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Energy, Environment, and Sustainability
Series Editors: Avinash Kumar Agarwal · Ashok Pandey

Avinash Kumar Agarwal

Jai Gopal Gupta
Nikhil Sharma
Akhilendra Pratap Singh Editors

Advanced Engine
Diagnostics
Energy, Environment, and Sustainability

Series editors
Avinash Kumar Agarwal, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute
of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India
Ashok Pandey, Distinguished Scientist, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology
Research, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
This books series publishes cutting edge monographs and professional books
focused on all aspects of energy and environmental sustainability, especially as it
relates to energy concerns. The Series is published in partnership with the
International Society for Energy, Environment, and Sustainability. The books in
these series are editor or authored by top researchers and professional across the
globe. The series aims at publishing state-of-the-art research and development in
areas including, but not limited to:
• Renewable Energy
• Alternative Fuels
• Engines and Locomotives
• Combustion and Propulsion
• Fossil Fuels
• Carbon Capture
• Control and Automation for Energy
• Environmental Pollution
• Waste Management
• Transportation Sustainability

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15901

Avinash Kumar Agarwal
Jai Gopal Gupta Nikhil Sharma
•

Akhilendra Pratap Singh

Editors

Advanced Engine
Diagnostics

123
Editors
Avinash Kumar Agarwal Nikhil Sharma
Department of Mechanical Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India

Jai Gopal Gupta Akhilendra Pratap Singh

Department of Mechanical Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering
Government Women Engineering College University of Wisconsin-Madison
Ajmer, Rajasthan, India Madison, WI, USA

ISSN 2522-8366 ISSN 2522-8374 (electronic)

Energy, Environment, and Sustainability
ISBN 978-981-13-3274-6 ISBN 978-981-13-3275-3 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-3275-3

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018962990

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
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The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
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jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721,
Singapore
Preface

Energy demand has been rising remarkably due to increasing population and
urbanization. Global economy and society are significantly dependent on the energy
availability because it touches every facet of human life and its activities.
Transportation and power generation are two major examples. Without the trans-
portation by millions of personalized and mass transport vehicles and availability of
24  7 power, human civilization would not have reached contemporary living
standards.
The International Society for Energy, Environment and Sustainability (ISEES)
was founded at Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur (IIT Kanpur), India, in
January 2014 with the aim of spreading knowledge/awareness and catalyzing
research activities in the fields of energy, environment, sustainability, and com-
bustion. The society’s goal is to contribute to the development of clean, affordable,
and secure energy resources and a sustainable environment for the society and to
spread knowledge in the above-mentioned areas and create awareness about the
environmental challenges, which the world is facing today. The unique way
adopted by the society was to break the conventional silos of specializations
(engineering, science, environment, agriculture, biotechnology, materials, fuels,
etc.) to tackle the problems related to energy, environment, and sustainability in a
holistic manner. This is quite evident by the participation of experts from all fields
to resolve these issues. ISEES is involved in various activities such as conducting
workshops, seminars, and conferences in the domains of its interest. The society
also recognizes the outstanding works done by the young scientists and engineers
for their contributions in these fields by conferring them awards under various
categories.
The second international conference on “Sustainable Energy and Environmental
Challenges” (SEEC-2018) was organized under the auspices of ISEES from
December 31, 2017, to January 3, 2018, at J N Tata Auditorium, Indian Institute of
Science, Bangalore. This conference provided a platform for discussions between
eminent scientists and engineers from various countries including India, USA,
South Korea, Norway, Finland, Malaysia, Austria, Saudi Arabia, and Australia. In
this conference, eminent speakers from all over the world presented their views

v
vi Preface

related to different aspects of energy, combustion, emissions, and alternative energy

resources for sustainable development and a cleaner environment. The conference
presented five high-voltage plenary talks from globally renowned experts on topical
themes, namely “Is It Really the End of Combustion Engines and Petroleum?” by
Prof. Gautam kalghatgi, Saudi Aramco; “Energy Sustainability in India: Challenges
and Opportunities” by Prof. Baldev Raj, NIAS Bangalore; “Methanol Economy:
An Option for Sustainable Energy and Environmental Challenges” by Dr. Vijay
Kumar Saraswat, Hon. Member (S&T), NITI Aayog, Government of India;
“Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Brayton Cycle for Power Generation” by
Prof. Pradip Dutta, IISc Bangalore; and “Role of Nuclear Fusion for Environmental
Sustainability of Energy in Future” by Prof. J. S. Rao, Altair Engineering.
The conference included 27 technical sessions on topics related to energy and
environmental sustainability including 5 plenary talks, 40 keynote talks, and 18
invited talks from prominent scientists, in addition to 142 contributed talks, and 74
poster presentations by students and researchers. The technical sessions in the
conference included Advances in IC Engines: SI Engines, Solar Energy: Storage,
Fundamentals of Combustion, Environmental Protection and Sustainability,
Environmental Biotechnology, Coal and Biomass Combustion/Gasification, Air
Pollution and Control, Biomass to Fuels/Chemicals: Clean Fuels, Advances in IC
Engines: CI Engines, Solar Energy: Performance, Biomass to Fuels/Chemicals:
Production, Advances in IC Engines: Fuels, Energy Sustainability, Environmental
Biotechnology, Atomization and Sprays, Combustion/Gas Turbines/Fluid Flow/
Sprays, Biomass to Fuels/Chemicals, Advances in IC Engines: New Concepts,
Energy Sustainability, Waste to Wealth, Conventional and Alternate Fuels, Solar
Energy, Wastewater Remediation, and Air Pollution. One of the highlights of the
conference was the rapid-fire poster sessions in (i) Energy Engineering,
(ii) Environment and Sustainability, and (iii) Biotechnology, where more than 75
students participated with great enthusiasm and won many prizes in a fiercely
competitive environment. More than 200 participants and speakers attended this
four-day conference, which also hosted Dr. Vijay Kumar Saraswat, Hon. Member
(S&T), NITI Aayog, Government of India, as the chief guest for the book release
ceremony, where 16 ISEES books published by Springer under a special dedicated
series “Energy, Environment, and Sustainability” were released. This is the first
time that such significant and high-quality outcome has been achieved by any
society in India. The conference concluded with a panel discussion on “Challenges,
Opportunities & Directions for Future Transportation Systems”, where the panelists
were Prof. Gautam Kalghatgi, Saudi Aramco; Dr. Ravi Prashanth, Caterpillar Inc.;
Dr. Shankar Venugopal, Mahindra and Mahindra; Dr. Bharat Bhargava, DG,
ONGC Energy Center, and Dr. Umamaheshwar, GE Transportation, Bangalore.
The panel discussion was moderated by Prof. Ashok Pandey, Chairman, ISEES.
This conference laid out the road map for technology development, opportunities,
and challenges in energy, environment, and sustainability domains. All these topics
are very relevant for the country and the world in the present context. We
acknowledge the support received from various funding agencies and organizations
for successfully conducting the second ISEES conference SEEC-2018, where these
Preface vii

books germinated. We would therefore like to acknowledge SERB, Government of

India (special thanks to Dr. Rajeev Sharma, Secretary); ONGC Energy Center
(special thanks to Dr. Bharat Bhargava), TAFE (special thanks to Sh. Anadrao
Patil); Caterpillar (special thanks to Dr. Ravi Prashanth); Progress Rail, TSI, India
(special thanks to Dr. Deepak Sharma); Tesscorn, India (special thanks to Sh.
Satyanarayana); GAIL, VOLVO; and our publishing partner Springer (special
thanks to Swati Meherishi).
The editors would like to express their sincere gratitude to a large number of
authors from all over the world for submitting their high-quality work in a timely
manner and revising it appropriately at short notice. We would like to express our
special thanks to Dr. Atul Dhar and Dr. Pravesh Chandra Shukla, who reviewed
various chapters of this monograph and provided their valuable suggestions to
improve the manuscripts.
Currently, IC engines are facing many challenges related to fuel supply, energy
efficiency, and emissions, which require serious research efforts. This monograph is
based on such advanced engine diagnostics such as advanced combustion strate-
gies, combustion simulations, engine fault diagnostics techniques, tribological
investigations, emission control systems, and the use of new alternative fuels in IC
engines. These topics are the main areas of research in the field of IC engine.
Therefore, this monograph is intended for practitioners working in the automotive
sector and provides them new directions for future research. We hope that the book
would be of great interest to the professionals and postgraduate students involved in
fuel, IC engine, engine instrumentation, and environmental research.

Kanpur, India Avinash Kumar Agarwal

Ajmer, India Jai Gopal Gupta
Kanpur, India Nikhil Sharma
Madison, USA Akhilendra Pratap Singh
Contents

Part I General
1 Introduction to Advanced Engine Diagnostics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Avinash Kumar Agarwal, Jai Gopal Gupta, Nikhil Sharma
and Akhilendra Pratap Singh

Part II Advanced Fuels and Combustion Techniques

2 Reactivity-Controlled Compression Ignition Combustion
Using Alcohols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Akhilendra Pratap Singh, Nikhil Sharma, Dev Prakash Satsangi,
Vikram Kumar and Avinash Kumar Agarwal
3 Effect of Hydrogen and Producer Gas Addition on the
Performance and Emissions on a Dual-Fuel Diesel Engine . . . . . . . 29
Abhishek Priyam, Prabha Chand and D. B. Lata
4 Characteristics of Particulates Emitted by IC Engines Using
Advanced Combustion Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Akhilendra Pratap Singh and Avinash Kumar Agarwal

Part III Emission Control Techniques and After-Treatment Systems

5 Modelling and Experimental Studies of NOx and Soot Emissions
in Common Rail Direct Injection Diesel Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
J. Thangaraja and S. Rajkumar
6 On-Board Post-Combustion Emission Control Strategies
for Diesel Engine in India to Meet Bharat Stage VI Norms . . . . . . 105
Rabinder Singh Bharj, Rajan Kumar and Gurkamal Nain Singh
7 Non-Noble Metal-Based Catalysts for the Application
of Soot Oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Pravesh Chandra Shukla

ix
x Contents

8 Ceria-based Mixed Oxide Nanoparticles for Diesel Engine

Emission Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
P. K. Shihabudeen, Ajin C. Sajeevan, N. Sandhyarani and V. Sajith

Part IV Simulations and Fault Diagnostics

9 Model-Based Fault Detection on Modern Automotive Engines . . . . 167
Deepak Agarwal and Chandan Kumar Singh
10 Study of Instability Nature of Circular Liquid Jet at Critical
Chamber Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Dhanesh Ayyappan, Aravind Vaidyanathan, C. K. Muthukumaran
and K. Nandakumar
11 Transient Reacting Flow Simulations of Chemical-Looping
Combustion Reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Guanglei Ma, Subhodeep Banerjee and Ramesh K. Agarwal
12 Tribological Studies of an Internal Combustion Engine . . . . . . . . . 237
Vikram Kumar, Sujeet Kumar Sinha and Avinash Kumar Agarwal
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Editors and Contributors

About the Editors

Avinash Kumar Agarwal is a professor in the

Department of Mechanical Engineering in Indian
Institute of Technology Kanpur. His areas of interest are
IC engines, combustion, alternative fuels, conventional
fuels, optical diagnostics, laser ignition, HCCI, emission
and particulate control, and large bore engines. He has
published 24 books and more than 230 international
journal and conference papers. He is a fellow of SAE
(2012), ASME (2013), ISEES (2015), and INAE (2015).
He received several awards such as prestigious Shanti
Swarup Bhatnagar Award-2016 in engineering sciences,
Rajib Goyal Prize-2015, NASI-Reliance Industries
Platinum Jubilee Award-2012; INAE Silver Jubilee
Young Engineer Award-2012; SAE International’s
Ralph R. Teetor Educational Award-2008; INSA Young
Scientist Award-2007; UICT Young Scientist Award-
2007; INAE Young Engineer Award-2005.

xi
xii Editors and Contributors

Jai Gopal Gupta is a faculty member in the

Government Women Engineering College, Ajmer,
India. He has done his Ph.D. in the Department of
Mechanical Engineering from IIT Kanpur, and his
research interests include performance, emission, and
combustion analysis in internal combustion engines,
alternative fuels, and renewable energy resources. He
has worked with the Combustion Engine and Energy
Conversion (CEnEC) Laboratory, Hanyang University,
South Korea, under the Indo-Korean Research
Internship (IKRI) program. He has edited a book and
authored 2 chapters and 13 research articles.

Nikhil Sharma is a scientist in the Engine Research

Laboratory at IIT Kanpur, India. He received his
M.Tech. in mechanical engineering from NIT Hamirpur,
India, in 2012, and his Ph.D. from IIT Kanpur, in 2017.
He was an assistant professor in the Department of
Mechanical and Automation Engineering at the Amity
University, Noida. His areas of research include
alternative fuels for IC engines (biodiesel, alcohols),
emission control, and particulate characterization.

Akhilendra Pratap Singh is a Postdoctoral Fellow at

University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA. He received
his master’s and Ph.D. in mechanical engineering from
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, India, in 2010
and 2016, respectively. His areas of research include
advanced low-temperature combustion; optical diag-
nostics with special reference to engine endoscopy and
PIV; combustion diagnostics; engine emission mea-
surement; particulate characterization and their control;
and alternative fuels. He has edited 5 books and
authored 17 chapters and 34 research articles in journals
and conferences. He is a member of numerous profes-
sional societies, including SAE, ASME, and ISEES. He
is a member of the editorial board of the Journal of
Energy, Environment and Sustainability.
Editors and Contributors xiii

Contributors

Avinash Kumar Agarwal Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian

Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India
Deepak Agarwal International Center for Automotive Technology, Gurugram,
Manesar, India; EbyT Technology Private Limited, New Delhi, Delhi, India
Ramesh K. Agarwal Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
Dhanesh Ayyappan Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology,
Trivandrum, India
Subhodeep Banerjee Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
Rabinder Singh Bharj Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dr. B. R.
Ambedkar National Institute of Technology Jalandhar, Jalandhar, Punjab, India
Prabha Chand N.I.T. Jamshedpur, Jamshedpur, Jharkhand, India
Guanglei Ma Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
Jai Gopal Gupta Government Women Engineering College, Ajmer, India
Rajan Kumar Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar
National Institute of Technology Jalandhar, Jalandhar, Punjab, India
Vikram Kumar Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology Kanpur, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India
D. B. Lata Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India
C. K. Muthukumaran Liquid Propulsion Systems Center, ISRO, Trivandrum,
India
K. Nandakumar Liquid Propulsion Systems Center, ISRO, Trivandrum, India
Abhishek Priyam MPSTME, NMIMS University, Mumbai, India
S. Rajkumar Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSN College of
Engineering, Chennai, India
Ajin C. Sajeevan School of Nano Science and Technology, National Institute of
Technology Calicut, Kozhikode, Kerala, India
V. Sajith School of Nano Science and Technology, National Institute of
Technology Calicut, Kozhikode, Kerala, India
N. Sandhyarani School of Nano Science and Technology, National Institute of
Technology Calicut, Kozhikode, Kerala, India
Dev Prakash Satsangi Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology Kanpur, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India
xiv Editors and Contributors

Nikhil Sharma Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of

Technology Kanpur, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India
P. K. Shihabudeen School of Nano Science and Technology, National Institute of
Technology Calicut, Kozhikode, Kerala, India
Pravesh Chandra Shukla Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian
Institute of Technology Bhilai, Sejbahar, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India
Akhilendra Pratap Singh Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of
Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
Chandan Kumar Singh AVL, Gothenburg, Sweden
Gurkamal Nain Singh Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dr. B. R.
Ambedkar National Institute of Technology Jalandhar, Jalandhar, Punjab, India
Sujeet Kumar Sinha Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology, Delhi, India
J. Thangaraja Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vellore Institute of
Technology, Vellore, India
Aravind Vaidyanathan Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology,
Trivandrum, India
 Part I
General
Chapter 1
Introduction to Advanced Engine
Diagnostics

Avinash Kumar Agarwal, Jai Gopal Gupta, Nikhil Sharma

and Akhilendra Pratap Singh

Abstract In last two decades, advancements in automotive engines and

after-treatment technologies have resulted in better engine performance, lower fuel
consumption, and lower emissions; however, system complexity and higher number
of control parameters have led to optimization issues. Implementation of advanced
combustion diagnostic techniques/strategies in internal combustion (IC) engines
further reduced the tail-pipe emissions, especially oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and
particulates; however, these combustion strategies have generated a new set of
control parameters, which need to be optimized for superior engine performance
and emission characteristics. To resolve these complex issues, researchers have
combined different techniques such as advanced combustion strategies with
after-treatment systems, and experimental research supported by simulations using
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) tools. This monograph covers all these topics
including advanced fuels and combustion, emission control techniques,
after-treatment systems, simulations, and fault diagnostics.

Keywords Advanced combustion techniques After-treatment systems



Emission control Simulations Fault diagnostics

Internal combustion (IC) engines transform the heat produced from combustion of
fuel into mechanical work. Compression ignition (CI) and spark ignition

A. K. Agarwal (&)
N. Sharma

Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur 208016, Uttar Pradesh, India
e-mail: [email protected]
N. Sharma
e-mail: [email protected]
J. G. Gupta
Government Women Engineering College, Ajmer, India
e-mail: [email protected]
A. P. Singh
University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison 53715, WI, USA
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 3

A. K. Agarwal et al. (eds.), Advanced Engine Diagnostics, Energy, Environment,
and Sustainability, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-3275-3_1
4 A. K. Agarwal et al.

(SI) engines have been widely adopted as power plants for passenger and com-
mercial automotive applications, electricity generation, and other industrial appli-
cations. Excessive use of petroleum origin fuels has led to sustainability issues and
harmful pollutant emissions. Both these issues are quite serious for mineral
diesel-fuelled CI engines, which are preferred over gasoline-fuelled SI engines due
to their higher power density and greater thermal efficiency. CI engines emit rel-
atively higher oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and particulates compared to SI engine.
NOx and particulates emitted by CI engines are harmful for both human health and
the environment. To resolve the emission issues, there are two approaches, namely
(i) pollutant formation reduction using advanced combustion techniques and
(ii) pollutant reduction using after-treatment systems. This monograph covers some
of these topics, which are divided into four sections: (i) general, (ii) advanced fuels
and combustion techniques, (iii) emission control techniques and after-treatment
systems, and (iv) simulation and fault diagnostics. This chapter is part of the first
section, and it introduces the monograph.
The second section of this monograph covers application of alternative fuels and
advanced combustion techniques for achieving higher efficiency and lower emis-
sions. In this section, a novel combustion strategy, namely reactivity-controlled
compression ignition (RCCI), is included. RCCI combustion is a dual-fuel tech-
nique in which low-reactivity fuels such as gasoline, alcohols are introduced
upstream of the intake valve, to ensure a high level of fuel-air homogeneity in the
combustion chamber, and high-reactivity fuels such as mineral diesel, biodiesel are
injected directly in the combustion chamber to initiate the combustion (Kokjohn
and Reitz 2013). RCCI combustion offers are more complete combustion based on
reactivity of both fuels; therefore, it offers a superior control over the combustion.
RCCI combustion can reduce harmful emissions of NOx and particulates simulta-
neously. Utilization of alcohols in RCCI combustion is another interesting feature,
which can potentially reduce the excessive consumption of mineral diesel. In this
section, first chapter describes the detailed mechanism of RCCI combustion and its
characteristics while using different alcohols as low-reactivity fuel. Another chapter
in this section describes the potential of low temperature combustion
(LTC) techniques, namely homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI),
partially premixed charge compression ignition (PCCI), and RCCI combustion.
This chapter shows that HCCI and PCCI combustion techniques are capable of
reducing particulate and NOx emissions from diesel-fuelled engines (Agarwal et al.
2013; Jain et al. 2017). Detailed description about the soot formation process and
factors affecting soot formation are few other important topics covered in this
chapter. For utilization of alternative fuels, a dual-fuel diesel engine fuelled with
hydrogen and producer gas is included in this section. This chapter discusses the
performance and emission characteristics of dual-fuel engine operated up to full
engine load. Results showed that use of hydrogen and producer gas improves the
engine efficiency.
Third section of the monograph covers the application of advanced engine
technologies and after-treatment systems for pollutant emission reduction from
diesel engines. This section starts with the conventional techniques for diesel
1 Introduction to Advanced Engine Diagnostics 5

engines to reduce harmful emissions. A review on effectiveness of common rail

direct injection (CRDI) system is presented in the first chapter of this section. This
chapter shows that CRDI systems can reduce particulate emissions; however due to
the introduction of stricter emission norms (as Euro VI), only CRDI systems are not
able to comply with such stringent emission norms. Therefore, it becomes neces-
sary to use after-treatment systems along with these advanced engine techniques.
Therefore, different after-treatment systems such as diesel particulate filter (DPF),
selective catalytic reduction (SCR), lean NOx trap (LNT) are discussed in the next
chapter. This chapter shows that these systems can reduce NOx and particulate
emissions; however, these systems use precious and expensive rare earth metals,
which increase the cost of the vehicle significantly. Therefore, the use of low-cost
non-noble metal-based catalysts has been discussed in the next chapter. These
non-noble metals can reduce the particulate emissions by increasing the soot oxi-
dation. A chapter about the use of ceria-based mixed oxide nanoparticles for
emission control from diesel engines has also been included in this section. This
chapter describes different aspects of this technique such as properties of
ceria-based nanoparticles, its preparation, and characterization using different
techniques such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM), dynamic light scattering.
Last section of the monograph is based on the simulations and fault diagnostics.
In this section, different simulation techniques have been discussed, which directly
or indirectly affect the IC engines. This section starts with a chapter based on
model-based fault detection system, which becomes essential for modern engines
equipped with sophisticated digital control systems and complex electronic hard-
ware such as input–output sensors, actuators, and processing units. This chapter
describes different techniques and fault diagnostic methodologies, which can be
used to diagnose any number of signal faults. Next chapter is based on the carbon
emission reduction using carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies . Chemical
looping combustion (CLC) is a promising oxy-fuel carbon capture technology
consisting of two interconnected fluidized beds with a metal oxide as a bed
material/oxygen carrier. The particles, which circulate between both reactors, firstly
absorb oxygen in the air reactor (AR) and secondly provide the oxygen for the
combustion in the fuel reactor (FR). This chapter shows that superior results from
this technique can be achieved by scale-up investigations and sensitivity analysis.
Last chapter of this monograph is based on the tribological studies of an IC engine.
Reliable and safe operation of an engine requires effective lubrication of moving
parts to allow them to slide smoothly over each other. This chapter describes the
optimal conditions for the oil film formation in all friction-coupled interfaces such
as a piston cylinder, piston rings’ cylinder, main bearings. Proper lubrication in an
engine directly affects the life of different moving components by reducing wear. It
also affects the engine efficiency and fuel consumption because frictional losses
affect the power supplied to the engine shaft. Therefore, it is very relevant topic of
research for advanced IC engine.
This monograph presents different technologies, which can be used for
increasing thermal efficiency and lowering the emissions. Specific topics covered in
this monograph include:
6 A. K. Agarwal et al.

• Introduction to Advanced Engine Diagnostics

• Reactivity-Controlled Compression Ignition Combustion Using Alcohols
• Effect of Hydrogen and Producer Gas Addition on the Performance and
Emissions on a Dual-Fuel Diesel Engine
• Characteristics of Particulate Emitted by IC Engines Using Advanced
Combustion Strategies
• Non-Noble Metal-Based Catalysts for the Application of Soot Oxidation
• Ceria-Based Mixed Oxide Nanoparticles for Diesel Engine Emission Control
• On-Board Post-Combustion Emission Control Strategies for Diesel Engine in
India to meet Bharat Stage VI Norms
• Modelling and Experimental Studies of NOx and Soot Emissions in Common
Rail Direct Injection Diesel Engines
• Model-Based Fault Detection on Modern Automotive Engines
• Study of Instability Nature of Circular Liquid Jet at Critical Chamber Conditions
• Transient Reacting Flow Simulations of Chemical Looping Combustion
Reactors
• Tribological Studies of an Internal Combustion Engine.

References

Agarwal AK, Singh AP, Lukose J, Gupta T (2013) Characterization of exhaust particulates from
diesel fuelled homogenous charge compression ignition combustion engine. J Aerosol Sci
58:71–85
Jain A, Singh AP, Agarwal AK (2017) Effect of fuel injection parameters on combustion stability
and emissions of a mineral diesel fueled partially premixed charge compression ignition
(PCCI) engine. Appl Energy 190:658–669
Kokjohn SL, Reitz RD (2013) Reactivity controlled compression ignition and conventional diesel
combustion: a comparison of methods to meet light-duty NOx and fuel economy targets. Int J
Engine Res 14(5):452–468
 Part II
Advanced Fuels and Combustion
Techniques
Visit https://textbookfull.com
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collection of eBooks, textbook
and enjoy exciting offers!
Chapter 2
Reactivity-Controlled Compression
Ignition Combustion Using Alcohols

Akhilendra Pratap Singh, Nikhil Sharma, Dev Prakash Satsangi,

Vikram Kumar and Avinash Kumar Agarwal

Abstract Rapidly increasing fossil fuel consumption along with increasing fuel
cost and serious concerns about carbon dioxide (CO2) emission reduction from the
transportation sector motivated the automotive researchers to explore new internal
combustion (IC) engine technologies, which can deliver higher engine efficiency
with a lower impact on the environment and human health. These issues can be
resolved by using advanced combustion strategies, which are also capable of uti-
lizing alternative fuels. In last few years, reactivity-controlled compression ignition
(RCCI) combustion has attracted significant attention due to its capability of
ultra-low oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and particulate emissions without any soot-NOx
trade-off and superior engine efficiency compared to compression ignition (CI) and
spark ignition (SI) combustion. RCCI combustion is a combination of dual-fuel and
partially premixed combustion (PPC) techniques, in which a low-reactivity fuel
such as gasoline, compressed natural gas (CNG), alcohols are injected into the
intake port and a high-reactivity fuel such as mineral diesel, biodiesel is directly
injected into the combustion chamber. Blending of these two fuels in the com-
bustion chamber controls the heat release rate (HRR) and combustion phasing.
Premixed ratio and spatial stratification between these two fuels control the com-
bustion phasing and combustion duration. RCCI combustion and emission char-
acteristics are also dependent on fuel injection strategies such as fuel injection
pressure (FIP), number of injections, start of injection (SOI) timings, exhaust gas
recirculation (EGR) rate, and intake charge temperature. This chapter reviews all
these factors and presents important features of RCCI combustion for application in
future automotive engines. A separate section for use of alcohols in RCCI

A. P. Singh (&)
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison,
WI 53715, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
N. Sharma
D. P. Satsangi
V. Kumar
A. K. Agarwal
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur,
Kanpur 208016, Uttar Pradesh, India

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 9

A. K. Agarwal et al. (eds.), Advanced Engine Diagnostics, Energy, Environment,
and Sustainability, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-3275-3_2
10 A. P. Singh et al.

combustion is also included in this chapter, which shows various pathways for
alternative fuel utilization in this advanced combustion technique. Roadmap for
future research directions for RCCI combustion is also discussed in this chapter.

Keywords Reactivity-controlled compression ignition (RCCI)
Fuel reactivity

Fuel injection strategy Alcohols

2.1 Introduction

Demand of fuel-efficient engines is an active research area worldwide due to current

issues related to rapidly depleting petroleum reserves, rising environmental con-
cerns and the adverse effect of pollutants on human health. From the beginning of
internal combustion (IC) engines, mineral diesel-fueled compression ignition
(CI) engines are preferred over the spark ignition (SI) engines due to their higher
thermal efficiency and superior fuel economy. High compression ratios as well as
less throttling losses are the main factors leading to their higher efficiency. These
engines are used in various applications such as power generation, agriculture, and
transport sector. However, these engines are associated with higher emissions of
oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and particulates, which limit their application in
mega-cities. These toxic emissions have an adverse effect on human health as well
as on the environment. To resolve these issues, exhaust gas after-treatment systems
such as diesel particulate filters (DPF), lean NOx trap (LNT), and selective catalytic
reduction (SCR) have been installed in modern diesel engines, with a view to
reduce toxic emissions. These after-treatment systems have successfully reduced
the tailpipe emissions; however, higher cost of these systems and issues related to
their durability limit their application in vehicles (Dec 2009).
In recent years, various advanced combustion strategies have been developed,
which reduce the formation of pollutants in the combustion chamber. These
strategies include partially premixed charge compression ignition (PCCI), homo-
geneous charge compression ignition (HCCI), and reactivity-controlled compres-
sion ignition (RCCI). Figure 2.1 shows the basic features of advanced combustion
strategies and their evolution over time. These techniques were developed for
simultaneous reduction of particulates and NOx emissions, while keeping thermal
efficiency of the engine equivalent to conventional CI engines. In HCCI technique,
premixing of fuel and air occurs outside the cylinder before the charge induction
into the engine cylinder. Thereafter, this combustible charge is ignited by com-
pression, similar to CI engines. However, in PCCI combustion, a fraction of fuel is
injected during the early compression stroke, which mixes with air and forms
partially premixed charge before the start of ignition. This premixed charge helps in
the combustion of fuel injected during the main injection. It has been reported that
PCCI and HCCI methods help reduce particulate and NOx emissions; however, they
increase carbon monoxide (CO) and unburnt hydrocarbon (UHC) emissions
(Agarwal et al. 2013; Saravanan et al. 2015). Lack of an adequate combustion
2 Reactivity-Controlled Compression Ignition Combustion … 11

Fig. 2.1 Different combustion strategies

phasing control and heat release rate (HRR) are few other challenges faced by these
combustion techniques, which limit their application at higher engine loads. Due to
these issues, several other combustion techniques have been developed, in which
RCCI combustion is the most important one.

2.2 Reactivity-Controlled Compression Ignition (RCCI)

RCCI combustion technique was first demonstrated at Engine Research Center of

University of Wisconsin–Madison. RCCI combustion is a dual-fuel technique, in
which two fuels of different reactivity are used. The concept of dual-fuel in diesel
engines has been used since 1955, which allows the in-cylinder blending of two
different fuels (Karim 1980). In RCCI combustion technique, a low-reactivity fuel
such as gasoline/alcohols/compressed natural gas (CNG) is used to create a
homogeneous fuel–air mixture either using port fuel injection (PFI) or by using
early direct injection. A high-reactivity fuel such as mineral diesel/biodiesel is
injected in the compression stroke, early enough to mix below particulate and NOx
formation equivalence ratios, similar to PPC. Combustion starts in high-reactivity
regions and then proceeds to low-reactivity regions. The combustion duration is
controlled by the spatial stratification of fuel reactivities, which decreases with
increasing mixing duration. RCCI combustion gives excellent results in terms of
12 A. P. Singh et al.

performance and emissions over the entire operating range of the engine. The
dual-fuel strategy allows easy control of combustion phasing, which is controlled
by the local concentration of high-reactivity fuel and start of injection (SOI) timing
of high-reactivity fuel. Since the combustion duration is controlled by the reactivity
gradient, it can be effectively used to reduce pressure rise rates (PRRs) and com-
bustion noise. For higher thermal efficiency and lower NOx and particulate emis-
sions, RCCI combustion also uses multiple injection strategy in one cycle, along
with EGR. These parameters affect the fuel–air chemical kinetics (in-cylinder
reactivity), which can be used to optimize the combustion phasing and combustion
duration (Reitz and Duraisamy 2015). Due to these advantages, RCCI engine has
attracted global attention and motivating researchers to further develop RCCI
combustion concept for commercial applications.
In a slightly different way, RCCI combustion can be defined as combustion
achieved by charge stratification in the combustion chamber using two fuels (with
low and high cetane numbers). Low cetane number fuel with lower reactivity is
injected in the port, which is premixed with air outside the combustion chamber,
and thereafter, it enters the combustion chamber. At the end of the compression
stroke, high cetane number fuel with higher reactivity is directly injected into the
combustion chamber, which is already filled with lower reactivity fuel–air mixture
(Fig. 2.2). The direct injection of fuel creates layers of fuels; hence for more layer
generation, multiple injections strategy is highly desirable. During multiple injec-
tions, the first injection of diesel targets the squish region, whereas the relatively
late injected diesel acts as an ignition source (Eichmeier et al. 2014). In RCCI
combustion, ratio of both fuels quantities is very important because this is critical
for combustion control. This leads to superior combustion control in case of RCCI
combustion compared to HCCI or PCCI combustion (Reitz and Duraisamy 2015).
This results in lower NOx and particulate emissions, reduced heat transfer loss, and
increased fuel efficiency, thus eliminating the need for exhaust gas after-treatment
systems.

Fig. 2.2 RCCI combustion Direct Injection of High-

strategy for different test fuels Reactivity Fuel such as
Mineral Diesel,
Biodiesel, etc.

Port Injection of Low-

Reactivity Fuel such as
Gasoline, Alcohols,
CNG, etc.
2 Reactivity-Controlled Compression Ignition Combustion … 13

Reitz (2010) presented a comparison of energy budgets for different combustion

techniques achieved in a single-cylinder oil test engine at 9 bar indicated mean
effective pressure (IMEP) (Fig. 2.3). This figure clearly indicates that RCCI com-
bustion is capable of generating significantly higher gross IMEP (*59%) compared
to other advanced combustion techniques. The RCCI combustion process converts
59% of the recovered heat loss to work, while the high exhaust gas recirculation
(EGR) diesel engine converted only 44% of the recovered heat loss to work.
In RCCI combustion, improved combustion control is the main reason for more
efficient work extraction, by achieving shorter combustion duration. Relatively
lower heat transfer loss (HT MEP) makes this combustion technique more attractive
compared to conventional diesel combustion (CDC). Table 2.1 shows the com-
parison of different advanced combustion techniques and conventional combustion
strategies.
Li et al. (2014) introduced two parameters, namely global reactivity and reac-
tivity stratification, which affect the RCCI combustion control. Global reactivity
depends on quantity of fuel directly injected in the combustion chamber, and
reactivity stratification is related to fuel spray penetration and the entrainment of
direct-injected higher reactivity fuel with the mixture of lower reactivity fuel and
air. The direction of flame propagation depends on the engine type and fuel
injection parameters such as SOI timing, injector spray angle. For an effective RCCI
combustion and load limit extension, the optimization of fuel properties plays an
important role. Fuel property optimization increases the reactivity gradient between
directly injected higher reactivity fuel and premixed lower reactivity fuel (Wang
et al. 2018). Therefore, researchers explored different fuel pairs (low/high-reactiv-
ity) for RCCI combustion, in which gasoline/diesel, CNG/diesel, methanol/diesel,
n-butanol/diesel, gasoline/biodiesel, methanol/biodiesel, etc., are most used fuel
pairs (Dahodwala et al. 2014; Doosje et al. 2014; Dempsey et al. 2013; Zhang et al.
2013; Wang et al. 2015). In these studies, a common fact has been reported that

[CL: Combustion loss; HT: Heat loss; Ex: Exhaust loss]

Fig. 2.3 Caterpillar single-cylinder test engine energy budgets (9 bar IMEP). Adapted from
Staples et al. (2009), Hardy and Reitz (2006), Hanson et al. (2009, 2010), Reitz (2010)
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that’s right.”
Mr. Carter nodded his head slowly.
“I’ve just told the colonel that we’re not really monsters,” he replied
bluntly; “but we’ve had rather a rough experience, take it all in all.
There’s Leigh, nothing but a boy, and he’s killed a man. It’s not a
nice thing to think about. He told me one night how he felt. It haunts
him. Besides, I’ve seen William falling down on his work. The whole
racket got on our nerves. I reckon we were hard on her. William used
to call her a wild fawn. Maybe, if we’d met her from the first in the
right way, she’d have tamed down.”
Colonel Denbigh pulled hard at his mustache.
“Give her a little love, Carter, and trust in the Lord,” he advised
gently.
It was Virginia, however, who solved the problem.
“William must take her away,” she said decidedly. “She’s used to big
cities, to life and light and change, and she couldn’t endure us here.
It will be a long time before she can. If he takes her away they’ll
understand each other, Mrs. Carter, and then the rest of it will solve
itself.”
Mrs. Carter assented to this. It came to her in the nature of manna
from heaven. To mend William’s marriage and to escape the
responsibility of Fanchon would be almost too good to be true.
“I reckon that’s just it, Jinny,” she said weakly. “It’s all wrong for two
young people to start in together with another family. We’re right set
in our ways, too. I think you’re right. Don’t you, papa?”
Mr. Carter nodded again. There was a little pause, broken only by
the distant sound of Daniel’s march on the piazza.
“Isn’t that boy coming in here to sit down and drink some tea?” Mr.
Carter demanded suddenly and sharply, addressing space.
“I’ll call him,” said Virginia.
But as she spoke they heard a step on the stairs and William’s voice.
“Mother, will you come up and see—my wife?”
Mrs. Carter rose, with a gasp, glancing at her husband. She met
assent in his eyes, and she hurried out into the hall. William stood
there, his face changed and softened, but still very pale. His eyes
met his mother’s, and he held out his hand.
“She’s come out of her delirium. She knows me—and she wants to
ask your forgiveness,” he said in a low voice, swallowing a lump in
his throat.
Mrs. Carter clung to his arm, lifting her face to his.
“Oh, Willie!” she sobbed, and kissed him.
The colonel and Mr. Carter saw the mother and son going up-stairs
together.
“It’s all right,” said the colonel with manifest relief. “I’m mighty glad of
it!”
Mr. Carter made no reply, but lifted his glass of iced tea slowly to his
lips and drank it. He felt choked. He was registering a silent vow that,
whatever happened, Emily shouldn’t paint her eyelashes!
Virginia, smiling at her grandfather, slipped quietly out of the room.
She stood for a moment in the wide, cool hall, listening. She could
hear the faint murmur of voices above her, and the tramp of Daniel’s
nervous feet. Outside the door the warm sunshine seemed to
pulsate, and a thousand little gnats danced in a circle in mid air.
Virginia crossed the hall softly and stood in the door.
Daniel, very pale and quiet, stopped his marching up and down. His
eyes met hers with a silent interrogation.
“It’s all right, Dan,” she said gently. “William just called your mother.
It’s made up.”
Daniel drew a deep breath, his eyes on her face. He thought he had
never seen her look so beautiful.
“It’s your doing, Virginia,” he said softly.
She shook her head, coming out and standing beside him in the
sunshine.
“It’s God’s doing, Dan,” she replied gravely.
He said nothing. He was still gazing at her. She looked so beautiful
and so happy that he wondered if, after all, she cared for William.
Then he reflected that angels must always look beautiful in acts of
love and renunciation.
She turned and smiled at him again.
“Let’s walk down to the end of the garden,” she said gently. “It’s cool
there under the old mulberry.”
They walked slowly, not because of his lameness, for he was limping
very little to-day, but because the walk through the old garden-paths
was sweet.
“My roses are still blooming,” remarked Virginia. “I’m going to set out
some more of these late ones this autumn. How sweet the air is to-
day!”
He looked up at the clear sky. Only a few white clouds floated in the
deep, ineffable blue.
“It’s a heavenly day,” he said.
They were silent after that, walking between the hedgerows, until
they came to a grassy slope that was left to go wild, because Virginia
loved wild flowers. Here, in the spring, were pink anemones and
blood-root, and now there were little yellow flowers on the green
blades of grass.
They sat down together on a fallen tree, which had been left lying
there for a seat. Daniel looked down at the little yellow stars in the
grass.
“Aren’t they pretty things?” he said musingly. “At first I thought this
was only common turf, but it’s full of yellow stars.”
Virginia, following his eyes, smiled.
“They call that star-grass, Dan.”
“Star-grass?” he repeated thoughtfully, “it’s a pretty name, Virginia.
Do you know why I was looking at it? Those little stars are
everywhere like tiny points of flame—and they are all around your
feet, little flames of incense.”
“There’s a legend,” she replied, “that those little stars were fastened
on the blades of grass so that the humble things of earth, which
couldn’t look so high as heaven, could see the stars in the grass.
Isn’t it a quaint idea?”
Daniel nodded, leaning his chin on the hands that clasped the top of
his walking-stick, and looking at them, something grim and sad
coming into his face.
“I saw a white-breasted nuthatch yesterday in that tree,” said Virginia
dreamily.
He did not reply, and there was such a long silence that she turned
and looked at him. She saw how pale he had grown, how the
delicate hollows had fallen in his cheeks, and the shadows under his
eyes. Daniel’s eyes were beautiful, she thought—like a woman’s in
their clear kindness. Perhaps it was the pain he had borne for so
many years after his hurt.
“Virginia, if you look at me like that I shall say something,” he cried
suddenly. “I can’t bear it! Turn your eyes away, Virginia.”
She laughed a little tremulously, blushing, too.
“But why, Dan? A cat may look at a king, you know.”
He did not answer for a while. He was digging little holes in the soft
turf with his stick.
“A cripple can’t speak,” he said at last. “A cripple can’t tell a woman
what he feels, even when that woman is an angel of compassion.”
“But you’re not a cripple, Dan. You’re only a little lame. It grows less,
too, every day.”
“I overheard father once,” Daniel replied bitterly. “He called me a
cripple. ‘No girl wants a cripple,’ he said.”
“Oh, how cruel,” Virginia cried. “And it’s not true, Dan; it’s not true at
all!”
Daniel started, looking around at her, but her face was averted. He
only saw her charming profile against the beauty of the foliage
behind her. Something in it—something tender and sympathetic—
reached him. He drew a long breath.
“Virginia, you can’t mean——”
She said nothing, but she lifted her eyes a little shyly to his face, and
this time Daniel could not resist the look.
“You can’t mean that you’d marry me!” he cried, and then softly, with
infinite tenderness: “Will you, Virginia?”
“Yes, Dan,” she answered, smiling.
Her smile seemed to change his whole world for him, and to fill it
with an ineffable tenderness and light. It was no longer the sweet
whistling of a robin that he heard, but the music of the spheres. The
very ground was carpeted with stars—with tiny stars that ran like
little flames all the way to Virginia’s feet, for—like the humble things
of earth—Daniel had found his bit of heaven there.
THE END
 TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES:
Obvious typographical errors have been corrected.
Inconsistencies in hyphenation have been
standardized.
Archaic or variant spelling has been retained.
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