presence of Iron pyrites in the earth decompose and oxidize in the brick and cause the brick to split.
5. Kallar or reh
• It consists of sulphates of soda mix with common salt and carbonate of soda. These salts prevent the bricks from
being properly baked. It has same effect as that of alkalies.
6. Vegetation and Organic matter:
• The presence of vegetation and organic matter in bricks assists in burning. If such matters are not completely burnt
it becomes porous. 9
Requirements of good Brick earth
1. It must have proper proportions of sand, silt and clay.

2. It should have sufficient plasticity (so that the bricks can he properly and conveniently
moulded with sharp and well defined edges}.

3. It must be free from lumps of lime or nodules of kankar.

4. It must be free from earth containing alkaline salts, kankar or reh, etc.

5. It must be free from pebbles, grits and lumps of earth.

6. It must not contain vegetable and organic matter.

7. It should not be mixed with salty water

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MANUFACTU RE OF BRICKS
The manufacture of bricks involves the following steps:
1. Preparation of clay
2. Moulding of bricks
3. Drying of bricks
4. Burning of bricks.

1. Preparation of Clay:
i. Selection of site and unsoiling:
• The site selected for the manufacture of bricks must have suitable soil available in sufficient quantity: otherwise
unnecessary labour and cost of digging and transportation of the soil would be involved.
• Generally, for making soil suitable for brick making, certain materials are required to be mixed with the soil.
• It is also necessary that water and fuel like coal and wood are easily available in adequate quantities.
• The site should be selected after giving due consideration to suitability of soil and location of the water table. Site should
be so selected that the water table during breaking session is at least I meter below the floor of the kiln.
• After selecting the site, the top layer of soil, about 200 mm in depth is taken out and own away. The clay in top soil is full
of impurities, (e.g. roots of grass, vegetation etc.), and hence it is to be rejected for the purpose of preparing bricks.
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ii. Digging and cleaning:
• The soil below 200 mm is dug out preferably before rains. It is then cleaned off stones, pebbles, vegetable
matter etc. All the lumps of soil should be broken into powder form.

iii. Weathering and blending:

• The earth is then spread out to a depth of 600 to 1200 mm and left to the atmospheric action; this process
being known as weathering.

• It extends from a few weeks to some months and imparts plasticity and strength to the clay. It is this stage
during which different types of earths such as sandy or calcareous clays could be mixed in suitable proportions
with little quantities of coke, ash, etc... to develop the essential qualities needed for moulding, drying and
burning of bricks.

• The whole mass is mixed uniformly and proportionate quantity of water is added. The earth is covered up with
cloth or mats. This process of mixing ingredients is called blending.

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iv. Tempering:
• Tempering process consists in kneading the earth under feet of men or cattle to make it stiff
and plastic.
• Addition of water is made from time to time and tempering is continued till homogenous
mass of earth is obtained.
• A soft plastic clay could be prepared by about 25 to 30 percent of water.
• This method is adopted for the majority of common hand made bricks but in case of superior
bricks needed on large scale tempering is carried out with help of a pug mill

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Pug Mill
• Pug mill consists of a iron cylinder in the form of bucket with top
and bottom diameters 120 cm and 75 cm respectively and height
about 180 cm.

• Central vertical iron shaft is provided with horizontal arms

furnished with knives for breaking clay lumps.

• long horizontal arm is fitted at the top of vertical shaft which is

driven round by a pair of bullocks or sometimes by electric power.

• Clay and water in the required ratio( 1: ¼) are charged in the

cylinder from the top and tempered clay leaves the pug mill
trough an opening provided near the bottom of the cylinder.

• This size of Pug mill can knead nearly 30 m³ of earth per day. Pug mill

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2. Moulding of Bricks
• Bricks are made in metric sizes called modular bricks, as prescribed by the Bureau
of Indian Standards. Nominal size of the bricks is 20cm X 10cm X 10cm, which
include the thickness of the mortar.
• A brick mould is a rectangular box of steel or wood, which is open at the top and
bottom of the box and inside dimensions of the mould are 20cm X 10cm X 10cm.
• Moulding of bricks can be done using either hand or machine

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Hand Moulding
• There are two types in hand moulding, i.e. ground moulding and table
moulding. In this type, bricks are moulded manually and preferred
where only a small quantity of bricks is needed.

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Ground Moulding
• The process of moulding bricks on the ground manually by
labour is called ground moulding. On an average, a moulder
can mould about 750 bricks per day.
• The moulder places his mould flat in one corner of the
ground which is already levelled, plastered and sprinkled
with sand.
• Then lifts a lump of prepared clay over his head with both
hands, dashes it into the mould and forces it with hands in
order to fill the corners of the mould.
• Then strikes of the superfluous clay above the level of
mould with a piece of wood or iron called strike.
• The mould is then lifted off leaving the brick on the ground
and again placed by the side of the brick thus made.
Similarly further bricks are moulded.

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Frog or Impression:

• It is and indentation mark left on the face of a

brick during moulding process. it serves the
following two purposes:
i. It indicates the name of person or the
firm who manufactures the bricks.
ii. It provides a key for mortar for
developing a structural grip when used.

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Table Moulding:
• This moulding is done on a table of size 2m X 1m X 0.7m
instead of on the ground. This table moulding process is
almost similar to ground moulding expect for some
minor changes.
• The moulder stands behind the table places his mould
either on the table itself, in which case the bottom of
the bricks is flat or generally on a board fixed on the
table called stock board of the same size as the inside
measurement of the mould and carrying projection for
the frog.
• The mould is placed to fit the stock board, filled up with
earth, superfluous earth removed a thin pallet board is
placed on the mould and then mould, pallet board and
brick are lifted together smartly off the stock board
inverting it. 19
Machine Moulding

• Moulding machines are used when a

large scale of bricks are to be
manufactured in less time.
• These types of bricks are heavier and
stronger than the hand moulded
ones and possess a sharp regular
shape, a smoother surface and sharp
edges. There are two types in
machine moulding

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Plastic Method
• In this method, pugged earth is used,
which is placed in the machine that
contains a rectangular shape of size equal
to the length and width of the brick.
• A beam of the moulded earth comes out
of it and is cut into strips by wires fixed in
the frames. These bricks are also called
wire-cut bricks.

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Dry Method:
• In this method, the machine first converts the hard earth into a powder form and
a small quantity of water is added to the powder to make it a stiff plastic paste.
This paste is placed in the mould and pressed by the machine to form hard and
correct-shaped bricks. These bricks are known as pressed bricks, which do not
require any drying and can be sent directly to the burning section

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3. Drying of Bricks

• Moulded bricks cannot be burnt directly, as they may get damaged. So before
burning they should be dried either naturally or artificially for about two weeks.

Types of drying of Bricks

A. Natural Drying
B. Artificial Drying

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Natural Drying:
• It is also called hack drying, which comprises placing moulded bricks in rows on
their edges, slightly above the ground called a hack. These bricks are air and sun-
dried that is strong enough to use for the construction of small structures.

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Artificial Drying:
• When bricks are needed to dry on a large scale, then this artificial drying is
preferred. They are dried in special dryers which receive heat from specially
made furnaces for artificial drying.

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4. Burning of Bricks
• After the process of moulding and drying, bricks are burnt in kilns to impart
hardness, strength and to increase the density of the brick. Some physical and
chemical changes take place in the burning of bricks. Heating brick to about
640°C produces only physical changes.
• If a brick is heated up to 700-1,000°C, it undergoes chemical changes. During this
reaction, the materials present in brick alumina and silica fuse together to make
the brick strong and stable to prevent from cracking and crumbling.
• The types of Kilns used for burning purposes are:
1) Clamp or open kilns
2) Intermittent kilns
3) Continuous kilns

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 Clamp or Open Kiln: • On the sides and on the top of the clamp, some
protection is provided by a coating of earth. The air
• It is suitable for burning only ordinary bricks, i.e. dried bricks are arranged in layers in criss-cross way
ground moulded bricks of inferior type. . on their edges with about 5 cm air space between
• This method of burning is usually adopted in them to ensure proper circulation and upward
rural areas where transport charges of bricks draught of the hot gases from below.
from urban areas are high. Furthermore as the • After the kiln is started it takes two to six months
number of bricks required for construction of for burning and cooling the bricks (20000 to
ordinary building is small, it is not felt necessary 100000). This clamp is a temporary structure for
to set up bigger kilns which entail a huge burning and is built again for the next burning of
expenditure. rawbricks.
• The size of the clamp depends on the number
of bricks required. For one lakh bricks its size
should be 15 m (length) x 13 m (breadth) x 5 m
(height).
• These clamps sometimes are also made
trapezoidal in form. A slight slope of 15° is
unsually given to the ground lengthwise.
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28
Intermittent kilns (overground kilns):

• When a large number of good quality bricks are needed, intermittent or

continuous kilns are preferred. In this kilns, the process of burning is
discontinuous.

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30
3. Continuous Kilns:
• The kilns falling under this category ensure an uninterrupted operation of burning. Following are the three types
of continuous kilns used these days.
I. Bull's trench kiln
II. Hoffman's kiln
III. Tunnel kiln.

I. Bull’s trench kiln:

Construction :
• This type of kiln is usually oval is plan and is made in a trench excavated below ground surface, the depth of
trench being about 2 meters.
• Depending upon the type of soil, sides of the kiln are lined with bricks or two brick walls are erected outside and
inside. In general oval shaped bench is divided into 8 to 12 zones there being an opening in each zone.
• Kiln is having 12 openings D1 to D12 . These openings are employed for loading and unloading of the bricks.
• In the compartments the bricks are so arranged that continuous horizontal and vertical flues are obtained For
even distribution of heat inside the kiln two chimneys provided are placed near the outer and inner walls.
• These chimneys are moved from zone to zone. To regulate the heat when required, small iron sheets are provided
near the base of the chimney. 31
32
Working:
• Fire is started say is zone 7 and chimneys are arranged at the top near the sidewalls of zone
8.
• Damper (vertical iron sheet) is incorporated at a certain distance along the width.
• Small holes 36 to 48 in number are left at the top through which coal in the form of powder
or small pieces is dropped, the holes being covered with iron discs.
• To check the loss of heat from inside, the top of stacked bricks is provided with a cover of
earth and ashes. Hot gases from the burning zone 7 heat the dry bricks stacked in zone 8
before escaping to atmosphere through the chimneys.
• Each zone takes about 24 hours to burn. By the time the fire moves through a number of
successive zones, the zone which is burnt first cools, is unloaded and reloaded with dry and
raw bricks which are first warmed up by the hot gases from the previous zones and are burnt
when the advancing fire reaches them. Thus the operation of the kiln is continuous.
• The yield per day is 25000 bricks and depending upon the type of clay, 4 to 5 tones of coal is
consumed.

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Advantages:
1. Cost of fuel is less as heat of hot gases escaping the rough the chimney is
fully utilized for warming the bricks.
2. Supply of bricks is continuous
3. High percentages of first class bricks.
4. As raw bricks are loaded in the kiln, the drying space is saved.

Disadvantages:
1. High initial cost.
2. Constant skilled supervision is essential.

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ii. Hoffman’s Kiln:
• This kiln is built above the ground and is
circular in plan Centrally placed is a chimney
around which 12 chambers in a ring are
arranged.
• For communication with the outside each
chamber is provided with a door.
• This door can be closed when required with
the help of dry bricks. There is a suitable
arrangement for opening and closing the
flue.
• In cach chamber, small holes are provided at
the top through which the coal can be
dropped for burning bricks
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Working:
• To have an idea of working of this kiln let us consider following series of operation.
• Chamber No. 1 is loaded with raw bricks, No. 2 is emptied of cooled down burnt
bricks.
• The bricks in the chambers 3, 4, 5 and 6 are cooling and bricks stacked in chambers 7
and 8 are being supplied with fuel from fire holes provided for the purpose.
• Raw bricks in chamber 9, 10, 11 and 12 are being heated by the hot gases of
combustion before they escape through the chimney.
• As regards the circulation of flue gases through the kiln, cold air enters the chambers
1 and 2 through the doors and after passing through the cooling chambers 3, 4, 5 and
6 it enters in a heated condition into the burning chamber 7 and 8.
• The hot gases of combustion then travel through the chambers 9, 10, 11 and 12 and
preheat the raw bricks.
• In a continuous kiln the progress of work is so arranged that one chamber is loaded,
another is unloaded and still another is freshly fired.
• The common size of a chamber is 11 m (length) x4.6 m (mean width) x 2.4 m (height)
Daily out-turn of the bricks is 25,000 36
Advantages:
1. High percentages of first class bricks
2. Regular out-turn of bricks
3. As the bricks can be loaded in the kiln, there is a saving in drying space
4. Bricks are evenly burnt.
5. Economy in fuel since all the heat of combustion is utilized

Disadvantages:
1. High initial cost of construction.
2. Constant and skilled supervision is required.
3. Economy demands regular consumption of its output, which may not be
possible every where.
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Comparison between Bull’s Trench and Hoffman’s Kiln :

38
iii. Tunnel Kiln:
• It is in the form of the tunnel which may be straight, circular or oval in plan.
• It contains a stationary zone of fire.
• The raw bricks are loaded on the trolleys which are then moved from one end
to other end of the tunnel. As the bricks approach the zone of fire, they get
dried and preheated.
• These bricks are then burnt to the required degree in the zone of fire and,
thereafter these are pushed for cooling.
• After getting adequately cooled, the bricks are unloaded.
• In this kiln uniform bricks of better quality are produced since the temperature
can be controlled.
• The kiln proves to be economical when bricks are to be manufactured on a
large scale.
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CLASSIFICATION OF BRICKS
Conventionally, the bricks are classified
1. Sun dried or katcha bricks
2 Burnt or pacca bricks
1. Sun dried or katcha bricks:
• These bricks are dried with the help of heat received from the Sun after the process a
moulding. These bricks are not burnt in camp or kiln.
• These bricks can only be used in the construction of temporary and cheap structures.
Such bricks should not be used at places exposed to heavy rains.

2. Burnt or pacca bricks

• The bricks which are burnt in a clamp or kiln after moulding and drying are called burn
or pacca bricks.
• These bricks are hard, strong and durable and are generally used in permanent works
These bricks are further classified into the following four types:
• First class bricks
• Second class bricks
• Third class bricks
• Overburnt jhama bricks
 1. First class bricks:
• These bricks are table-moulded and they are burnt in kilns.
(a) Characteristics:
The following are the characteristics of a first class brick.
(i) A first class brick is well burnt and regular in shape.
(ii) Edges are sharp and well defined.
(iii) It is sufficiently hard and sound.
(iv) Its surface is smooth, clean and free from cracks.
(v) A fractured surface shows a uniform compact structure (free from lumps or grits and
holes).
(vi) Water absorption shall not be more than one sixth of its weight when kept immersed for
sixteen hours.
(vii) When two bricks are struck against each other, a metallic ringing sound is produced.
(Viii) When soaked in water for 24 hours and dried in shade does not show efflorescence.
(ix) It should not break when dropped from a height of 1 to 2 metres
(x) It has specific gravity of 1.8.
(xi) It is so hard that no mark can be produced on it.
(xii)It has a minimum crushing strength of 10.5 N/mm².
Uses:
(i) In R. B. work.
(ii) For flooring and walling purposes.
(iii) Shaped bricks are used in carvings, arches
2. Second class bricks:
• There bricks are ground-moulded and they are burnt in kilns.
(a) Characteristics:
(i) A second class brick is well-burnt but irregular in shape and
(ii) It has a rough surface.
(iii) Its edges are neither straight nor well defined.
(iv) It is not free from lumps and cracks.
(v) It does not have a uniform colour.
(vi) It has fine, compact and uniform texture.
(vii) It shall produce a ringing sound when struck with one another.
(viii) It shall have a minimum crushing strength of 7 N/mm².

Uses:
Such types of bricks are used in unimportant situation and for internal walls
(where the bricks are generally hidden from view).
3. Third class bricks
The bricks which are under burnt and are not uniform in shape and size are
called class, or pilla bricks. These bricks are ground-moulded and then are
burnt in clamps.
(a) Characteristics:
(i) A third class brick has a light yellowish colour.
(ii) It is not well-burnt.
(iii) It is soft.
(iv) When two bricks are struck a dull sound is emitted
(v) It is associated with flaws and cracks.
(vi) Its edges are irregular and surface quite rough.

(b) Uses:
Third class bricks are used in inferior and temporary building
4. Overburnt or jhama bricks

These are overburnt bricks with irregular shape and dark colour
(a) Characteristics:
(i) They are overburnt and distorted bricks.
(ii) They are irregular in shape and size and are available in the form of
lumps.
(iii) They are dark in lumps
(iv) They are hard and strong.
(v) They produce metallic ringing sound.
(b) Uses:
These bricks are used as aggregates for making concrete to be used in
foundations floors, etc. and as road metal for soling coat
TESTS FOR BRICKS
• In order to find out the suitability of a brick for the construction work, it is generally subjected the following
5. Shape and size test
tests:
6. Soundness test
1. Water absorption test 7. Hardness test.

2. Compressive strength test.

3. Efflorescence test

4. Structure test

1. Water absorption test:

• The specimen brick is first weighed dry.

• It is then immersed in water for a period of 16 hours

• It is weighed again. The difference in weight indicates the amount of water absorbed by the brick. It
should not in any case, exceed 20% of weight of dry brick.
47
2. Compressive strength test

• The specimen brick is immersed in water for 24 hours.

• The frog of the brick is filled flush with 1: 3 mortar and the brick is stored under damp jute bags for 24
hours followed by immersion in clean water for three days.

• The specimen is then placed between the plates of the compression machine

• Load is applied axially at a uniform rate and maximum load at which the specimen fails is noted for
determination of compressive strength of brick given by

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒

Compressive strength =
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑘

• The crushing or compressive strength of common building bricks should not be less than 3.5 N/mm².
Bricks of high quality do not have strength less than 14 N/mm².If no testing machine is available, the
strength can be roughly judged from the force required to break the brick with a hammer. The brick
should not break when fallen on its end on their ground from a height of 2 meters,
48
• The strength of the bricks is affected by the following factors:

i. The composition of brick earth used.

ii. The preparation of clay and blending of ingredients/constituents.

iii. Type of moulding adopted.

iv. Care exercised in drying and stacking of bricks.

v. Type of kiln used (including type of fuel and its feeding).

vi. Burning and cooling process.

vii. Care exercised in unloading the bricks.

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3. Efflorescence test:
• The soluble salts, if present in the bricks, cause efflorescence on the surface of bricks

• In order to find out the presence of soluble salt in a brick, it is immersed in water for 24
hours. It is then taken out and allowed to dry in shade. The absence of grey or white
deposits on its surface indicates absence of soluble salts.

• If the white deposits cover about 10% surface, the efflorescence is said to be slight and it
is considered as moderate when the white deposits cover about 50% of surface. When
white (or grey) deposits cover more than 50% of surface the efflorescence becomes
heavy and it is considered as serious.

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4. Structure test:
• A specimen brick is broken and its structure is examined. It should be homogeneous,
compact and free from any defects, e.g., lumps, holes, etc.,

5. Shape and size test:

• In this test a specimen brick should be closely inspected. It should be of standard size and
its shape should be truly rectangular with sharp edges.

• Twenty bricks of standard size (190 mm x 90 mm x 90 mm) are randomly selected and
stacked length-wise, along the width and along the height. For good quality bricks, the
results should be within the following permissible limits: Length: 3680 mm to 3920 mm;
Width: 1740 mm to 1860 mm; Height: 1740 mm to 1860 mm.
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6. Soundness test:
• This test is performed by striking two specimen bricks with each other; the bricks
should not break and a clear ringing sound should be produced.

7. Hardness test:
• This test is conducted by making a scratch on brick surface with the help of a finger
nail; if no impression is left on the surface, the brick is treated to be sufficiently hard.

52