Full Laser Spectroscopy For Sensing Fundamentals Techniques and Applications 1st Edition M. Baudelet (Eds.) PDF All Chapters
Full Laser Spectroscopy For Sensing Fundamentals Techniques and Applications 1st Edition M. Baudelet (Eds.) PDF All Chapters
Full Laser Spectroscopy For Sensing Fundamentals Techniques and Applications 1st Edition M. Baudelet (Eds.) PDF All Chapters
com
https://ebookname.com/product/laser-spectroscopy-for-
sensing-fundamentals-techniques-and-applications-1st-
edition-m-baudelet-eds/
OR CLICK BUTTON
DOWNLOAD EBOOK
https://ebookname.com/product/laser-chemistry-spectroscopy-
dynamics-and-applications-1st-edition-helmut-h-telle/
https://ebookname.com/product/infrared-spectroscopy-fundamentals-
and-applications-1st-edition-barbara-h-stuart/
https://ebookname.com/product/laser-spectroscopy-1st-edition-
steven-chu/
https://ebookname.com/product/algebra-i-quick-review-2nd-edition-
cliffs-notes-jerry-bobrow-author/
The Tradition Albert Frank Moritz
https://ebookname.com/product/the-tradition-albert-frank-moritz/
https://ebookname.com/product/textbook-of-oral-medicine-3rd-
edition-anil-govindrao-ghom/
https://ebookname.com/product/advances-in-astronomy-from-the-big-
bang-to-the-solar-system-2005-en-417s-j-m-t-thompson/
https://ebookname.com/product/badd-mojo-the-badd-brothers-
book-6-1st-edition-jasinda-wilder/
https://ebookname.com/product/winds-from-the-north-tewa-origins-
and-historical-anthropology-1st-edition-edition-scott-g-ortman/
The Jordanian Labour Market in the New Millennium First
Edition Ragui Assaad
https://ebookname.com/product/the-jordanian-labour-market-in-the-
new-millennium-first-edition-ragui-assaad/
Laser spectroscopy for sensing
Related titles:
Semiconductor lasers
(ISBN 978-0-85709-121-5)
Woodhead Publishing Series in Electronic and Optical Materials:
Number 43
Laser spectroscopy
for sensing
Fundamentals, techniques and
applications
Edited by
Matthieu Baudelet
Notice
No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or
property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or
operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein.
Because of rapid advances in the medical sciences, in particular, independent verification
of diagnoses and drug dosages should be made.
Editor Chapter 3
Matthieu Baudelet Peter Werle
Townes Laser Institute Karlsruhe Institute of Technology
CREOL – The College of Optics KIT
and Photonics Institute of Meteorology and
University of Central Florida Climate Research IMK-IFU
4000 Central Florida Boulevard Kreuzeckbahnstr. 19
Orlando, FL 32816, USA 82467 Garmisch-Partenkirchen,
Germany
E-mail: [email protected]
E-mail: [email protected]
Chapter 1
Chapter 4
Paul J. Dagdigian
Department of Chemistry Alexander Kramida
Remsen Hall National Institute of Standards and
The Johns Hopkins University Technology
3400 N. Charles Street Gaithersburg
Baltimore MD 20899, USA
Maryland 21218-2685, USA E-mail: alexander.kramida@nist.
E-mail: [email protected] gov
Chapter 2 Chapter 5
Lawrence Shah Peter Torrione*,
Townes Laser Institute Leslie M. Collins and
CREOL - The College of Optics Kenneth D. Morton Jr
and Photonics Duke University, Dept of ECE
University of Central Florida Box 90291, Hudson Hall
4000 Central Florida Blvd
Orlando, FL 32816, USA
xi
xii Contributor contact details
1 Circuit analysis
J. E. Whitehouse
2 Signal processing in electronic communications: For engineers and
mathematicians
M. J. Chapman, D. P. Goodall and N. C. Steele
3 Pattern recognition and image processing
D. Luo
4 Digital filters and signal processing in electronic engineering: Theory,
applications, architecture, code
S. M. Bozic and R. J. Chance
5 Cable engineering for local area networks
B. J. Elliott
6 Designing a structured cabling system to ISO 11801: Cross-referenced
to European CENELEC and American Standards Second edition
B. J. Elliott
7 Microscopy techniques for materials science
A. Clarke and C. Eberhardt
8 Materials for energy conversion devices
Edited by C. C. Sorrell, J. Nowotny and S. Sugihara
9 Digital image processing: Mathematical and computational methods
Second edition
J. M. Blackledge
10 Nanolithography and patterning techniques in microelectronics
Edited by D. Bucknall
11 Digital signal processing: Mathematical and computational methods,
software development and applications Second edition
J. M. Blackledge
12 Handbook of advanced dielectric, piezoelectric and ferroelectric materi-
als: Synthesis, properties and applications
Edited by Z.-G. Ye
13 Materials for fuel cells
Edited by M. Gasik
xv
xvi Woodhead Publishing Series in Electronic and Optical Materials
Optical spectroscopy has been used for centuries for determining the chemi-
cal composition of materials and making decisions by sensing properties and
converting them into an optical signature. As early as the sixteenth century,
Georgius Agricola (Georg Bauer) mentioned that the differences in color
from heated materials provided information on their composition in the ‘Ore
Testing’ section of his famous De re metallica (Agricola 1556):
The colour of the fumes which the ore emits after being placed on a hot shovel
or an iron plate, indicates what flux is needed in addition to the lead, for the
purpose of either assaying or smelting. (…) The colour of the fumes not only
gives us information as to the proper remedies which should be applied to
each ore, but also more or less indication as to the solidified juices which are
mixed with it, and which give forth such fumes.
Make sure that the wood renders water bluish, otherwise it is a falsification.
Indeed, they now bring another kind of wood that renders the water yellow,
but it is not good, only the kind that renders the water bluish is genuine.
xxi
xxii Introduction
The first question covers the questions relating to the type of sample that
the user will analyze (solid, liquid, gas, powder, aerosol, mixture) and the
type of spectroscopy that is needed (atomic or molecular).
The second question is linked to the type of information that is needed
to be obtained from the sample: qualitative information (chemical content,
from the list of elements to the speciation of the different species, moisture
content, etc.) or quantitative information (concentration of some species,
isotopic ratios, etc.).
The third question is governed more by the use of the spectroscopic data.
Perhaps the data will be used for a binary decision (Is this an explosive or
not? Is the concentration of cadmium in this soil below the legal limits?),
an identification/classification problem (What bacteria are in this sample?
Introduction xxiii
References
Agricola, G. (1556), De Re Metallica, translated by Herbert Hoover, Lou Henry
Hoover, Dover Publications, 1950.
Brech, F. and Cross, L. (1962), Optical microemission stimulated by a ruby maser,
Appl. Spectrosc., 16, 59.
Curl, R. F., Capasso, F., Gmachl, C., Kosterev, A. A., McManus, B., Lewicki, R.,
Pusharsky, M., Wysocki, G. and Tittel, F. K. (2010), Quantum cascade lasers in
chemical physics, Chem. Phys. Lett., 487(1), 1–18.
Demtröder, W. (2008), Laser Spectroscopy: Vol. 1 Basic Principles Vol. 2 Experimental
Techniques, 4th edn., Berlin, Heidelberg, Springer.
Maiman, T. H. (1960), Stimulated optical radiation in ruby, Nature, 187, 493–494.
Maurice, S., Wiens, R. C., Saccoccio, M., Barraclough, B., Gasnault, O., Forni, O.,
Mangold, N., Baratoux, D., Bender, S., Berger, G., Bernardin, J., Berthé,
M., Bridges, N., Blaney, D., Bouyé, M., Caïs, P., Clark, B., Clegg, S., Cousin,
xxiv Introduction
A., Cremers, D., Cros, A., DeFlores, L., Derycke, C., Dingler, B., Dromart,
G., Dubois, B., Dupieux, M., Durand, E., d’Uston, L., Fabre, C., Faure, B.,
Gaboriaud, A., Gharsa, T., Herkenhoff, K., Kan, E., Kirkland, L., Kouach, D.,
Lacour, J.-L., Langevin, Y., Lasue, J., Le Mou´elic, S., Lescure, M., Lewin, E.,
Limonadi, D., Manh`es, G., Mauchien, P., McKay, C., Meslin, P.-Y., Michel, Y.,
Miller, E., Newsom, H. E., Orttner, G., Paillet, A., Parès, L., Parot, Y., Pérez, R.,
Pinet, P., Poitrasson, F., Quertier, B., Sallé, B., Sotin, C., Sautter, V., S´eran, H.,
Simmonds, J. J., Sirven, J.-B., Stiglich, R., Striebig, N., Thocaven, J.-J., Toplis, M. J.
and Vaniman D. (2012), The ChemCam Instrument Suite on the Mars Science
Laboratory (MSL) Rover: Science objectives and mast unit description, Space
Sci. Rev., 170, 95–166.
Measures, R. (1988), Laser Remote Chemical Analysis, New York, John Wiley and
Sons.
Porto, S. P. S. and Wood, D. L. (1962), Ruby optical maser as a Raman source, Appl.
Opt., 1, 139–141.
Stenholm, S. (2012), Foundations of Laser Spectroscopy, Mineola, NY, Courier
Dover Publications.
Valeur, B. and Berberan-Santos, M. N. (2011), A brief history of fluorescence and
phosphorescence before the emergence of quantum theory, J. Chem. Edu.,
88(6), 731–738.
To Leslie
1
Fundamentals of optical spectroscopy
P. J. DAGDIGIAN, Johns Hopkins University, USA
DOI: 10.1533/9780857098733.1.3
1.1 Introduction
Spectroscopy involves the study of the absorption and emission of light by
atoms, molecules, and larger assemblies of atoms. This technique is a power-
ful tool for the remote observation of atoms and molecules in environments
as diverse as combustion media, planetary atmospheres, interstellar clouds,
and plasmas. Spectroscopic techniques can be used to determine atomic and
molecular concentrations and other properties of the medium, such as the
temperature and the electron density in a plasma. Absorption and emis-
sion spectroscopy has been extensively employed in a variety of analytical
techniques, including atomic absorption spectroscopy, infrared absorption
and Raman spectroscopy, and inductively coupled plasma emission spec-
troscopy, as well as laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy.
We shall concentrate in this chapter on electronic spectroscopy, the branch
of spectroscopy that deals with transitions involving a rearrangement of the
electrons of the system. Vibrational transitions, as observed through infra-
red absorption or Raman spectroscopy, are also discussed in this chap-
ter. Most electronic transitions occur in the visible or ultraviolet regions
of the electromagnetic spectrum, and our atmosphere is transparent to
these wavelengths, facilitating spectroscopic observations. In laser-induced
3
dN 2
= N1ρ ( 21 ) B2 ←11 − N 2 ρ ( 21 ) B2→1 − N 2 A2→1 [1.1]
dt
B2 1 B2 1 A2 1
The rates of these three processes are not independent. The so-called
Einstein coefficients B2 ←1 B2→1 , and A2→1 can be related to one another
by considering thermal equilibrium (Bernath, 2005). In this case, the time
derivative in Equation [1.1] is zero, since concentrations do not change at
equilibrium. Moreover, the ratio of the upper- and lower-level populations
is described by the Boltzmann distribution:
N2 ⎛ − hν221 ⎞
= exp [1.2]
N1 ⎝ kT ⎠
and the light energy density is given by the Planck distribution function:
8 π hν 3 1
ρ ( ν, T ) = [1.3]
c 3
p ( hν kT ) − 1
exp
In writing Equation [1.2], we have assumed that the levels are nondegen-
erate, for simplicity. The temperature is denoted as T, and k and c are the
Boltzmann constant and the speed of light, respectively. The reader should
consult a spectroscopy text (Corney, 1977) for a more complete treatment
with degeneracy of the levels included.
With Equations [1.2] and [1.3], we obtain the following relationships
between the Einstein coefficients:
2→1 B2 ←1 [1.4]
8 πhν 21
3
A2→1 = B2 ←1 [1.5]
c3
6 Laser spectroscopy for sensing
Thus, the rates of absorption and stimulated emission are equal. It should be
noted that the A coefficient for spontaneous emission is a first-order rate con-
stant. In the absence of the light field, the upper level will decay exponentially
with a rate constant of A2→1 . In a multi-level system, an excited state can decay
to many lower levels and will have a (1 e ) radiative lifetime τ i equal to:
−1
⎛ ⎞
τ i = ⎜ ∑ Ai → f ⎟ [1.6]
⎝ f ⎠
where the sum extends over all lower levels. Spontaneous emission is what
is observed in a laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy experiment.
The actual magnitudes of the Einstein coefficients can be derived by con-
sidering a semiclassical description of the quantum mechanics of absorption
(Bernath, 2005). In this treatment, the material system is treated quantum
mechanically, while the electromagnetic field is described classically.The allowed
spectroscopic transitions involve the coupling of the electric dipole moment of
the system with the electric field of the light. The Einstein coefficients can be
related to the matrix elements of the electric dipole moment operator:
2π 2 JG 2
B2 ←1 = 2μ1 [1.7]
3ε 0 h 2
16 π 3 ν 321 JG 2
A2→1 = 2μ1 [1.8]
3ε 0 hc 3
0 exp ( −σ ( N 1 N 2 ) l ) [1.9]
λ2
S ∫ σ dν 8π
A2→1 [1.10]
γ
g ( ν ν21 ) = [1.11]
( γ 2) + (2π )2 ( ν − ν21 )2
2
Here, γ equals A2→1 , and the full width at half maximum of the profile in
Equation [1.11] is γ 2 π . As an example, consider the Na 3 p 2 1 2 → 3s 2 S1 2
transition at 589.6 nm. The A coefficient for this transition equals 6.17 ×
107 s−1 (Ralchenko et al.), and this leads to a full width at half maximum
(FWHM) for natural broadening of 3.28 × 10−4 cm−1 in wavenumbers.
An important heterogeneous broadening mechanism is Doppler broad-
ening, which results from the atomic or molecular motion. Similar to the
change in sound frequency when a train passes across a grade crossing,
the light frequency observed by the atom/molecule is shifted due to its
motion:
⎛ v ⎞
ν ν0 ⎜1− & ⎟ [1.12]
⎝ c ⎠
Here v0 is the rest frequency of the light and v& is the component of the
atomic/molecular velocity parallel to the direction of the light beam.
Averaging over the distribution of velocities, the Doppler line shape func-
tion has a Gaussian profile:
8 Laser spectroscopy for sensing
1 ⎛ mc 2 ⎞
12 ⎛ mc 2 (ν ν 21 )2 ⎞
g (ν ν 21 ) = exp ⎜ − ⎟ [1.13]
ν 21 ⎝ 2π k
kT ⎠ ⎝ 2kT ν 21
2
⎠
T
Δν 7 2 × 10 7 ν 21 [1.14]
M
0.8
Gaussian
g( ν − ν 21 )
0.6
0.4 Lorentzian
0.2
0
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
ν − ν / FWHM
21
1.2 Lorentzian and Gaussian profiles. The frequency offset from line
center is given in units of the FWHM of the profile. Both profiles are
normalized so that the integral over all frequencies equals unity.
Fundamentals of optical spectroscopy 9
3105 4104
20 ns delay 1000 ns delay
3104
2105
Intensity
2104
1105
1104
0 0
392 394 396 398 400 392 394 396 398 400
Wavelength (nm) Wavelength (nm)
most laser-induced breakdown spectra, such dips are usually not observed.
It can be seen that the Stark broadened profile is not centered on the self-
absorption dips, which occur at line center. Spectral broadening due to the
presence of electrons in the plasma also causes a shift in the line position,
as well as broadening. However, the Stark-induced shifts are much less than
the broadening and are not usually used to deduce the electron density.
So far, we have discussed in this section transitions between atomic or
molecular levels caused by absorption or emission of radiation. Transitions
can also be induced by nonradiative processes. In particular, population in
an excited level can be lost by collisions with other species in the plasma,
causing electronic quenching of the level. Thus, an excited level can decay
by both spontaneous emission, often called fluorescence, or by nonradiative
decay. If the latter dominates, then the fraction of excited species decaying
by optical emission, or the fluorescence quantum yield, will be sufficiently
low than emission from this level cannot be observed, even though it is pop-
ulated in the system. Since the rate of electronic quenching scales with the
particle density, the fluorescence quantum yield can be expected to decrease
with increasing density.
1
En RH [1.15]
n2
where the Rydberg constant RH equals 109 678 cm−1. Figure 1.4 presents
energy level diagrams for hydrogen and other light atoms. The first few lev-
els of the hydrogen atom are displayed in this figure.
The levels of the hydrogen atom are completely specified by three quan-
tum numbers: the principal quantum number n discussed above, the azi-
muthal quantum number l, and the magnetic quantum number m. The last
two parameters define the orbital angular momentum and its projection
along a space-fixed axis. The m quantum number is usually not of interest
1.2 105 H C N O
I.P.
I.P. I.P.
1 105 n = 3 3s 4S
656.3 nm I.P. 2p4 4P 744.3 nm 844.6 nm
3p
8 104
n=2 3s 4P 777.4 nm
Energy (cm−1)
3s
2p3 3D 120.0 nm 113.4 nm
6 104 3s 1P
3s 3P 247.9 nm
1.4 Energy level diagram for the hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and
oxygen atoms. The ionization potential (I.P.) is indicated for each atom.
The emission lines commonly observed for these elements in laser-
induced breakdown spectroscopy are indicated with solid single-
headed arrows, while transitions from the ground levels are denoted as
double-headed dashed arrows.
12 Laser spectroscopy for sensing
since the energy depends on m only when the atom is placed in an external
electric or magnetic field. Because of the properties of the Coulomb poten-
tial, the energies of hydrogen atom levels do not depend on l (Judd, 1975).
By contrast, the energies of an alkali atom, in which there is a loosely bound
electron outside of more tightly bound electrons, depend upon both n and
l. We defer discussion of the electron spin until we discuss energy levels of
polyelectronic atoms.
The energy levels of polyelectronic atoms are first specified by the elec-
tron configuration, i.e. the principal quantum number n and the azimuthal
quantum number l of the occupied orbitals. These are determined by the so-
called building-up principle, by which electrons are assigned these quantum
numbers consistently with the Pauli exclusion principle. For example, the
ground electron configuration of the sodium atom is 1s22s22p63s. The angu-
lar momenta l of the individual electrons are coupled with one another to
yield a total orbital angular momentum L. Likewise, the electron spin angu-
lar momenta s (magnitude of s equals 1/2) are coupled to give a total spin
angular momentum S. The coupling of the individual angular momenta fol-
lows their vector addition (Zare, 1988). Thus, for two electrons, the allowed
values of L for two electrons range over l1 + l2, l1 + l2 –1, …, | l1 – l2|. Similarly,
since the electron spin angular momentum s equals 1/2, the total spin angu-
lar momentum S can equal 0 or 1 when for an electron configuration involv-
ing two electrons. Electrons in closed shells do not contribute to L and S. A
pair of (L, S) values defines a term.
The spin-orbit effect causes a coupling between L and S, which for light
atoms is much smaller than the coupling of the angular momenta of the
individual electrons. The addition of the angular momenta L and S yields
the total angular momentum J of the atom, which can take up values from
L + S to |L – S|. Levels in a given term (i.e. an electron configuration and set
of L and S values) with different values of J have slightly different energies
due to the coupling of the orbital and spin angular momenta (Condon and
Shortley, 1963).
The following notation is employed to describe atomic energy levels.
Levels with L = 0, 1, 2, 3, … are called S, P, D, F, … levels. The values of S
and J are specified by the notation 2S+1LJ. Here, 2S+1 is the spin multiplicity,
which usually equals the number of levels of different J. For example, the
ground level of the sodium atom is denoted 2S1/2. The first excited electron
configuration of sodium is 1s22s22p63p. For this configuration, two values of
J are possible, and the levels are denoted 2P1/2 and 2P3/2.
Electron configurations with more than one electron outside closed
shells have more than one term. This is illustrated in Fig. 1.4 by the carbon
atom, which has a ground electron configuration 1s22s22p2. The three terms
arising from this configuration are 3P, 1D, and 1S. The energy ordering of
these terms can be deduced by Hund’s rules (Bernath, 2005). The level with
Fundamentals of optical spectroscopy 13
the highest spin multiplicity is the lowest in energy; hence, the 3P level is
the ground level. Of the two remaining levels of the same spin multiplicity
(singlet), the level with the largest orbital angular momentum L is lower in
energy. Thus, the 1D level is lower in energy than the 1S level; this leads to
the energy ordering of these levels shown in Fig. 1.4. The lower energy lev-
els of the oxygen atom are also ordered in the same way, since the ground
electron configuration of oxygen can be described as a p2 hole in the 2p
shell. As another example, the two oxygen levels in Fig. 1.4 marked as 3s
are the 5S2 and 3S1 levels associated with the 1s22s22p3(4S)3s configuration.
(The symbols in parentheses denote the L and S values of the electrons in
the 2p shell.)
Figure 1.4 displays the lower energy levels of the hydrogen, carbon, nitro-
gen, and oxygen atoms, the common constituents of organic molecules. For
the last three atoms, there are three terms corresponding to the ground elec-
tron configurations (1s22s22p2, 1s22s22p3, 1s22s22p4, respectively). The next set
of electron configurations of these atoms involves promotion of an electron
in the 2p orbital to the 3s or 3p orbital. The energy differences between the
ground 1s22s22pn configuration and these excited configurations (1s22s22pn–
1
3s and 1s22s22pn–13p) are large.
Na Pb
6 104 I.P.
7s 1P1
5 104
2 2P 2D 7s 3P2
S
I.P.
4 104 374.0 nm 357.3 nm
Energy (cm−1)
6 6 5
5 5 4 7s 3P0,1
3 104 4 3 6p2 1S0
4
615.4 nm 568.8 nm 6p2 1D2
2 104
3 283.3 nm 405.8 nm 257.7 nm
6p2 3P2
1 104
589.0/589.6 nm 6p2 3P1
364.0/368.4 nm
0 3 6p2 3P0
1.5 Energy level diagram for the sodium and lead atoms. The sodium
energy levels are separated into columns for the 2S, 2P, and 2D levels.
The spin-orbit splittings are not indicated for sodium; however, the
wavelengths of the two components of the resonance transitions are
given. The numbers beside the sodium energy levels are the principal
quantum numbers n of the outermost electron. The I.P. is indicated for
each atom. The emission lines commonly observed for these elements
in laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy are indicated with solid
single-headed arrows, while transitions from the ground levels are
denoted as double-headed dashed arrows.
14 Laser spectroscopy for sensing
total orbital angular momentum is ΔL = 0, ±1. For atoms with one electron
outside closed shells, such as sodium, we must have Δl = ΔL. Atoms with sev-
eral electrons outside closed shells can have ΔL = 0, for example the 2s22p3s
3
P – 2s22p2 3P transition at 165.7 nm in the C atom (see Fig. 1.4). Since the
electric dipole moment operator is odd with respect to the inversion of the
coordinates, electric dipole transitions can only connect levels of opposite
li
parity. The parity can be evaluated by computing ( )∑ . This sum equals +1
for even levels, and –1 for odd levels.
Since the electric dipole moment operator does not involve the electron
spin, we must have ΔS = 0. This rule does break down for heavy atoms, in
which the spin-orbit splitting is very large. A very good example of such a
nominally spin-forbidden, but strong, transition is the mercury 6s6p 3P1 – 6s2
1
S0 transition at 253.7 nm. The selection rule for the total angular momen-
tum J, which is rigorous, is ΔJ = 0, ±1, except that J = 0 to J = 0 transitions
are not allowed
It is instructive to apply these rules to the energy levels of the atoms dis-
played in Figs 1.4 and 1.5. We see from Fig. 1.4 that the resonance transitions
of the light atoms involve a 2p → 3s electron transition (with the exception
of hydrogen), and all have wavelengths less than 200 nm, in the vacuum
ultraviolet. The usual transitions observed for these atoms involve a pair
of excited levels, usually having configurations with the 3p and 3s orbitals
occupied. For the metal atoms sodium and lead, the resonance transitions
occur in the visible and near ultraviolet (see Fig. 1.5). The sodium atom
3p → 3s transition near 590 nm is extremely strong and is usually the only
line observed for this element. By contrast, a number of lead atomic lines,
both the resonance transitions and other transitions, are observed for the
lead atom.
For quantitative analysis of laser-induced breakdown spectra and a deter-
mination of the temperature, it is instructive to consider the factors deter-
mining the intensity of an atomic transition. The photon emission rate nph
per unit volume for a transition is proportional to:
ph u Au →1 [1.16]
where Nu is the number density of the upper level of the transition, and Au→l
is the rate of spontaneous emission for the transition. It is more usual to
measure the energy emission rate I of the transition. Since I equals nph mul-
tiplied by the photon energy hν, and the frequency is inversely proportional
to the wavelength λ, the emission rate per unit volume is given by:
N u Au →1
I∝ [1.17]
λ
16 Laser spectroscopy for sensing
⎡ 3
⎤
N 1 g1 ⎢ 1 2 m3 ⎛ 2 πT ⎞ 2 ⎥ ⎛ IP ⎞
= exp − 1 [1.19]
N 0 g ⎢ ne h 3 ⎝ m ⎠ ⎥ ⎝ kT ⎠
⎣ ⎦
Here, g is the degeneracy of the ground level, ne and m are the electron
density and mass, respectively, and IP1 is the first ionization potential of the
atom. From Equations [1.17] and [1.19], the ratio of the intensities of ionized
and neutral atomic lines can also be used to derive the temperature (Yalçin
et al., 1999).
I 0 g A0 λ1 1 3 2 ⎛ E E1 + IP1 − ΔE ⎞
= T exp − 0 [1.20]
I 1 g A1 λ 0 ne ⎝ kT ⎠
are doubly degenerate because ML and –ML states have the same energy
although the direction of rotation of the electrons is opposite. As in atoms,
the spins of the individual electrons of a diatomic molecule form a resul-
tant spin S. The values of S and Λ are specified by the notation 2S+1Λ. There
are two classes of Σ states, namely those whose electronic wave function is
symmetric or antisymmetric with respect to the reflection in a plane con-
taining the internuclear axis. These are denoted Σ+ and Σ–, respectively. For
electronic states of homonuclear diatomic molecules, the subscript g or u is
added to the spectroscopic symbol, depending upon whether the electronic
wave function is symmetric or antisymmetric to inversion of the spatial elec-
tronic coordinates.
The following convention has been devised to distinguish between elec-
tronic states with the same values of Λ and S (Herzberg, 1950). The ground
electronic state is denoted by the symbol X. Excited states of the same spin
multiplicity are denoted A, B, C, …, while states of spin multiplicity differing
from that of the ground state are designated by the symbols a, b, c, … .
Allowed changes in the electronic quantum numbers of a diatomic mol-
ecule in a radiative transition are governed by the following selection rules:
the allowed changes in the projection of the orbital angular momentum are
ΔΛ = 0, ±1. Thus, the transitions Σ – Σ, Σ – Π, Π – Σ, Π – Π, etc. are allowed.
Since the electric dipole momentum operator does not depend upon the
electron spin, we must have ΔS = 0 in a radiative transition of d diatomic
molecule. Finally, among Σ states, Σ+ – Σ+ and Σ– – Σ– are allowed, but not
Σ+ – Σ– or Σ– – Σ+. The CN and C2 transitions commonly observed in laser-
induced breakdown spectra are the B2Σ+ – X2Σ+ and d3Πg – a3Πu transitions,
respectively.
Ev = e ( + ) [1.21]
6
B 2Σ+
Energy (104 cm−1)
4
v = 5 X 2Σ+
3
v = 0
2
1 v = 5
0 v = 0
1 1.5 2 2.5
R (Å)
1.6 Potential energy curves of the ground X2Σ+ and excited B2Σ+
electronic states of the CN molecule. The energies of the lower
vibrational levels in both electronic states are plotted. The vibrational
quantum numbers for the upper and electronic states are designated v ′
and v ″, respectively.
20 Laser spectroscopy for sensing
numbers v′ and v″ of the vibrational levels in the upper and lower electronic
states, respectively. The relative intensities of the bands are proportional to
the square of the transition moment integral:
Mv v ∫ψ *
v′
( )R ( )ψ v ′ ( )dR [1.22]
Here ψv′ and ψv″ are the vibrational wave functions of the upper and lower
levels, and the integral is over the internuclear separation R. In writing
Equation [1.22], we invoked the Born–Oppenheimer approximation and
have considered the diatomic wave functions to be products of electronic
and nuclear parts. The factor Re(R) is the electronic transition moment and
is defined as:
Re ( ) ∫ψ *
e
e′
(
(r ) ψ e ′′ (r
( )dτ e
[1.23]
Mv v R e v ′ v ′′ [1.24]
where the second term on the right-hand side of Equation [1.24] is a vibra-
tional overlap integral, given by:
v ′ v ′′ = ∫ ψ *v ′ ψ v ′ dR [1.25]
I v v ′′ Nv′ | |2 qv ′v ′′ [1.26]
′
2
in which qv ′v ′′ = v ′ v ′′ is called the Franck–Condon factor and is the
square of the vibrational integral. Since the potential energy curves of the
two electronic states are different, the matrix of Franck–Condon factors is
generally not diagonal. The square of the electronic transition, | |2, is a
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
minun ei tarvitse sanoakaan, Paul, että se otettaisiin vastaan
suurena kunnianosoituksena."
"Ja minä sanon", mutisi rouva Chick, "etten ole kertaakaan sitä
ajatellut".
"Ei voi ajatella, Louisa", virkkoi hän (rouva Chick oli naulannut
lippunsa maston kärkeen ja toisti: "minä tiedän sen", mutta hänen
veljensä ei kiinnittänyt siihen huomiota), "että olisi montakaan
ihmistä, joilla olisi suurempi oikeus ja mahdollisuus kuin neiti Toxilla,
jos minä ylimalkaan tunnustan minkäänlaisia oikeuksia tällaisessa
tapauksessa. Mutta minä en tunnusta. En myönnä mitään sellaista.
Paul ja minä osaamme ajan tullen säilyttää arvomme — toisin
sanoen liikkeen arvon ja jättää sen seuraavalle sukupolvelle ilman
mitään tuollaisia jokapäiväisiä auttajia. Vieraiden ihmisten apua, jota
ihmiset tavallisesti hakevat lapsilleen, minä halveksin, koska
toivoakseni olen sen yläpuolella. Olen tyytyväinen, jos Paulin lapsuus
kuluu häiriöittä ja minä saan nähdä hänen ilman ajanhukkaa
hankkivan itselleen ne ominaisuudet, jotka ovat tarpeen hänen
astuessaan kohtalon määräämälle elämänuralleen. Myöhempinä
vuosinaan hän voi valita kuinka vaikutusvaltaisia ystäviä haluaa, kun
hän pontevasti pitää pystyssä liikkeen arvoa ja luottoa — vieläpä
lisääkin sitä, jos se on mahdollista. Siihen asti minä olen hänelle
kylliksi, ehkäpä kaikki kaikessa. En ollenkaan toivo ihmisten astuvan
meidän väliimme. Paljoa mieluummin osoittaisin ystävättäresi
tapaiselle henkilölle kiitollisuuttani hänen hyväntahtoisesta
käytöksestään. Olkoon siis niin, ja sinun miehesi ja minä riitämme
ihan hyvin toisiksi kummeiksi, luullakseni."
Tämä mitätön tapaus oli niin katkaissut keskustelun kulun, että oli
vaikeata päästä siihen käsiksi. Ja sitäpaitsi oli rouva Chickiä niin
liikuttanut hänen oman suvaitsevan luonteensa tarkasteleminen, että
hän ei enää voinut olla hyvällä tuulella. Ystävykset siis lopettivat pian
teenjuontinsa, ja palvelija lähetettiin noutamaan ajuria neiti Toxille.
Tällä olikin suuri kokemus vuokrakärryistä, ja kun hän lähti niillä
liikkeelle, meni häneltä tavallisesti paljon aikaa alkuvalmistuksiin,
jotka hän suoritti hyvin järjestelmällisesti.
"Suvaitkaa olla niin hyvä, Towlinson", virkkoi neiti Tox, "ja ottakaa
ensiksikin mukaanne kynä ja mustetta ja merkitkää hänen
numeronsa selvästi muistiin".
"Kyllä, neiti," sanoi Towlinson.
"Ja nyt hyvää yötä, rakas, rakas, rakas kummipoikani", virkkoi neiti
Tox lähettäen oikean suutelosateen joka kerta kun toisti tuon sanan,
"ja Louisa, rakas ystäväni, luvatkaa minulle, että nautitte jotakin
lämmintä ennen nukkumaanmenoanne, älkääkä päästäkö surullisia
ajatuksia vallalle".
"Ja kun sitten voivat sanoa lapsi-paran vain nähneen unta", sanoi
Polly.
"Kas niin", sanoi Polly, "te suututte, koska olette kelpo tyttö ja
pidätte neiti Florencesta, ja sitten te hyökkäätte minun kimppuuni,
koska teillä ei ole ketään toista".
"Ei, rakas Paul, ei minun ole vilu", vastasi rouva Chick, joka töin
tuskin sai estetyksi hampaansa kalisemasta.
Jos neiti Tox saattoi uskoa yhtä aistiaan, oli nyt hyvin kylmä päivä.
Se oli ihan selvää. Hän käytti hyväkseen ensimmäistä mahdollista
tilaisuutta edistääkseen verenkiertoa nenänpäässään hieromalla sitä
salaa nenäliinallaan, jottei se suudellessa tuntuisi alhaisen
lämpötilansa vuoksi vastenmieliseltä kastettavasta.
"Tahdon."
"Louisa!"
"En tiedä, mitä antaisin", virkkoi Polly, "jos saisin vielä kerran
nähdä pienen poikaparkani, ennenkuin hän tottuu uusiin
vaatteisiinsa".
Kun asia oli näin päätetty, alkoi pikku Paul itkeä kerrassaan
surkeasti kuin olisi aavistanut, ettei siitä tulisi muuta kuin
onnettomuutta.
Syksyinen iltapäivä oli perin kolkko, ja kun Polly asteli lapsi sylissä
saadakseen sen itkun vaimenemaan ja katseli ulos surullisten
ikkunoiden läpi, puristaen pienokaista lujemmin rintaansa vastaan,
varisi kuihtuneita lehtiä ihan ryöppynä maahan.
KUUDES LUKU