Modes

3
nited States Amateur Radio operators are encouraged by the Federal Communications Commis-

U sion (FCC) to explore, investigate and experiment, with wide latitude. The government wants
hams to try new things, test new ideas and push the capabilities of two-way radio-frequency (RF)
communications. In this chapter, written by Brian Battles, WS1O, you’ll learn basic information about
the most popular amateur operating modes. You’ll see what each one is used for and its advantages and
disadvantages, and you’ll get a general idea of the resources needed to try each one. Details of how radio
signals are created and how those signals are made to carry information is explained in later chapters of
this book. This is an introduction; the other chapters of this Handbook, the ARRL Operating Manual,
QST, QEX and a whole Amateur Radio publishing industry cover the continuously evolving realm of
Amateur Radio modes.

WHAT IS A MODE?
In Amateur Radio, a mode is considered to be any modulation technique that permits two-way
communication with another station using an identical or compatible system to receive and demodu-
late it. If that sounds confusing, just think of a simple analogy, such as the way we use money in
modern society: A certain amount of American dollars can be used to purchase an item that may also
be purchased with an equivalent amount in Japanese yen. The dollar and the yen, however, are not
directly compatible—you can’t simply exchange them one for one. Yet they are both forms of payment
for goods and services.
This is typical of most ham radio modes. You can talk over an
FM repeater, but a person with a CW receiver who tunes to your
frequency won’t hear a thing you say. FM and CW aren’t compat-
ible. Most Amateur Radio operating modes are incompatible with
each other, and each has advantages and disadvantages that make
it worthwhile to select the best mode for the intended communi-
cation. Because its information is transmitted by varying the car-
rier frequency substantially, an FM signal uses a relatively large
amount of RF bandwidth. On a relatively wide band such as 2 m
(144-148 MHz, 4 MHz wide), many hams use narrow-bandwidth Rick Castaldo, KD1BR, keeps in
FM (NBFM). NBFM requires about 15-20 kHz of spectrum for touch with his friends using 80-
each conversation (hams call them “QSOs”). Several such FM meter SSB.
Modes 3. 1
signals would easily use up all of a narrow band such as 30 m
(10.1-10.15 MHz, 0.05 MHz wide), and few conversations could
take place at the same time. Other modes, such as single-sideband
suppressed-carrier amplitude modulation (SSBSCAM, or SSB)
and continuous wave (CW), require much less bandwidth. Here’s
the trade-off: while FM has enhanced audio fidelity and relatively
little background noise, SSB and CW permit many more simulta-
neous QSOs in any given range of frequencies.
The radio amateur has a variety of frequencies to select from CW is the perfect mode for weak-
when attempting to establish two-way communications. At the signal work. John Shew, N4QQ,
uses CW to operate EME
low end are the medium frequencies (MF), specifically the 160-m (moonbounce) during the 1993
band (1.8-2.0 MHz). Then there are the high frequency (HF) or AMSAT Space Symposium.
“shortwave” bands (80-10 m, or 3.5-29.7 MHz). The next steps up
are the very high frequency (VHF) bands (6-1.25 m, or 50-225 MHz). Above these are the ultra high
frequency (UHF) bands (70-23 cm, or 420-2450 MHz). Above all these are the super high frequency
(SHF), extremely high frequency (EHF) and other segments, more simply referred to as microwaves
(2900-250,000 MHz). The band you choose affects your signal’s range (see the chapter on Propaga-
tion). But the mode you select is also important, for many reasons.
The key to successful Amateur Radio communications is signal-to-noise ratio (S/N). This means
you can communicate with anyone if your signals are loud enough to be heard through any noise
present. Sometimes the noise wins; there’s always some noise present on any radio frequency.
Similarly, there’s some propagation available to any desired location. The propagation path may
not be sufficient to help conduct a weak signal halfway around the world, but theoretically, if you
transmitted enough power, if there were absolutely no noise, you could contact almost anyone in
the world at any time propagation conditions permitted your signal to reach its destination. The
challenge in radio communications is to work within the practical constraints of your license
privileges, budget, physical capabilities and atmospheric conditions to maximize your chances of
being heard. If the S/N at the receiving end is sufficient, you will be heard. If the noise level is too
great, you won’t get anywhere.
Every portion of the radio-frequency spectrum exhibits its own unique characteristics of propagation
and noise. For example, the MF or lower-frequency HF amateur bands are in a range that is particularly
subject to noise. Frequencies below 5 MHz exhibit ever-present random atmospheric noise from storms,
and the background of “hash” generated by man-made electrical gadgets, appliances and machinery is
often very loud. If you live in an urban environment, it can be difficult to hear anyone most of the time,
especially in the summer, when thunderstorms rage throughout your hemisphere. On the other hand,
radio amateurs fortunate enough to live in rural settings far from factories, congested housing and other
sources of noise can enjoy good reception on 160 m, especially in the winter, when thunderstorm activity
is lowest.
In addition to considering the noise and propagation conditions on the various bands, an Amateur
Radio operator must intelligently select the mode of transmission most likely to succeed. The factors of
concern are (1) What modes can your transmitter produce? (2) What mode is the intended recipient
using? (3) What mode will provide the receiving station with the best S/N?
The first is easiest to determine—just look in the manual or at your rig’s front panel controls. The
second may be more of a mystery. Unless you have some means of predicting the mode the other station
is using, you must make an educated guess. The third requires an understanding of what each mode is
best suited to accomplish and how to take advantage of its characteristics.
Let’s examine factors (2) and (3). To make communications convenient, hams have established
standard operating techniques that make it easier to choose a mode. For example, most amateur
3.2 Chapter 3
voice communications on the
160, 80 and 40-m bands (1.8-
7.3 MHz) are conducted via
lower sideband (LSB), while
upper sideband (USB) is the
normal mode on 20, 17, 15,
12 and 10 m (14-28 MHz). On
2 m (144-148 MHz) and 1.25
m (222-225 MHz), the pre-
dominant mode is frequency
modulation (FM) for voice
and data communications.
Above 420 MHz there is a
mixture of FM and SSB voice
communications, fast-scan
amateur television (ATV),
CW and experimental modes. Sounding like a broadcaster from radio’s Golden Age, Paul
There are exceptions to these Courson, WA3VJB, operates classic AM equipment from his well-
equipped shack in West Friendship, Maryland. The setup doesn’t
“rules.” Data communications, just look like a broadcast station, it’s used in Paul’s work in
such as radio-teletype (RTTY) commercial radio production. (photo courtesy of WA3VJB)
and packet, are operated almost
entirely on LSB at HF; DXing (long-distance communication) on VHF and UHF is mainly conducted
using USB and Morse code; 10-m repeaters use FM. Aside from such exceptions, however, you can
normally assume that stations operating voice on 20 m are likely to be using USB, a 2-m repeater is
almost certainly using FM, and a packet station on 30 m will be running LSB. You should set your
transceiver accordingly.
Once you know what modes are used by most operators on a given frequency, what frequency and
mode should you select to have the best chance of establishing contact? You won’t be heard unless your
signal significantly exceeds the noise at the receiving end.
There are five main categories of communications in Amateur Radio: Radiotelegraph (Morse code),
radiotelephone (voice), radioteletype (Baudot and ASCII RTTY and AMTOR), digital (packet, PacTOR,
CLOVER, G-TOR) and image (SSTV, FSTV and fax). Let’s look at the main Amateur Radio operating
modes and compare their uses and characteristics.

CW
CW (continuous wave) is the oldest mode of ham transmission in use today. It consists of a plain,
unmodulated RF signal (or “carrier”) which is transmitted by the closure of a manual key or an electronic
keyer circuit (sometimes called “on-off keying”). CW conveys intelligence through the International
Morse code. (This is a variation on the American Morse code used by commercial telegraphers on wired
lines in the late 19th century.)

The Sounds of Listen to a sample CW transmission.

Amateur Radio

Modes 3. 3
AM
Amplitude modulation was the earliest technique used to transmit the human voice over radio. It was
the dominant ’phone mode until the late 1940s and 1950s, when single sideband (SSB) came along. AM
uses a full carrier with two modulated sidebands, and takes up a fair amount of bandwidth. In practice,
two SSB signals or eight CW signals could be transmitted within the bandwidth used by one AM signal.

Morse Code: A Language, Not a Mode

Digital signals are those that can be represented accurately in terms of integer numbers. Morse
code has been called the most basic form of digital radio communication. It involves nothing more
than three elements: a short tone, a long tone and a space. In digital perspective, these could be
represented by the numerals 0, 1 and 2. If all we can do is send separate elements, we are limited to
three possible pieces of information. (In practice, there would actually be only two definite expres-
sions, the 0 and 1, or short tone and long tone. A space by itself would be the same as no signal at
all.)
Mixing and matching the tones and spaces created a system to denote letters of the alphabet, the
digits 0-9 and a few punctuation marks. As a result, no individual character requires more than six
elements to be unique and clear.
Language expressed in nothing but long and short tones (dahs and dits) has been in use since
before Samuel F. B. Morse devised the American Morse system of telegraphy. In prehistoric
times, it was discovered that a prearranged method of sending signals could use a small set of
such symbols, yet be a potentially powerful means of conveying complex information. The
arrangement of the signals (long/short, loud/soft, bright/dim, single/double, on/off) could be used
to signify much more than just two alphabetic or numeric symbols. Morse and his colleagues
developed a standard code that took advantage of the frequency with which certain English
letters are used in language, and made efficient use of the way our ears and minds work. Learn-
ing Morse code is as easy as learning about 40 words in a foreign language. With practice, a
“speaker” of Morse code can decipher a string of long and short tones and spaces at almost half
the speed of everyday spoken English conversation.
Now that we have a language, we need a means to transmit and receive it at two separate loca-
tions. Wired telegraphy was the earliest means, but the invention of wireless radio transmissions less
than 50 years later made it a simple matter of turning the transmitter on and off in a particular se-
quence to produce a corresponding sound at the receiving end. The first equipment used to create
such radio signals were spark-gap transmitters. Spark transmitters sent an electromagnetically noisy
pulse to a resonant antenna system where the pulse essentially reverberated until its energy was
either radiated or dissipated in the resistance of the circuit. During the reverberation, the amplitude
gradually decreased, so the result is a damped wave—a wave with changing strength. The part that
was radiated became an electromagnetic field. The field was strong enough for a sensitive, specially
designed antenna and receiver to respond to the electromagnetic bursts by rendering an audible
sound in a headset or other transducer. As experiments continued, it wasn’t long before the vacuum
tube was perfected. By using a tube in a tuned electrical circuit, a transmitter could generate an
almost-pure, constant unmodulated radio signal on a specific frequency. The signal generated by the
tube was smoother and occupied much less space on the electromagnetic spectrum.
So how did the term continuous wave ( CW) come about? Many beginning hams mistakenly think
that it somehow means the transmitter is emitting a constant RF signal. But how could this be?
Wouldn’t this mean that each press of a code key actually breaks the circuit, rather than closes it? Of
course, that’s backwards. A code key closes the circuit when it’s pressed (or squeezed, in the case of
a paddle). No, the transmitted carrier is called continuous because it’s not damped as were the spark
signals; it’s continuous in the sense that the RF sent when the key is pressed is transmitted as a
single radio-frequency wave of continuous strength. CW is the simplest mode to implement in a radio.
You can learn more about the principles of CW in the Modulation Sources chapter.

3.4 Chapter 3
Because it’s less spectrum effi-
cient, it has been reduced to a
“curiosity” on the air. There are
many antique wireless enthusi-
asts who derive great joy from
the warm, rich sound of a
strong AM signal, especially
when generated by a properly
adjusted and maintained vin-
tage transmitter. AM operators
use specific frequencies on al-
most every amateur band, and
most polite hams respect the
rights of AMers to operate, just
as AM fans avoid transmitting
on portions of the bands gener-
ally used for SSB, CW, ama-
teur television and digital
modes. FM offers clear, reliable voice communication. This is especially
critical during public-service activities. Using FM portable trans-
ANGLE MODULATION: ceivers and directional antennas, hams operate from the Command
HQ tent at the Big Sur International Marathon.
FM AND PM
FM is by far the most popu-
lar mode of Amateur Radio communication. The majority of newcomers to the hobby use FM
transceivers to operate on VHF and UHF frequencies; the most popular activity is voice operation
via 2-m FM repeaters. In fact, many amateurs who get their start on the air using 2-m FM and
repeaters are unfortunately never exposed to other kinds of operation; they miss the pleasure of
using other modes and bands. Considering that it’s mainly limited to local contacts, the 2-m band
offers reliable communication quality over a reasonably long range. Most VHF and UHF repeaters
use FM, a great deal of direct, nonrepeater (simplex) traffic is conducted using FM, and there’s an
FM segment on the 10-m band (29.2-29.8). Above 30 MHz, virtually all amateur packet radio is
conducted using FM transmissions. Repeater operation typically permits hams to use hand-held and
mobile transceivers to make clear contacts over ranges of 100 miles or more. FM is a quiet mode,
because the technique of angle modulation greatly minimizes the effects of static and noise. The
trade-off is that a rather strong signal is needed at the receiver to produce the “quieting” effect that
distinguishes FM communications.
Frequency modulation and its sibling, phase modulation, is accurately known as angle modulation
because the frequency or the phase of a transmitted signal’s carrier can be shifted to provide an “FM”
signal. Amateurs use a form of FM called narrowband FM, which is about 3-20 kHz wide. This is just
enough to afford decent voice communication. Commercial FM broadcast stations (88-108 MHz in the
US) use wideband FM with 75-kHz deviation and 200-kHz channel spacing, which permits transmitted
audio frequencies in the range of 50-12,000 Hz.

The Sounds of Listen to a sample FM transmission.

Amateur Radio

Modes 3. 5
Table 3-1
Equipment Requirements for Amateur Radio Operating Modes
Mode Typical activity Radio(s) Antenna(s) Other
CW, HF Ragchewing, CW transmitter/ Ranges from simple Antenna tuner (optional)
contesting, receiver, fixed wire antennas Tower (optional)
DXing, Transceiver, single to tower-mounted Rotator (for Yagis)
traffic handling or multiband rotatable, multi- Amplifier (optional)
element Yagis and CW key, paddles or keyer
phased arrays

CW, Ragchewing, All-mode transceiver Omnidirectional Tower or roof-mount

VHF/UHF contesting, vertical; long, for antenna desirable,
DXing, extended Yagi Rotator (for Yagis)
satellites (“boomer”), quagi Key or paddle and keyer
or helix (depending
on the application)

SSB, HF Ragchewing, SSB Ranges from simple Antenna tuner (optional)

contesting, transceiver wire antennas up Tower (optional)
DXing, to tower-mounted, Rotator (for beams)
traffic handling rotatable, multi- Amplifier (optional)
element Yagis and
phased arrays

SSB, Ragchewing, All-mode transceiver Omnidirectional Tower or roof-mount

VHF/UHF contesting, vertical, long, for antenna desirable
DXing extended Yagi since DX is mostly
satellites (“boomer”), quagi line of sight
or helix (depending Rotator (for Yagis)
on the application)

AM, HF Ragchewing AM or multimode Fixed wire or Antenna tuner (optional)

transceiver beam antennas Tower (optional)
Amplifier (optional)
Microphone

FM, HF Ragchewing, Multimode Omnidirectional Antenna tuner (optional)

repeaters transceiver vertical or beam Tower (optional)
Amplifier (optional)
Microphone

FM, Ragchewing, FM or multimode Omnidirectional Tower (optional)

VHF/UHF repeaters, transceiver vertical or Yagi Amplifier (optional)
contesting

Digital Ragchewing, HF or VHF/UHF Omnidirectional Amplifier (optional)

message handling, transceiver or directional TNC or multimode
data networking, processor (optional)
satellites Computer or terminal

Image Ragchewing HF SSB transceiver Omnidirectional or Amplifier (optional)

or UHF video directional TV camera or image scanner
transceiver Computer (for SSTV and fax)
Demodulator (for SSTV and fax)

3.6 Chapter 3
SSB
Suppressed-carrier single sideband, what we call “single sideband” is an AM signal from which the
carrier and one sideband have been removed. The receiving station picks up the SSB signal, adds a
carrier, and converts the RF signal back into voice.
Operators who enjoy making long-distance contacts on the VHF and UHF bands find that SSB
is a better choice than FM. Even though there are many more VHF/UHF transceivers on the market
that offer only FM, SSB is useful because it’s much easier to copy a weak sideband signal than a
weak FM transmission. The signal strength needed to quiet an FM receiver is relatively high. With
low signal-to-noise ratios, it’s nearly impossible to make out the other operator’s voice. In con-
ditions where weak signals are common, SSB can provide intelligible audio through a background
of considerable noise.

The Sounds of Listen to a sample SSB transmission.

Amateur Radio

DIGITAL MODES
Technically, any means of communication based on a simple “black-and-white” value can be consid-
ered a digital mode, because it can be expressed with simple whole numbers. A CW transmission can
be viewed as a mixture of “on/off” signals, to which we could assign the values 1 and 0. Conversely, a
series of 1s and 0s, in the proper order, could signify a Morse code message. In fact, many devices use
this technique to encode and decode Morse code communication automatically.
In addition to simply turning a signal on and off, there are other ways to designate those digital 1s and
0s, or changes in state. Frequency shift keying (FSK) uses the principle of switching between two
frequencies, which are used to designate the mark and space (on and off state, or digital 1 or 0). FSK
is achieved by using a control circuit to switch a transmitted carrier up and down to the mark and space
frequencies. We can achieve the same result by modulating an SSB transceiver with high- and low-
pitched audio signals producing the functional equivalent of true FSK.
The next step toward smooth, effective Amateur Radio communications makes use of machines,
specifically, electronic digital computer processing. Fortunately, the FCC permits certain kinds of
amateur digital communications because they help provide error-free communications even in difficult
conditions.

RTTY
Before there was radio, there was teletype (abbreviated TTY), a system of sending printed text by
typing on a terminal that was connected by wires to a similar machine. The military began connecting
mechanical teletype machines to HF radios during World War II. This was the birth of radioteletype,
or RTTY. After some experimentation with simple on-off keying, the designers switched to FSK, which
proved effective.
In the days before personal computers, enter- The Sounds of Listen to a sample RTTY
transmission.
prising hams obtained inexpensive surplus TTY Amateur Radio
machines and modified them to provide output sig-
nals that could be fed into an SSB transceiver’s microphone input. The resulting signals fit within the
bandwidth permitted for voice transmissions. A typical modern RTTY installation consists of three
parts: a computer, a communications processor and an FSK or SSB transceiver.
In basic radioteletype (RTTY, pronounced RIT-ee), the operator types a continuous string of char-
acters on the computer. A terminal program sends the characters through the serial port to the commu-
nications processor, which translates the characters into the appropriate mark/space signals as either

Modes 3. 7
control signals for an FSK transceiver (or audio tones for the audio input of an SSB transceiver). At the
receiving station, the transceiver audio is translated by the communications processor into characters,
which are sent to the computer screen via the serial port and terminal program. Amateur Radio operators
use several kinds of RTTY.
Baudot (named after French engineer Émile Baudot [1845-1903], pronounced baw-DOE), is a method
of exchanging alphanumeric characters over wires and radio links. Baudot is sometimes referred to as
International Teletype Alphabet 2 (ITA2). It produces letters, numbers and a limited number of punc-
tuation symbols with a five-bit code. Because five bits per character permit a limited number (32) of
symbols, the alphabet is sent in capital (upper-case) letters. Baudot RTTY is the most widely used form
of amateur RTTY on the HF bands.
ASCII (an acronym for the American Standard Code for Information Interchange, and pronounced
ASK-ee) is a form of RTTY that transmits seven bits per symbol. ASCII is the same code used on most
modern computers. It contains the entire upper- and lower-case alphabet, punctuation and some special
symbols.

AMTOR
The Sounds of Listen to an AMTOR
In a standard RTTY transmission, only one station QSO in progress.
transmits, while the other receives. Characters may be Amateur Radio
printed incorrectly if the S/N is inadequate. Atmo-
spheric static, fading or noise bursts can garble incoming characters. A partial solution to this challenge
is a form of RTTY called AMTOR (Amateur Teleprinting Over Radio), which uses a computer processor
to maintain a virtually error-free communications link. Instead of one station transmitting while the other
passively receives, both stations maintain a link by exchanging transmissions. The sending station sends
short bursts of data and the receiving station sends shorter acknowledgment (ACK) bursts between them.
Characters are sent in groups of three. The receiving station checks each character, looking for a 4:3 bit
ratio. If the ratio is correct for each of the three characters, they are displayed on the receiving terminal
and the receiving station sends an ACK, telling the transmitting station to continue. If errors exist, the
receiving station sends a negative acknowledgment (NAK) signal, which commands the transmitting
station to resend the incorrectly received group.
Because AMTOR runs a continuous validity check on the characters exchanged, it’s more reliable than
“plain” RTTY, which can produce lots of incorrect text. AMTOR is well suited to traffic handling and
passing messages when accuracy is worth a slight trade-off in speed. A disadvantage of AMTOR is that
both stations must “hear” each other well, or the communication is reduced to a lengthy exchange of
poorly received character groups and NAKs.

Packet
Packet radio is an error-free mode that uses the complete ASCII character set and supports the transfer
of binary data. It is called “packet” because data is not sent as a single, continuous string of characters,
but rather transmitted in small bursts, or packets. Each packet contains not only the data to be transferred,
but also overhead information used to route the packets and reassemble them into their original continu-
ous whole. The overhead includes data that identifies the sending and receiving stations, enabling the
packet transmission to reach the proper destination. It also provides the FCC-required station identifi-
cation of the sender.
When two packet stations are exchanging data, they are said to be connected. One station sends a
packet and then waits a specified amount of time for a
reply. The receiving station checks the packet for errors
The Sounds of Listen to a sample
and sends an ACK if the packet is error-free. If not, the packet transmission.
Amateur Radio
receiving station does nothing. When the waiting time
3.8 Chapter 3
PACTOR is becoming the digital HF mode of choice for many
hams. This dedicated PACTOR controller by PacComm also
supports Baudot, AMTOR and CW. Many amateurs who once used
AMTOR and packet on the bands below 30 MHz have switched to
PACTOR for its more robust capabilities.

expires, the originating station retransmits the packet on the assump- This suitcase houses a com-
tion that it did not arrive error-free. Packet stations communicate plete portable PACTOR station:
directly in many cases. If the path is too long to support a direct transceiver, PACTOR controller,
connection, however, packet relays known as nodes or digipeaters wire antenna and cables, all in
one convenient package. Its
are used. owner, Joe Mehaffey, K4IHP, of
Packet radio stations are able to communicate with each other Atlanta, Georgia, connects it to
because they conform to a standard format, or protocol, described his laptop computer to operate
as AX.25. This is a specification derived from a similar protocol, mobile or from almost anywhere
he pleases. He even used it to
X.25, used by commercial packet networks. AX.25 version 2.0 maintain a regular schedule with
was approved by the ARRL Board of Directors in 1984; it is the ham family members and neigh-
general amateur packet radio protocol currently authorized by bors while traveling around the
the FCC. Australian countryside. (photo
by K4IHP)
Packet data rates are limited to a maximum of 300 bit/s within the
Amateur Radio bands below 28 MHz. Even at this relatively slow
rate, noise and interference makes efficient packet communication difficult on the HF bands. Unless
conditions are good at both ends of the path, packets must be repeated many times before they arrive
error-free.
Above 28 MHz, data rates are not so limited. Most VHF packet users operate their systems at 1200
bit/s using 2-m FM. However, networks have been established that use much higher data rates—9600
bit/s and beyond—to link nodes and packet bulletin board systems over a wide area. The most popular
networking system is NET/ROM, but there are several contenders such as TexNet, ROSE and TCP/IP.
Through these systems the packet-radio network has become accessible to amateurs throughout the
nation and the world.

APRS
APRS (Automatic Position Reporting System) uses the unconnected packet radio mode to graphically
indicate the position of moving and stationary objects on maps displayed on a computer monitor.
Unconnected packets are used to permit all stations to receive each transmitted APRS packet on a one-
to-all basis rather than the one-to-one basis required by connected packets.
Virtually all VHF APRS activity occurs on 2 meters, specifically on 144.39 MHz, which is recognized
as the APRS operating channel in the United States and Canada. Like most other 2-meter packet opera-
tions, APRS operates at 1200 bit/s.
Modes 3. 9
 The standard configuration for packet radio hardware (radio-to-TNC-to-computer) also applies to
APRS until you add a GPS receiver to the mix. You don’t need a GPS receiver for a stationary APRS
installation (nor do you need a computer for a mobile or tracker APRS installation). In these cases, an
extra port or special cable is not necessary. It is necessary, however, when you desire both a computer
and a GPS receiver in the same installation.
One way of accomplishing this is by using a TNC or computer that has an extra serial port for a GPS
receiver connection. Alternatively, you can use a hardware single port switch (HSP) cable to connect a
TNC and GPS receiver to the same serial port of your computer. The HSP cable is available from a
number of sources including TNC manufacturers Kantronics, MFJ and PacComm.
Whichever GPS connection you use, make sure that you configure the APRS software so it is aware
that a GPS receiver is part of the hardware configuration and how the GPS receiver connection is
accomplished.
For additional information see the book, APRS Tracks, Maps and Mobiles by Stan Horzepa, WA1LOU,
published by ARRL.

PACTOR
Two German hams, Hans-Peter Helfert, DL6MAA, and Ulrich Strate, DF4KV, worked together to
find a solution to the problems of HF data communication. The result of their effort is a blend of the best
parts of packet radio and AMTOR: PACTOR, and now PACTOR II.
Helfert and Strate liked AMTOR because it’s a simple system that works well with marginal signal-
to-noise levels. However, they disliked its inadequate error-correction capabilities, its slow effective
maximum data rate (less than 35 bauds) and its use of the five-bit Baudot code character set (all upper-
case letters). To make up for the deficiencies of AMTOR, Helfert and Strate devised a new system based
on AMTOR that adopted some features of packet radio.
Advantages of PACTOR include:
• An error-correction algorithm called Memory ARQ, a method for reconstructing an original block of
data by adding together the broken pieces of that block as it’s repeated until the block is whole.
• Data-compression techniques (Huffman coding) that can increase the data transfer rate by up to 400%
over uncompressed data.
• Compatibility with ASCII and binary data transfers.
• Automatic adjustment of its data rate to compensate for changes in radio conditions.
• Mark or space polarity is inconsequential because it is frequency-shift independent.
• Tolerates interference well, while maintaining the communication link.
• It uses unique addresses (the complete call sign of a station is its PACTOR address).
• Fast, reliable changes of transmission direction and end of transmission confirmation at both ends of
a connection.

Like packet and AMTOR, PACTOR is a two-way affair: A transmitting station sends data and a
receiving station sends back electronic acknowledgment of each burst of characters. Unlike packet or
AMTOR, however, PACTOR dynamically adapts to conditions. Rather than relying on each transmis-
sion to provide a solid block of clear characters, PACTOR can accept a series of imperfect or incomplete
data segments and “intelligently” attempt to reassemble them into a solid group. In this way, the number
of transmissions is reduced because the receiving station may be able to “make out” enough detail from
two or three successive bursts to provide an errorless segment of data.

The Sounds of Listen to a PACTOR QSO.

Amateur Radio

3.10 Chapter 3
G-TOR
G-TOR was developed by Kantronics with twin goals: to provide greater throughput on HF channels
than AMTOR and PACTOR and to be compatible with existing multimode TNCs. To increase through-
put, G-TOR uses Huffman encoding to compress data, Golay forward error correction, a cyclic redun-
dancy check to detect errors, data interleaving and automatic repeat requests to replace data that cannot
be corrected. Golay encoding and interleaving work together to provide forward error correction that is
effective even when long bursts of bits are corrupted. Headquarters operators have seen G-TOR provide
twice the throughput of PACTOR and four times that of AMTOR under difficult conditions. More tests
are needed, however. We simply don’t have enough data yet to know for sure which technique is best.

The Sounds of Listen to a G-TOR QSO.

Amateur Radio

CLOVER
No matter which digital mode you use—packet, AMTOR, PACTOR or RTTY—data communications
on the low bands can be a struggle because of the nature of HF. When HF conditions are perfect, almost
anything works, but how often are HF conditions “perfect”? Under the less-than-perfect conditions
typically encountered, digital modes begin to fail. It used to be that as conditions deteriorated, all that
was left was Morse code. But now there’s CLOVER. It’s a rather complex system invented for the
purpose of relaying files and text on HF bands at higher speeds than packet, with faster throughput and
versatile self-adjusting parameters. Developed by Ray Petit, W7GHM, and HAL Communications Corp
president Bill Henry, K9GWT, CLOVER is named for the cloverleaf waveform it produces when
displayed on a monitor scope. CLOVER offers improved data communication in the HF spectrum by
using a high-speed, bandwidth-efficient modem and an error-correction protocol designed to counteract
changing propagation conditions.
HAL Communications implemented CLOVER in a hardware/software system called PCI-4000/PC-
CLOVER, for IBM-compatible computers (with 80286 CPUs or better). The user plugs a PCI-4000
board into one PC expansion slot and installs the PC-CLOVER software on the computer’s disk drive,

Bill Henry, K9GWT, and Ray Petit, W7GHM, are the fathers of CLOVER, an extraordinarily powerful
mode of digital communication. It’s an adaptive, error-correcting mode that can pass information
over long-distance radio links under severe conditions of poor propagation. This is the original
CLOVER adapter, the HAL PCI 4000, a one-slot add-on board for IBM-compatible personal computers.
Modes 3. 11
connects the CLOVER card to an HF transceiver, and is ready to go on the air.
On-air experience and tests indicate that CLOVER-II can reliably pass error-corrected data on HF at
rates of 10-70 bytes/sec. (80 to 560 bits/sec.) Under average conditions, throughput is 20 to 40 bytes/
sec. (160 to 320 bits/sec.)—2 to 10 times faster than AMTOR, Pactor, or AX.25 HF packet. While
CLOVER-II with its 500-Hz wide spectra is preferred for Amateur Radio use, CLOVER-2000, the
commercial version, has four times greater throughput—up to 2000 bits/sec. This waveform uses 8 tones
spaced 250 Hz apart, a symbol rate of 62.5 baud, and has a characteristic spectrum from 500 to 2500 Hz.
CLOVER-2000 is directly compatible with all HF SSB equipment.
The CLOVER system includes an “AUTO-ARQ” mode that provides a three-pronged attack against
the problems caused by HF data signal distortion. This forward-error-correction will correct as many as
31 bytes of erroneous data for every 188 bytes of transmitted data, without requiring repeat transmis-
sions. (AMTOR, PACTOR and packet correct errors only by retransmitting data.) When erroneous data
exceeds 31 of 188 transmitted bytes, only the damaged data blocks are repeated. (AMTOR and PACTOR
repeat all the data of a transmitted pulse, even for one character error.)
The CLOVER modem samples the characteristics of each received block of data (the signal-to-noise
ratio, frequency offset and phase dispersion) to determine the current operating conditions. With this
information, CLOVER optimizes the other station’s transmitting parameters to match the measured con-
ditions. (AMTOR and packet have no adaptive capabilities, and PACTOR uses an adaptive algorithm.)
AUTO-ARQ is available in three flavors, or “bias” settings, for three types of band conditions. For
average HF conditions, the “normal” bias setting offers a good balance between error correction, data
rate and throughput. For extreme HF conditions, the “robust” or “fast” bias settings are available. The
robust bias setting provides the greatest degree of error correction, but to achieve this, throughput is
decreased. Robust bias is recommended for fixed-frequency operation (below 7 MHz) where maintain-
ing a connection over an unstable path is more important than the amount of data throughput. For ideal
conditions (stable paths at frequencies near the MUF), the fast bias setting provides reduced error
correction, greater data rates and maximum data throughput.
HAL Communications has four DSP modems that support CLOVER emissions. The P38 and DXP-
38 are low cost and designed specifically for Amateur Radio use. These modems use the TMS320C25
DSP engine and a 68EC000 control processor. The PCI-4000 and DSP-4100 use the DSP-56001/2 IC
and are intended primarily for commercial applications. The P38 and PCI-400 are PC ISA bus compat-
ible plug-in circuit boards. Firmware for the on-board processors is loaded via the PC ISA Bus. The
DXP-38 and DSP-4100 are cabinet modems that operate via a serial I/O connection. Firmware for these
modems is stored in on-board Flash memory. Firmware updates are free and may be uploaded from the
HAL web page as required. The PCI-4000/2K and DSP-4100/2K are special versions of the commercial
modems that include the CLOVER-2000 waveforms. The same command, control and status report
language is used in all four modems. Full details for third-party software authors are provided in a series
of HAL Engineering documents, available from the HAL web page (www.halcomm.com).
There are many advantages and unique features in a CLOVER system. For example, a CLOVER ARQ
link is always bidirectional. Like AX.25 packet radio, CLOVER does not require special “OVER”
commands to be sent to change channel direction. Information may flow in either direction at any time.
Further, adaptive modulation control is independent for each direction. Strong noise at one site in an
ARQ link may reduce data flow to that receiver but will not impede data flow in the other direction.
CLOVER sends 8 bit data at all times. Special data parsing and reconstruction algorithms are not
required. Any 8-bit file in the PC can be sent error free via CLOVER, be it an executable program, a
binary data file, image file, or digital audio file.

PSK31
Despite its limited character set and lack of error correction, Baudot RTTY remains popular for
3.12 Chapter 3
conversational QSOs, roundtables and nets. Baudot RTTY was designed to work with equipment that
does not meet today’s standards for stability and selectivity. In the beginning, decoding and printing of
Baudot signals was done in mechanical machines. Why do hams continue to use this second-only-to-CW
oldest digital mode in the computer age?
There’s a big difference between digital mode users who are interested in moving blocks of data from
one point to another and those who only want to make two-way conversational contacts. If you’re
sending data over a network, you’ll need speed—lots of it on the node-to-node connections. For a two-
way contact you only need enough speed to keep up with your typing. Transferred data needs to be error-
free, and if that adds some delays, no problem. By contrast, two-way contacts should have minimal
system-imposed delays so that data exchange seems conversational to the users.
The error-correcting digital modes aren’t designed for the “typical” ham QSO. They’re great for
transferring data, but not so great for conversations—especially when more than two stations are
involved.
Peter Martinez, G3PLX, who brought us AMTOR, has developed a new mode that is designed for
today’s radio amateur using current ham gear to make QSOs with
other amateurs. This mode is called PSK31. The PSK derives
from the fact that signals use phase-shift keying. The 31 comes
from the 31.25 baud rate.
In addition to your transceiver and antenna, you only need a
computer with a Windows operating system and a 16-bit
Soundblaster card (or compatible) to receive and transmit PSK31.
A May 1999 QST article by Steve Ford, WB8IMY, explains in
easy-to-understand language what you need to know to get in on
the fun.
Additional information and software is available for free down- Hams can say “I’ll fax you” with
load over the Web. In addition to Windows software, you’ll find ease, by using a home computer
versions for DOS, Linux and Macintosh. You’ll also find software with the right hardware and
that does not rely on a particular operating system. You can even software. Ralph Taggart,
WB8DQT, of Mason, Michigan,
join an e-mail reflector to keep up with the latest developments. transmitted this picture of his
Point your Web browser to: http://aintel.bi.ehu.es/psk31.html daughter Jennifer with a system
for information and links to downloads. You may want to use a that doubles as a slow-scan TV
Web search engine to find other pages. adapter. (photo by WB8DQT)
PSK31 is still in its infancy, and support for it
is still under development. For that reason, it
The Sounds of Listen to a PSK31 QSO.
makes sense to watch the pages of QST, and to
Amateur Radio
follow developments by visiting key Web pages.

IMAGE—FSTV, SSTV AND FAX

Amateur television (ATV) comes in two main categories: fast-scan TV (FSTV) and slow-scan TV
(SSTV). ATV allows hams to send television pictures over the airwaves. SSTV originated earlier; it is
a technique used to send color or black-and-white still pictures over HF, using bandwidth comparable
to that used by SSB voice. Because of the large amount of information required to transmit a video image,
the bandwidth restrictions for HF operation limit the mode to still pictures. FSTV, on the other hand,
is used on the UHF bands, where the FCC permits hams to use much broader bandwidths. Therefore, a
UHF FSTV picture can be a real-time moving picture.
Many amateur TV experimenters use home camcorders to supply the input to their FSTV transmitters.
Watching a received FSTV signal looks almost the same as a commercial TV broadcast. In fact, some
FSTV enthusiasts outfit their stations with “professional” video and processing equipment, such as
Modes 3. 13
cameras, monitors, switchers, special-effects devices and computers to control and manipulate images.
There are numerous FSTV repeaters around the US.
Fax is an additional form of image communications. Fax is an abbreviation for facsimile, a form of
transmission that sends a visual “photocopy” of a two-dimensional image, such as a piece of paper, a
photograph or a diagram. The first fax machines were mechanical devices with paper wrapped around a
rotating drum, or scanned by a moving light source. The light and dark spots on the paper (that is, blank space
and typewritten characters) were converted to electrical impulses. These impulses were sent along wires to
a receiving device that converted the impulses back into an image on paper.
Modern amateur faxes are sent using PCs and special software. The images may be almost any computer
file format. Images are often created by using a device called a scanner to convert a printed image into a
digital format. The software converts the image into audio tones that are sent via the transmitter for decoding
at the receiving end. The receiving station can display the faxed image on a computer monitor screen or
printer. Fax images can also be “captured” as they are received and saved to a disk file for later access (for
example viewing, printing, resending, modification). When a fax transmission begins, the receiving station
must be tuned in and listening so that it can receive and decode the synchronization data sent at the beginning
of the fax. Without the sync data, the receiving station can’t properly interpret the image. This presents a
challenge: In voice, Morse code, RTTY, packet or ATV, the operator may identify his or her station using
that mode. Faxing is different: The FCC doesn’t accept a faxed station identification as a fulfillment of the
legal requirement to identify at least once every 10 minutes during a transmission, and interrupting a fax
transmission to send a Morse code or voice identification causes the transmitting and receiving stations to
lose synchronization. Because faxes can take a long time to transmit, new operators must learn what size file
can be faxed in the span of 10 minutes before the transmission must be interrupted to send the required station
identification.

The Sounds of Listen to a sample FAX

transmission.
Amateur Radio

SPREAD SPECTRUM
Spread spectrum remains largely an experimental mode. It’s limited to certain frequencies and meth-
ods of implementation, and requires equipment and designs that are on the edge of radio technology.
Advanced amateur and commercial development, however, may lead to wider use of this technique of
conserving limited radio spectrum. You can find more information in Chapter 12.

3.14 Chapter 3
Glossary
ACK—An abbreviation for “acknowledgment.” AMTOR and PACTOR stations exchange ACKs to
verify that information has been received without errors.
ACSSB—Amplitude Compandored Single Sideband. A narrow-bandwidth, low-noise AM mode de-
signed to compete with narrow-bandwidth FM in the Land Mobile Radio Service.
AM—Amplitude modulation. Full AM transmissions use a full carrier with two modulated sidebands,
however, SSB and ACSSB are both AM modes.
AMTOR—Amateur Teleprinting Over Radio. A popular method of digital communication on the HF
bands.
APRS—Automatic Postion Reporting System. A method that uses the unconnected packet radio mode
to graphically indicate the position of moving and stationary objects on maps displayed on a computer
monitor.
ASCII—American Standard Code for Information Interchange. A standard method of encoding data so
that it can be understood by many computers.
AX.25—The Amateur Radio version of the CCITT X.25 packet protocol (x.25 is used for computer
communications over telephone lines).
Bit—A binary digit, 0 or 1, mark or space.
Connect—To establish a data communications link between two packet stations.
CW—Continuous wave. A transmission consisting of an unmodulated carrier.
Digipeater—Digital repeater. A device that receives, temporarily stores, and then retransmits packet
radio transmission directed specifically to it.
DXing—Operation to contact far-distant stations (foreign countries on HF, beyond the radio horizon on
VHF and higher bands).
FM—Frequency modulation. A form of modulation where the RF carrier shifts frequency according to
the amplitude of the modulating audio signal.
FSK—Frequency shift keying. Modulating a transmitter by using data signals to shift the carrier fre-
quency. Commonly used for digital transmissions.
NAK—An abbreviation for “non-acknowledgment.” AMTOR and PACTOR stations exchange NAKs
to request retransmission of data (due to errors).
Node—A junction point in a packet network where data is relayed to other destinations. A node can
support more than one user at a time and operate on several different frequencies simultaneously.
RTTY—Radioteletype. A method of sending text information using shifting MARK/SPACE signals or
audio tones.
SSB—A form of amplitude modulation (AM) in which the carrier and one sideband are removed.
TNC (terminal node controller)—Software or hardware that processes packets.

Modes 3. 15