INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS

REVIEWER

PHONETICS & PHONOLOGY

Phonetics - the systematic study of human

speech-sounds.
Articulatory Phonetics - investigates how
sounds are made.
● Lungs: Source of Air
● Larynx: Vibrations
Vowel - (the height and position of your
tongue)

SOUND CLASSES
Consonants - airflow stopped, diverted, or
impeded (tight constriction)

Stopped: [p] - pill

Transcription
Impeded: [s] - sit
Diverted: [m] - mat / [l] - light

IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet)

Manner of articulation - (the first row from

the IPA chart of consonants (pulmonic))
Place of articulation - (the top part of each Fricatives - airflow is continuous and
row) turbulent.
Nasal - airflow from nose. velum lowered 2 TYPES OF LEXICAL MORPHEMES -
and air went through the nasal cavity. Free and Bound
Affricates - stop immediately followed by a
fricative. Free Lexical Morphemes - (noun, verbs,
Liquids - continuous air flow without adjectives, adverbs)
turbulence.
Flap - briefly strike two articulators together. Bound Lexical Morphemes - e.g. (ceive =
Glottal State - con + ceive = conceive) need another
● Voiceless - vocals folds separated. morpheme.
(no vibration)
● Voiced - vocal folds tightly closed. Grammatical Morphemes - (dependent)
(with vibration) (close class) (cannot stand alone) (does not
change)
Vowels - airflow is free
2 TYPES OF GRAMMATICAL
[i] (big i) - bit / [i] - beet MORPHEMES - Free and Bound

Glides / Semivowels - like vowels, but Free Grammatical Morphemes -

articulation is momentary. (preposition, pronoun, conjunction)

[j] - yes / [w] - watch Bound Grammatical Morphemes - he and

she as example. these two will stay as he
and she.
Phonology - the study of how sounds are
organized and used in natural languages. 2 TYPES OF BOUND GRAMMATICAL
MORPHEME - Inflectional and Derivational
Phonemes - the smallest contrastive unit of
sound. Inflectional - no change in meaning
e.g. plural, passive, comparative, and
MORPHOLOGY superlative.

Morphology - the study of words (specially, e.g. 1. boy (singular) + s = boys (noun), play
how words are formed or its eternal + ed = played (verb)
structure).
Derivational - can change from one form to
Morphemes - unit of words. another.

2 TYPES OF MORPHEMES - Lexical and e.g. pure + ity = purity (noun), invite + tion =
Grammatical invitation

Lexical Morphemes - (independent) (has HIERARCHY STRUCTURE

own meaning)
UNFRIENDLINESS < un ( affix (prefix) -
friendliness (adjective) < friendly (adjective)
- ness (affix (suffix) < friend (noun) - ly (affix Back-formation - creating a new word by
(suffix) removing an affix from an existing word.
ex. editor becomes edit
FORMATION PROCESSES
Conversion - changing the word class (part
Affixation - adding prefixes, suffixes, infixes, of speech) without changing the form of
or circumfixes to a base word to create a word.
new words. ex. to email (verb) from email (noun)
ex. un + happy = unhappy
Derivation - attaching derivation affixes to to
Compounding - combining two words to the main form to create a new word.
form a new word. ex. appear become dissappear
ex. sun + flower = sunflower
SEMANTICS
Reduplication - repeating all or part of the
word to create a new meaning. Semantics - study of the meaning and
ex. rumah (house), becomes rumah-rumah structures of the word.
(houses)
TYPES OF SEMANTICS
Blending - merging parts of two words to
create a new word. Denotative - dictionary meaning
ex. breakfast + lunch = brunch Connotative - other meaning
Social - dictates meaning on a certain word
Clipping - shortening a longer word to (ex. pink for girl and blue for boys)
create a new, shorter word.
ex. telephone becomes phone FEATURES OF SEMANTICS
- Sense
Acronyms and Initialisms - forming new - Reference
words from the initial letters of a series of - Truth
words. - Background

Acronym - pronounced as a word SENSE

ex. NASA (National Aeronautics and Space
Administration) Linguistic Sense - language sense
Speaker sense - what does it mean by the
Initialisms – pronounced as individual speaker
letters.
ex. FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation) - these senses creates ambiguity

Borrowing - adopting words from other Ambiguity - subject to several meanings

languages.
ex. piano (in italian) TWO TYPES OF AMBIGUITY
Lexical Ambiguity - more than one meaning Reference - pronoun/noun
(word level) actual meaning Coreference - the corefer (when a word has
ex. “Nice” and “Ganda” several names)
ex. John = he, his, him
Structural Ambiguity - several meanings
(phrase and up) Extension - Cataphora (noun before
ex. Riverbanks pronoun), Anaphora (placement of -pronoun
- it could be a place comes first before the noun)
- or it could be the banks in the sides Prototype - Deixis (pointing markers (here,
of river. there, time, place)
Stereotype - preconceived judgments or
Sense > Properties > Synonyms (similar) > assumptions about a person or group of
antonymy (contrast) > hyponymy (one people.
superordinate and there are hyponyms) ex. grils are emotional, soft spoken and
ex. chicken = rooster, hen, chick gentle

Overlap - sharing characteristics TRUTH CONDITION

Analytic - truth in virtue of meaning alone
SYNONYMS Contradictory - a contradiction
Synthetic - find out the answer if you do
Absolute Synonym - same meaning and something
function Entailment - there would be a result
Partial Synonym - closely related meaning Presupposition - assumption and a cause

ANTONYMS BACKGROUND
Gradable Antonym - pairs of words that Semantic Decomposition - you try to look all
have opposite meanings and are relative to the attributes.
each other on a scale or spectrum.
ex. hot =/ cold (gradation: warm) PAG-IBIG vs. PAGMAMAHAL
PAG-IBIG PAGMAMA
Complementary Antonym (non-gradable) - HAL
absolute opposite of the other and can be
used independently. human + -
ex. dead =/ alive (here, we do not say
citizenship - +
“deader” or “more dead”, so comparative
construction is not normally used. thing - +

REFERENCE