University of Lahore, Sargodha campus

Department of Computer science

Lecture# 07

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SYSTEMS COMMUNICATE WITH OTHER SYSTEMS USING NETWORKS;

A computer network links computers together via a combination of infrared light

signals, radio wave transmissions, telephone lines, television cables, and satellite links. The
challenge for computer scientists has been to develop protocols (standardized rules for the format
and exchange of messages) that allow processes running on host computers to interpret the
signals they receive and to engage in meaningful “conversations” in order to accomplish tasks on
behalf of users. Network protocols also include flow control, which keeps a data sender from
swamping a receiver with messages that it has no time to process or space to store, and error
control, which involves transmission error detection and automatic resending of messages to
correct such errors. (For some of the technical details of error detection and
correction, see information theory.)

open systems interconnection (OSI)

The standardization of protocols is an international effort. Since it would otherwise be
impossible for different kinds of machines and operating systems to communicate with one
another, the key concern has been that system components (computers) be “open.” This
terminology comes from the open systems interconnection (OSI) communication standards,
established by the International Organization for Standardization. The OSI reference model
specifies network protocol standards in seven layers. Each layer is defined by the functions it
relies upon from the layer below it and by the services it provides to the layer above it.

At the bottom of the protocol lies the physical layer, containing rules for the transport of bits
across a physical link. The data-link layer handles standard-sized “packets” of data and adds
reliability in the form of error detection and flow control bits. The network and transport
layers break messages into the standard-size packets and route them to their destinations.
The session layer supports interactions between applications on two communicating machines.
For example, it provides a mechanism with which to insert checkpoints (saving the current status
of a task) into a long file transfer so that, in case of a failure, only the data after the last
checkpoint need to be retransmitted. The presentation layer is concerned with functions that
encode data, so that heterogeneous systems may engage in meaningful communication. At the
highest level are protocols that support specific applications. An example of such an application
is the file transfer protocol (FTP), which governs the transfer of files from one host to another.

The development of networks and communication protocols has also spawned distributed
systems, in which computers linked in a network share data and processing tasks. A distributed
database system, for example, has a database spread among (or replicated at) different network
sites. Data are replicated at “mirror sites,” and replication can improve availability and
reliability. A distributed DBMS manages a database whose components are distributed across
several computers on a network.

A client-server network is a distributed system in which the database resides on one computer
(the server) and the users connect to this computer over the network from their own computers
(the clients). The server provides data and responds to requests from each client, while each
client accesses the data on the server in a way that is independent and ignorant of the presence of
other clients accessing the same database. Client-server systems require that individual actions
from several clients to the same part of the server’s database be synchronized, so that conflicts
are resolved in a reasonable way. For example, airline reservations are implemented using a
client-server model. The server contains all the data about upcoming flights, such as current
bookings and seat assignments. Each client wants to access this data for the purpose of booking a
flight, obtaining a seat assignment, and paying for the flight. During this process, it is likely that
two or more client requests want to access the same flight and that there is only one seat left to
be assigned. The software must synchronize these two requests so that the remaining seat is
assigned in a rational way (usually to the person who made the request first).

Another popular type of distributed system is the peer-to-peer network. Unlike client-server
networks, a peer-to-peer network assumes that each computer (user) connected to it can act both
as a client and as a server; thus, everyone on the network is a peer. This strategy makes sense for
groups that share audio collections on the Internet and for organizing social networks such
as LinkedIn and Facebook. Each person connected to such a network both receives information
from others and shares his or her own information with others.
Communication Networks can be of following 5 types:
 1. Local Area Network (LAN)

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

3. Wide Area Network (WAN)

4. Wireless

5. Inter Network (Internet)

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Local Area Network (LAN)

It is also called LAN and designed for small physical areas such as an office, group of buildings
or a factory. LANs are used widely as it is easy to design and to troubleshoot. Personal
computers and workstations are connected to each other through LANs. We can use different
types of topologies through LAN, these are Star, Ring, Bus, Tree etc.

LAN can be a simple network like connecting two computers, to share files and network among
each other while it can also be as complex as interconnecting an entire building.

LAN networks are also widely used to share resources like printers, shared hard-drive etc.
Characteristics of LAN

• LAN's are private networks, not subject to tariffs or other regulatory controls.

• LAN's operate at relatively high speed when compared to the typical WAN.

• There are different types of Media Access Control methods in a LAN, the prominent ones
are Ethernet, Token ring.

• It connects computers in a single building, block or campus, i.e. they work in a restricted
geographical area.

Applications of LAN

• One of the computer in a network can become a server serving all the remaining
computers called clients. Software can be stored on the server and it can be used by the
remaining clients.

• Connecting Locally all the workstations in a building to let them communicate with each
other locally without any internet access.

• Sharing common resources like printers etc are some common applications of LAN.
Advantages of LAN

• Resource Sharing: Computer resources like printers, modems, DVD-ROM drives and
hard disks can be shared with the help of local area networks. This reduces cost and
hardware purchases.

• Software Applications Sharing: It is cheaper to use same software over network instead
of purchasing separate licensed software for each client a network.

• Easy and Cheap Communication: Data and messages can easily be transferred over
networked computers.

• Centralized Data: The data of all network users can be saved on hard disk of the server
computer. This will help users to use any workstation in a network to access their data.
Because data is not stored on workstations locally.

• Data Security: Since, data is stored on server computer centrally, it will be easy to
manage data at only one place and the data will be more secure too.

• Internet Sharing: Local Area Network provides the facility to share a single internet
connection among all the LAN users. In Net Cafes, single internet connection sharing
system keeps the internet expenses cheaper.

Disadvantages of LAN

• High Setup Cost: Although the LAN will save cost over time due to shared computer
resources, but the initial setup costs of installing Local Area Networks is high.

• Privacy Violations: The LAN administrator has the rights to check personal data files of
each and every LAN user. Moreover he can check the internet history and computer use
history of the LAN user.

• Data Security Threat: Unauthorised users can access important data of an organization
if centralized data repository is not secured properly by the LAN administrator.

• LAN Maintenance Job: Local Area Network requires a LAN Administrator because,
there are problems of software installations or hardware failures or cable disturbances in
Local Area Network. A LAN Administrator is needed at this full time job.

• Covers Limited Area: Local Area Network covers a small area like one office, one
building or a group of nearby buildings.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

It was developed in 1980s.It is basically a bigger version of LAN. It is also called MAN and uses
the similar technology as LAN. It is designed to extend over the entire city. It can be means to
connecting a number of LANs into a larger network or it can be a single cable. It is mainly hold
and operated by single private company or a public company.

Characteristics of MAN

• It generally covers towns and cities (50 km)

• Communication medium used for MAN are optical fibers, cables etc.

• Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.

Advantages of MAN

• Extremely efficient and provide fast communication via high-speed carriers, such as fibre
optic cables.

• It provides a good back bone for large network and provides greater access to WANs.

• The dual bus used in MAN helps the transmission of data in both directions
simultaneously.
 • A MAN usually encompasses several blocks of a city or an entire city.

Disadvantages of MAN

• More cable required for a MAN connection from one place to another.

• It is difficult to make the system secure from hackers and industrial espionage(spying)
graphical regions.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

It is also called WAN. WAN can be private or it can be public leased network. It is used for the
network that covers large distance such as cover states of a country. It is not easy to design and
maintain. Communication medium used by WAN are PSTN or Satellite links. WAN operates on
low data rates.

Characteristics of WAN

• It generally covers large distances(states, countries, continents).

 • Communication medium used are satellite, public telephone networks which are
connected by routers.

Advantages of WAN

• Covers a large geographical area so long distance business can connect on the one
network.

• Shares software and resources with connecting workstations.

• Messages can be sent very quickly to anyone else on the network. These messages can
have picture, sounds or data included with them(called attachments).

• Expensive things(such as printers or phone lines to the internet) can be shared by all the
computers on the network without having to buy a different peripheral for each computer.

• Everyone on the network can use the same data. This avoids problems where some users
may have older information than others.

Disadvantages of WAN

• Need a good firewall to restrict outsiders from entering and disrupting the network.

• Setting up a network can be an expensive, slow and complicated. The bigger the network
the more expensive it is.

• Once set up, maintaining a network is a full-time job which requires network supervisors
and technicians to be employed.

• Security is a real issue when many different people have the ability to use information
from other computers. Protection against hackers and viruses adds more complexity and
expense.

Wireless Network

Digital wireless communication is not a new idea. Earlier, Morse code was used to implement
wireless networks. Modern digital wireless systems have better performance, but the basic idea is
the same.
Wireless Networks can be divided into three main categories:

1. System interconnection

2. Wireless LANs

3. Wireless WANs

System Interconnection

System interconnection is all about interconnecting the components of a computer using short-
range radio. Some companies got together to design a short-range wireless network
called Bluetooth to connect various components such as monitor, keyboard, mouse and printer,
to the main unit, without wires. Bluetooth also allows digital cameras, headsets, scanners and
other devices to connect to a computer by merely being brought within range.

In simplest form, system interconnection networks use the master-slave concept. The system unit
is normally the master, talking to the mouse, keyboard, etc. as slaves.

Wireless LANs

These are the systems in which every computer has a radio modem and antenna with which it
can communicate with other systems. Wireless LANs are becoming increasingly common in
small offices and homes, where installing Ethernet is considered too much trouble. There is a
standard for wireless LANs called IEEE 802.11, which most systems implement and which is
becoming very widespread.

Wireless WANs

The radio network used for cellular telephones is an example of a low-bandwidth wireless WAN.
This system has already gone through three generations.

• The first generation was analog and for voice only.

• The second generation was digital and for voice only.

• The third generation is digital and is for both voice and data.
Inter Network

Inter Network or Internet is a combination of two or more networks. Inter network can be formed
by joining two or more individual networks by means of various devices such as routers,
gateways and bridges.