Air and Gas Compression Principles

Air and Gas
Compression
PRINCIPLES
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Knowledge Based Energy & Environmental Services
1
Uses of Compressed Air
• Exert force to move
Power cylinders or rotate a
Service shaft.
• Pneumatic conveyors
• Compressed gases for
Process process e.g., ammonia
Service manufacture
• Liquefaction of air
• Pneumatic controls
Control • Fluidic controls

2
Benefits of using Compressed Air and Gases
Power Service 1. High power to weight ratio.

2. Can produce torque as well as linear motion.
1. Some processes require high pressure e.g.,

Process Service ammonia manufacture is at 200 atm. pressure.
2. Refrigeration and air-conditioning.
3. Liquefaction of air and other gases.
1. Trigger, start, stop or modulate an

Compressed Control operation.
Air / Gas 2. Fluidic devices offer some benefits
of electronic controls.
1. Can be used in explosive environments.

Safety 2. No hazard of electrical shock or explosion (with
hydraulic oils).
1. Can be used in corrosive atmospheres.

2. Transportation of natural gas in pipelines.
Miscellaneous
3. Agitation and aeration of waste waters.
4. Atomisation of fuels for efficient combustion.

3
Vacuum Pump, Fan, Blower or Compressor?
Vacuum Pump 1. Draws gases/ vapours from a system to make its pressure lower than its surroundings
Fan 1. Moves gases/ vapours such that the difference in total pressure is a few hundred mm WG
Blower 1. When the P is > few hundred mm WG but < 2 kgf/cm2
Compressor 1. When the P is > 2 kgf/cm2

4
Reciprocating Compressor Cycle

5
Volumetric Efficiency
The ratio of the actual volume of gas delivered to the volume swept by the piston.
The theoretical formula assuming an isentropic process is
𝜂 =1− 𝑟 −1 𝑐
Where, 𝜂 = volumetric efficiency,
r = the compression ratio = ⁄ where the pressures are in absolute units,
 = the ratio of specific heats of the gas being compressed,
The practical formula is
𝜂 = 0.95 − 𝑟 −1 𝑐 −𝐿
Where, the constant 1 has been reduced to 0.95,
L = a practical correction that cannot be taken into account theoretically.

1. The constant 1 is reduced to 0.95 to account for incomplete filling of the cylinder
during the intake stroke.
2. L is the to account for practical factors that cannot be accounted for theoretically, e.g.,
compare two cases.
1. Compressing air from 1 bar g to 3 bar g.
2. Compressing air from 50 bar g to 150 bar g.
3. In the first case the piston and valves would have to seal against a differential pressure
of 2 bar g, whereas in the second case they would have to deal with a pressure
differential of 100 bar g. We expect that the leakages in the second case would be
much greater. The theoretical formula does no take this into account.
4. Similarly, gases such as hydrogen, which have extremely small molecules would “slip”
past a small clearance between the cylinder and the piston rings, whereas air with
larger molecules will not slip past as easily.
5. A lubricated cylinder would seal the clearance between the cylinder and the piston
rings more effectively than a non-lubricated cylinder.
6. The factor L allows for these influences. Its value is usually taken as 0.03 for lubricated
cylinders and 0.07 for non-lubricated cylinders in air compressors.
7. The clearance ratio c has a major influence on the volumetric efficiency. This effect is
more prominent when the compression ratio is large as it is in the case of vacuum
pumps, so in the design and manufacture of these pumps every care is taken to reduce
6
the clearance volume:
1. Thinner valves are used,
2. Fewer valves are used.
3. The piston is brought very close to the cylinder head.
1. The ratio of specific heats also affects the volumetric efficiency. The larger this ratio the
higher is the volumetric efficiency.
6
Volumetric Efficiency
Vacuum
Air Ammonia
Service
Clearance, c 0.100 0.100 0.070
Compression Ratio, r 3.000 3.000 6.909
Cp/Cv 1.400 1.310 1.400
Volumetric Efficiency 0.831 0.819 0.742

7
Volumetric  vs Compression Ratio
(For Refrigeration compressors)

8
Temperature Rise in Compression
From the first law of thermodynamics For an ideal gas, 𝑅 = 𝐶 − 𝐶
𝑇 𝑉
d𝐸 = 𝑞 − 𝑤 𝐶 ln = 𝐶 − 𝐶 ln
𝑇 𝑉
If work is restricted to work of expansion, 𝑇 𝐶 𝑉
and the process is adiabatic i.e., ln = 𝐶 − 1 ln 𝑉
𝑇
no heat enters or leaves the system then
𝑇 𝑉
𝑑𝐸 = −𝑤 = −𝑃𝑑𝑉 ln = 𝛾 − 1 ln
𝑇 𝑉
𝑑𝐸 = 𝐶 𝑑𝑇 = −𝑃𝑑𝑉
Where, γ = 𝐶 /𝐶
𝐶 𝑑𝑇 = −𝑃𝑑𝑉 = − dV
=
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑉
𝐶 = −𝑅 𝑜𝑟
𝑇 𝑉 Since, 𝑃 𝑉 = 𝑃 𝑉
𝐶 𝑑 ln 𝑇 = −𝑅 𝑑 ln 𝑉
𝑇 𝑉
𝐶 ln = 𝑅 ln = =
𝑇 𝑉

9
Ideal Work of Compression
By definition, the entropy is −𝑤 = −𝑃𝑑𝑉 + 𝑓
𝑞 . In an ideal compression, f = 0, and –w= – PdV
𝑑𝑆 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑞 . = 𝑇 𝑑𝑆
𝑇
For Isothermal compression
For an irreversible process
−𝑤 = −𝑃𝑑𝑉; and 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
.
< 𝑑𝑆 = .
+ or 𝑇𝑑𝑆 = 𝑞 . +𝑓
𝑛𝑅𝑇
Where f is a measure of the irreversibility −𝑊 = − 𝑑𝑉
𝑉
of the process and it represents the amount
of mechanical energy converted into heat −𝑊 = −𝑛𝑅𝑇 ln = −𝑛𝑅𝑇 ln
energy available for increase in the
temperature. For a finite process, For Isentropic compression
−𝑤 = −𝑃𝑑𝑉; and 𝑃 𝑉 = 𝑃 𝑉
𝑇𝑑𝑠 = 𝑞− 𝑓
𝑃𝑉
−𝑊 = − 𝑑𝑉
𝑤 = 𝑃𝑑𝑉 𝑉
𝑑𝐸 = 𝑞 − 𝑤 = 𝑞 . + 𝑓 − 𝑃𝑑𝑉
−𝑊 = 𝑃𝑉 −1
𝑤 = 𝑃𝑑𝑉 − 𝑓

1. The density or the molecular weight of the gas being compressed does not affect the
power drawn by the compressor for the same volume and compression ratio.
2. The ratio of specific heats  = Cp/Cv does affect the required power. Theoretical power
decreases as  decreases. Theoretically for isothermal compression  = 1, and this
method of compression requires the least amount of power.
3. An increase in the intake pressure directly and significantly affects the compression
power required.
4. The intake volume in the formula V1 is the actual volume drawn in, so the volumetric
efficiency does not affect the power drawn by the compressor.
10
Ideal Power of Compression
Pressure drop across the inlet valve and the discharge valve affect the
suction and discharge pressures. The actual compression ratio is therefore
slightly more than the apparent compression ratio.
1
The gas entering the cylinder gets heated and expands, and there
2
is turbulence when it enters the cylinder resulting in losses.
3 Mechanical friction in the compressor also results in a loss of

energy.
4
Actual mechanical efficiency is between 88 and 93%. The overall efficiency
is between 75% and 85%.

11
Polytropic Compression
• Factors that hinder isentropic
compression
– Friction
−𝑊 = 𝑃𝑉 −1 – Cylinder cooling
– Variation in suction volume
– Variation in discharge
volume
−𝑊 = 𝑇 −1 • The exponent ‘n’ is generally
less than .

12
Reducing Energy Usage
1. Reduce V1.
1. Leakages.
2. False Air.
−𝑊 = 𝑃𝑉 −1
2. Reduce P2/ P1
1. Clean suction filters
(increase P1).
2. Improve distribution system
−𝑊 = 𝑇 −1 to reduce P2
3. ?

13
Paths of Compression
𝑃𝑉 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

14
2-Stage with Intercooling
Discharge
With intercooling
Suction

15
Power Drawn
Δ𝑝 𝑝𝑉 = 𝑘
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑑𝑝
𝜌
Adiabatic Compression
𝑝 𝑞 𝛾 𝑝
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝐾 ⋅ ⋅ ⋅𝑇 ⋅ −1
𝑇 𝜂 𝛾−1 𝑝
Isothermal Compression
𝑅𝑇 𝑝
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝐾 ⋅ 𝑞 ln
𝑇𝜂 𝑝
𝑝 𝛾 𝑝
𝑋 = ln < −1
For n > 1 and p2 > p1 𝑝 𝛾−1 𝑝

16
Benefits of Multi-staging
Reduce Discharge 1. Theoretical discharge temperature 𝑇 = 𝑇 𝑟 may be
Temperature specified for designing the inter-coolers and after-coolers.
2. Reduces thermal stress.
3. Eliminates difficulties with lubrication by preventing
charring/ carbonisation of lube oil.
4. Reduces O&M Costs of the compressor.
Multi-staging Reduce Pressure 1. Across each cylinder.

Differential 2. Reduces loads and stresses across
with valves, and piston rings.
Intercooling 3. Increases the life of these parts.
Reduces the no. 1. Reduced number of cylinders at high pressure.

of cylinders at 2. Reduces piston rod column loadings increasing the machine’s
high pressure life
3. This may be the single factor for multi-stage compressors for
gases with low Cp/Cv ratio such as ammonia and propane.

17
Caution in using Multi-staged Compressors
Consult the • If inlet/ outlet pressures are to be

changed.
Manufacturer • Diameters and machine proportions

are carefully designed.
Perfect Inter- • When the gas enters each stage at the

suction temperature of stage 1.
cooling • Coolers are designed to work on a

10°C differential.
• Maintain it as low as possible; about

Cooling Water 10°C below suction temperature
• This reduces the moisture in
Temperature discharged air.

• Maintaining a low compressor
temperature prolongs its life.

18
Factors affecting Energy Use
Tackle each of the factors in the equation
Energy use
Factor Units Change by
changed by
p2/p1 kgf/cm2 1 6 – 10%
T1 °K 4 1%
q0 m3/sec 1% 1%
X °K 5 2.1%

19
Multi-stage Compression
−𝑊 = 𝑃𝑉 −1
If the compression is done in k stages with perfect interstage cooling
−𝑊 = 𝑃𝑉 −1 + 𝑃 𝑉 −1 + … 𝑃 𝑉 −1
The optimal pressure ratio for each stage is when
𝜕𝑊 𝜕𝑊 𝜕𝑊 𝜕𝑊 𝜕𝑊
= = = =⋯= =0
𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑃
𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
= = = =⋯= =
𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃

20
Sankey Diagram for Air Compressor

21
Pressure, Flow and Capacity
Pressure, (bar)
Compressor Capacity, l/s

22
Definitions
𝑽𝑺
𝑽𝒊 =
𝑽𝑫
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒅 𝑮𝒂𝒔 𝑷𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒆𝒕 𝒊𝒎𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒍𝒚 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒕 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝑺𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
=
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒅 𝑮𝒂𝒔 𝑷𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒆𝒕 𝒊𝒎𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒍𝒚 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒕 𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆
𝑷𝑪
𝑷𝒊 =
𝑷𝑺
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒅 𝑮𝒂𝒔 𝑷𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒆𝒕 𝒊𝒎𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒍𝒚𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒕 𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆
=
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒅 𝑮𝒂𝒔 𝑷𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒆𝒕 𝒊𝒎𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒍𝒚 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒕 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝑺𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝜸
𝑷𝒊 = 𝑽𝒊

23
Work of Compression
Work of compression
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = − ∫ 𝑃 𝑑𝑉 Area
1-2-5-6
P2 3 2 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 = 𝑃 𝑉 Area 2-3-0-5
𝑆𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = −𝑃 𝑉 -(Area 4-06-1)
Thermodynamically,
𝑣. 𝑑𝑃 = 𝑑 𝑃𝑣 − 𝑃𝑑𝑣
1
𝑣. 𝑑𝑃 = 𝑑 𝑃𝑣 + 𝑑𝑈 − 𝑇𝑑𝑆
4
P1 𝑣. 𝑑𝑃 = 𝑑𝐻 − 𝑇𝑑𝑆
5 6
0 V2 V1 For an isentropic process,
−𝑚̇. 𝑊 = 𝑚∆𝐻

24
Work of Compression vs Suction Pressure
𝑁𝑉
𝑚̇ =
𝑣
𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑣=
𝑃
𝑇
Discharge Pressure, kPa ∆ℎ = 𝐶 𝑇 − 𝑇 =𝐶 𝑇 −1
𝑇
1942 𝑇 𝑃
=
𝑇 𝑃
1555
𝑁𝑉 𝑃
1192 𝑊 = 𝐶 𝑃 −1
𝑛𝑅 𝑃
𝑊 𝛾 𝑃
= 𝑃 −1
At a fixed discharge pressure 𝑁𝑉 𝛾−1 𝑃

1. 𝑚̇ = mass flow rate, kg/ s

2. N = compressor speed revolutions/ s
3. V1 = Suction volume Vs, m3/ revolution
4. v = specific volume of the gas, m3/ kg mole
5. P = Pressure, Pa
6. T3, T1, temperatures at points 3 and 1 respectively, °K
7.  = ratio of specific heats Cp/Cv, dimensionless.
8. P3, P1, pressures at points 3 and 1 respectively, Pa.
9. Wi = work done, J
25
Work done vs Pressure
𝑊
= 𝑃 𝑑𝑣
𝑁
𝑊
= 𝑃 𝑑𝑣 + 𝑃 𝑑𝑣 + 𝑃 𝑑𝑣
𝑁
𝑃 𝑉
=
𝑃 𝑉
P2 3 𝑊 𝑃 𝑉 −𝑃 𝑉 𝑃𝑉 𝑃
2 = = −𝑉
𝑁 𝛾−1 𝛾−1 𝑃
𝑊 𝑃𝑉 1 𝑃𝑉
= 𝑉 −𝑉 = 𝑉 −1
𝑁 𝛾 −1𝑉 𝛾−1
The total work of compression is
𝑊 𝑃𝑉
= 𝑉 −1 +𝑃 𝑉 −𝑃 𝑉
𝑁 𝛾−1
𝑃
4 1 𝑊 𝑉 −1 𝑃
P1 =𝑃𝑉 + −1
𝑁 𝛾−1 𝑉
0 5 6 The work per unit suction volume is

V2 V1 𝑃
𝑊 𝑉 −𝛾 𝑃
=𝑃 + −1
𝑁𝑉 𝛾−1 𝑉

1. This shows that the relation between the work per unit volume is linearly related to the
suction pressure for a given compression ratio.
26
Over-compression

27
Under-compression
System r =6:1
Compressor Vi=2.7
3a R=6 3’ 3
2a R=4 2
1a 1
1
0.371 =
𝑉

28
Slope of Power Curve
The slope of this line is given by
𝑊
𝑑 𝑉 −𝛾
𝑁𝑉
=
𝑑𝑃 𝛾−1
1. Power increases with
increasing discharge pressure
for a given suction pressure.
2. Discharge pressure does not
affect the slope of the power
curves.
3. Increasing the built-in volume
The tangents are lines depicting ratio increases the slope of the
𝑟=
𝑃
=𝑉 power curve.
𝑃

1. The tangents meet the curve when the actual pressure ratio ‘r’ is equal to the built in
pressure ratio = Vi .
2. When the pressure ratio is less than ‘r’ the compressor with a fixed volume ratio is
over-compressing as we have seen. The amount of energy lost because of over-
compressing increases as the pressure ratio is reduced.
3. Similarly, when the pressure ratio exceeds the pressure ratio ‘r’, the compressor is
under-compressing and must incur additional energy use to compress the gas to the
discharge pressure. This energy also increases as the actual pressure ratio increases.
29
Screw Compressor Schematic

30
Screw Compressor Schematic

31
Screw Compressor – First Chamber Unwrapped

32
Progressive Compression of one Chamber

33
Conventional Slide Valve

34
Slide Valve Schematic

35
View of Slide Valve from above

36
Controlling Slide Valve Members

37
Diagram for Unloaded Compressor
𝑊 𝑓 𝑓𝑉 −1 𝑔 −1 𝑟
=𝑃 + + −1+𝑔−𝑓
𝑁𝑉 𝛾−1 𝛾−1 𝑉
𝛾 𝑟 −1
𝐴𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝜂 =
𝑟 𝛾−1
𝑉 + 𝑉 −𝛾

38
Improved Efficiency with Variable Vi

39
Part Load Vi– Fixed Volume Ratio

40
Part Load Vi – Variable Volume Ratio

41
Volumetric Efficiency vs Compression Ratio

42
Adiabatic Efficiency – Screw vs Reciprocating Compressor

43
Part Load Efficiency Improvement

44
Altitude Correction for Screw Compressor

45

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Air and Gas

Company Info Management Technology Training Case Studies Tools

Power Service 1. High power to weight ratio.

1. Some processes require high pressure e.g.,

1. Trigger, start, stop or modulate an

1. Can be used in explosive environments.

1. Can be used in corrosive atmospheres.

Company Info Management Technology Training Case Studies Tools

Blower 1. When the P is > few hundred mm WG but < 2 kgf/cm2

Compressor 1. When the P is > 2 kgf/cm2

Company Info Management Technology Training Case Studies Tools

Company Info Management Technology Training Case Studies Tools

The practical formula is

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Volumetric Efficiency 0.831 0.819 0.742

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(For Refrigeration compressors)

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Company Info Management Technology Training Case Studies Tools

Company Info Management Technology Training Case Studies Tools

3 Mechanical friction in the compressor also results in a loss of

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Company Info Management Technology Training Case Studies Tools

Company Info Management Technology Training Case Studies Tools

Company Info Management Technology Training Case Studies Tools

Company Info Management Technology Training Case Studies Tools

Company Info Management Technology Training Case Studies Tools

Multi-staging Reduce Pressure 1. Across each cylinder.

Reduces the no. 1. Reduced number of cylinders at high pressure.

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Consult the • If inlet/ outlet pressures are to be

Manufacturer • Diameters and machine proportions

Perfect Inter- • When the gas enters each stage at the

cooling • Coolers are designed to work on a

• Maintain it as low as possible; about

Temperature discharged air.

Company Info Management Technology Training Case Studies Tools

Company Info Management Technology Training Case Studies Tools

If the compression is done in k stages with perfect interstage cooling

The optimal pressure ratio for each stage is when

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Company Info Management Technology Training Case Studies Tools

Compressor Capacity, l/s

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Company Info Management Technology Training Case Studies Tools

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1. 𝑚̇ = mass flow rate, kg/ s

0 5 6 The work per unit suction volume is

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Company Info Management Technology Training Case Studies Tools

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