PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC  Conjunction [“and”]

ELEMENTARY LOGIC 1.1  Disjunction [“or”]

 Inclusive Disjunction
LOGIC  Exclusive Disjunction
 It is the discipline that deals with the methods of
reasoning. It is specifically concerned with Truth Values vs. Truth Table
whether the reasoning is correct. Truth Value
 It allows us to determine the validity of an  It is the assigned value to a given proposition.
argument that depends on its logical form, not one Truth Table
the particular meaning of the terms contains.  It is the table which summarizes the truth values
of propositions. It displays all the possible
PROPOSITION combinations of the given proposition, may be
 (otherwise known as statement) is a declarative atomic or compound propositions.
sentence. [Remark] There are 2n possible
 Declarative sentences are simply statements that combinations of truth values to be considered in the
relay information. It states the facts and lets the truth table.
reader know something specific. It always ends
with a period. How to Construct a Truth Table?
 It assigns one and only one of the two possible  [Step 1] Prepare all possible combinations of
truth values (or Boolean values): true (1) or false truth values for propositional variables. [This
(0). gives the total number of rows in the truth table.]
 Examples  The number of variables will give the initial
 The only positive integers that divide 5 are 1 number of columns.
and 5 itself.  [Step 2] Obtain the truth values of each
 The sun will come out tomorrow. connective and put these truth values in a new
 a + b = b + c if a = c column.
 5 < 1 ▪ 10 - 1 = 9
 Wrong Examples
 a=b
 What time is it?
 Help!
 Malolos is the best city in the province of
Bulacan.
 This sentence is false.
 Please pick up the pieces of papers.

More on Propositions
 In logic, statements are usually represented
symbolically by the lowercase letters to represent
propositional variables, i.e., variables that can be
replaced by statements.
 Atomic proposition – a statement that is not
decomposable into simple statement
 Compound proposition – a statement
formed over the composition of different
statements through logical connectives.

Logical Connectives
 These are the devices used to link or join pairs of
statement.
 Negation [“not”]
Negation  moreover, furthermore, yet, still, however,
 Let p be a proposition. The statement “It’s not the also, nevertheless, although, and so forth,
case that p” is called negation of p. It is denoted comma (,) and colon (:) are also used to
as ¬p or ~p read as “not p”. conjoin two propositions
 Inserting in statement the word “not”.
 It is false that p. Conjunction: Truth Table
 It is not the case that p p q p^q
 Remark: The symbol “~“ is called curl or tilde 1 1 1
and is used to symbolize negation (or denial or 1 0 0
contradictory). Other symbols like “-” and “>”
0 1 0
can also be used as negation.
0 0 0
Negation: Examples
 p: “Today is Friday.”
~ p: “Today is not Friday.” Conjunction: Examples
~ p: “It is not the case that today is Friday.”  p: “Today is Friday”
~ p: “It is false that today is Friday.”  q: “It is raining today”
 p: “The sun is not shining.”  p^q: “Today is Friday and it is raining today”
Correct Case:
~ p: “The sun is shining.”  p: “I am sick”
~ p: “ It is not the case that the sun is  q: “I cannot take the exam”
not shining.”  p^q: “I am sick and I cannot take the exam”
Wrong Case/s: [It introduces ‘double
negation’.] Disjunction
~ p: “It is not the case that the sun is shining.”  Let p and q be propositions. The “disjunction of
~ p: “It is false that the sun is shining.” p and q” is denoted by p v q. This is also read as
 p: “Five is an even number.” “p or q”.
 p: “I like Math.”  INCLUSIVE OR: If p and q are
propositions then p OR q is true if either p
Negation: Truth Table is true or q is true or if both p and q are true.
p ~p  EXCLUSIVE OR: If p and q are
1 0 propositions, the “exclusive or” of p and q
0 1 is denoted as p ⊕ q. This means that strictly
one of the propositions must true in order
Compound Propositions for the exclusive disjunction to be true.
 It is a combination of propositions formed from  Note: “unless” may also be used in
existing propositions using logical connectives. expressing the disjunction of two
propositions.
Propositional Connectives
 It is an operation that combines two propositions Disjunction: Truth Tables
to yield a new one whose truth value depends
only on the truth values of the two original Inclusive Disjunction Exclusive Disjunction
propositions. p q pvq p q p⊕q
1 1 1 1 1 0
Conjunction 1 0 1 1 0 1
 Let p and q be propositions. The propositions “p 0 1 1 0 1 1
and q” is denoted by p ∧ q. This is also read as 0 0 0 0 0 0
“the conjunction of p and q”. The conjunction “p
^ q” is true if both p and q are true. Inclusive Disjunction: Examples
NOTE:  p: “Plaridel is the capital of Bulacan”
 “but” has the same logical meaning as “and”  q: “Malolos is one of the cities found in Region
 Other words used to conjoin two propositions III”
 pvq: “Plaridel is the capital of Bulacan or Malolos  If it is not a long weekend, then Lucky is not
is one of the cities found in Region III” going to watch Riverdale.
 If it is a long weekend, then I will stay at home.
 p: “3 is an even number”  I will stay at home if it is a long weekend.
 q: “A century is 100 years”  I will stay at home whenever it is a long
 pvq: “3 is an even number or a century is 100 weekend.
years.”
Note on Conditional Proposition
Exclusive Disjunction: Examples  p → q is false when p is true and q is false [a
 p: “I am looking at my seatmate” true statement cannot imply a false one]
 q: “I am looking at my teacher”
 p⊕ q: “I am looking at my seatmate or I am Example
looking at my teacher” p: “1 > 2” F
q: “4 < 8” T
 p: “I can take a plane going to Romblon” p→q: “If 1 > 2 then 4 < 8” T
 q: “I can take a ferry going to Romblon” p→q: “If 4 < 8 then 1 > 2 “ F
 p⊕q: “I can take a plane or a ferry going to
Romblon”
 As observed, the truth values for the conjunction
Note on Compound Propositions - “p ∧ q” and “q ∧ p” are always the same.
 To connote groupings: Also, the truth tables for the disjunction “p ∨
 “both” goes with “and” q” and “q ∨ p” are identical.
 “either” goes with “or”  However, it is false that the truth values for p →
 “neither p nor q” is the same as “not either p or q” q and q → p are the same as seen in the previous
example.
Conditional Propositions
 If p and q are propositions, the compound Conditional Proposition: Truth Table
statement “if p, then q” is called an implication or
conditional statement and is denoted by p → q: p q p→q
 p is called the hypothesis (or antecedent) 1 1 1
 q is called the conclusion (or consequent) 1 0 0
NOTE: 0 1 1
 p→q is equivalent to the following expressions: 0 0 1
 p implies q, If p then q, q if p, q whenever p,
p is sufficient for q, p is necessary for q  Given the conditional proposition p → q, then
 the converse of p → q is the implication q
Conditional Propositions: Example → p,
 p: “I am late”  the contrapositive of p→ q is the
 q: “I cannot take the seatwork” implication ~q→ ~p,
 p→ q: “If I am late then I cannot take the  the inverse of p → q is the implication of
seatwork.” ~p→~q

 p: “Today is Monday.” EXAMPLE:

 q: “I have a test today” Let p: it is hot; and q: I will go to the mall
 p → q: “If today is Monday then I have a test  Implication
today”  p → q: If it is hot, then I will go to the mall.
 Converse
Let p, q, and r be propositions:  q → p: If I will go to the mall, then it is hot.
 p: It is a long weekend.  Contrapositive
 q: I will stay at home.  ~q → ~p: If I will not go to the mall, then it
 r: Lucky is not going to watch Riverdale. is not hot.
 Inverse Biconditional Proposition: Truth Table
 ~p → ~q: If it is not hot, then I will not go the
p q p↔q
mall.
1 1 1
Conditional Proposition: Truth Table 1 0 0
p q ~p ~q p→q q→p ~p → ~q ~q → ~p 0 1 0
0 0 0
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC
0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
ELEMENTARY LOGIC 1.2
Biconditional Propositions
TRUTH TABLE
 If p and q are propositions, the compound
a table which summarizes the truth values of
proposition “p if and only if q” is called a
propositions. Its entries are 1 OR T if the truth value
biconditional proposition and is written p ↔ q.
of the proposition is true, and
 The connective “p if and only if q” is the
0 OR F if the truth values is false.
conjunction of p → q and its converse q → p, the
truth value of proposition p ↔ q is defined by the Two Variables Three Variables
truth table below. p q p q r
T T T T T
NOTE:
T F T T F
 p ↔ q is equivalent to the following expressions:
F T T F T
 p is equivalent to q, p if and only if q, p is
F F T F F
necessary and sufficient for q, if p then q and
conversely F T T
F T F
Biconditional Propositions: Examples F F T
 p: “David is the son of Ricky.” F F F
 q: “Ricky is the father of David.”
 p↔q: “David is the son of Ricky if and only if Conditional Propositions
Ricky is the father of David.”  If p and q are propositions, the compound
statement “if p, then q” is called an implication
 p: “12 is divisible by 2.” or conditional statement and is denoted by p →
 q: “12 is even.” q.
 p↔q: “12 is divisible by 2 if and only if 12 is  p is called the hypothesis
even”  q is called the conclusion.

Note on Biconditional Proposition p → q: “if p, then q”

 p↔q is true when both p and q has the same
logical truth value Example:
Example  p: Your motorbike is out of gas
 q: You can’t drive your motorbike
p: “7 > 12” F  p→q: If your motorbike is out of gas, then you
q: “7 is even” F can’t drive your motorbike
p↔q: “7 > 12 if and only if 7 is even.” T
Given the conditional proposition p→q, then the,
p: “A square is a quadrilateral.” T converse q→p
q: “A triangle has four vertices.” F contrapositive ~q → ~p
p↔q: “A square is a quadrilateral if and F inverse ~p → ~q
only if a triangle has four vertices.”
EXAMPLE Tautologies and Contradiction + Logical
Let p: It is hot Equivalence
q: I will go to mall
 Implication/Conditional: “If it is hot, then I will Tautologies and Contradiction
go to the mall”  A statement that is true for all possible values
 Converse: “If I will go to the mall, then it is hot” of its propositional variables is called a
 Contrapositive: “If I will not go to the mall, then tautology.
it is not hot”  A proposition that is always false is called a
 Inverse: “If it is not hot, then I will not go to contradiction or an absurdity, and a
mall” proposition that can be either true or false,
depending on the truth values of its
Biconditional Proposition propositional variables is called a contingency
If p and q are propositions, the compound proposition
“p if and only if q” is called is called a biconditional
proposition and is written p↔q.
Example:
p: Your motorbike is out of gas
q: You can’t drive your motorbike
p↔q: Your motorbike is out of gas if and only if you
can’t drive your motorbike
 Equivalent Statement

“If we recycle, then the amount of trash in the

Payatas landfills is reduced”
≡
“If the amount of trash in the Payatas landfills is not
reduced, then we did not recycle”

1. If he will try, then he will succeed

2. If it is summer, then it is not humid
3. If a number is even, then it is a multiple of 2
Logical Equivalence 4. If I do not drink, then I do not eat
 two propositions P (p, q, r, …) and Q (p, q, r, …)
are said to be logically equivalent or simply Negating Conditional and Equivalent Statement
equivalent if and only if they have identical truth  The negation of the conditional statement “p →
values. q” is the conjunction of “p ^ ~q” and the
 In symbols, P (p, q, r, …) ≡ Q (p, q, r, …) equivalent of the conditional statement “p q” is
 Two statements having the same truth values in the disjunction of “~p v q”.
all possible cases are logically equivalent.
 Symbolic form: p ↔ q or p ≡ q (read as p and q Example
are logically equivalent) Write the negation of the conditional statement “If it
rains, then I take my umbrella” and its equivalent
Examples: statement without using if … then
1. Show that p → q and ~p ∨ q are logically  Negation: It rains and I will not take my
equivalent. umbrella
 Equivalent Statement: It is not raining or I will
take my umbrella

Argument
 an argument is a sequence of propositions
written as p1 , p2 , …, pn / q
Deductive or indirect reasoning
 process of reaching a conclusion from one or
more statements called hypothesis.
 set of statements in which one of the statements
is called the conclusion and the rest comprise
the hypothesis.
 The propositions p1 , p2 , …, pn are called the
hypothesis and the proposition q is called the
conclusion.
 An argument is valid argument if all the
premises p1^, p2^, …, pn^are all true (1) and
truth value of the conclusion q, must also be true
(1); otherwise, the argument is invalid if the
truth value of all premises is true (1) but the
truth value of the conclusion is false (0)
 An argument is valid if it is tautology.
[∴ This is a VALID argument.]

2. If it does not rain, then the street won’t be wet.

The street is wet. Therefore, it rained