CHAPTER 5

Benguet Heritage
Maribelle T. Apnoyan, Shirley I. Apolonio, Mark Joshua S. Balao-as, Myrna
Sison-Kuiper, Analyn A. Lamigo, Fabiola A. Lucop, Marilyn W. Macwes, Jefort
K. Sab-it, Marina I. Sagandoy

UNIT 1. HISTORICAL AND SOCIOCULTURAL FEATURES

Overview
This unit deals with the rich history and sociocultural tapestry of Benguet. By
exploring this unit, you will gain a profound understanding of Benguet's
ethnolinguistic groups and their distinct ways of life. The unit is divided into
three lessons, focusing on the settlements and territories, the ethnolinguistic
groups, and the literature, music, and dances of Benguet.

Lesson 1. Settlements and Territories

I. Introduction
In this lesson, you will explore the rich history of settlements and territories
of different ethnolinguistic groups in Benguet, a province in the Philippines.
You will learn about their migration routes, original settlements, reasons for
moving, and their significant impacts on present-day Benguet.

Benguet Geography
Prior to the arrival of the Spaniards, Benguet was a vast, richly forested
hunting ground with diverse flora and fauna, where people lived in
mountainous regions with an abundance of water resources (Province of
Benguet, 2021).
Major migration routes of different ethnolinguistic groups in Benguet from
the 1500s (Bagasmaspad and Hamada- Pawid 2010):
1. The first migration route followed the tributaries of the Aringay-
Galiano rivers, moving people to Chuyo and Tonglo in Tuba.
2. The second route went through the tributaries of the Amburayan River,
leading to settlements in Darew in Barangay Gaswiling and Palaypay in
Kapangan.
3. The third route was along the Agno River, leading to the establishment
of settlements
 4. in Imbose along the Agno River in Pacso, Kabayan, and Amlimay in
Kabayan and Buguias

Lesson 2. Peopling and Ethnolinguistic Groups

Introduction
This lesson will allow you to explore the rich cultural heritage of the
ethnolinguistic Groups of Benguet, namely the Ibaloy, Kankanaey,
Kalanguya, Karao, Iwak, and the Bago.
Each group has its unique culture, traditions, and beliefs, while also sharing
common Practices and values, living harmoniously in the highlands of
Benguet.
o Ibaloy – Southern Cordillera’s first line of defense against colonization
(NCIP, 2021).
They occupy the southern part of Benguet and parts of eastern Nueva
Vizcaya Province.
o Kankana-ey – The country’s main supplier of temperate vegetables (NCIP,
2021)
o Kalanguya – A People Unbroken by Political Subdivision (NCIP, 2021).
Kalanguya
people originally came from areas of Ahin, Taboy, Tucucan, and Tinoc.
o Karao – Seekers of peace (NCIP, 2021). Reside in Barangays Karao and
Ekip in Bokod, Benguet.
o Iwak – A people blending gracefully with the majority) (NCIP, 2021). Their
Ancestral Domain covers sitio Domolpos in Barangays Tinongdan, Itogon,
Benguet, and Ansipsip, Nueva Vizcaya.
o Bago – Guardians of the Amburayan River (NCIP, 2021). Originated from
the old Mountain Provinces and first settled at the upper delta of the
Amburayan River.

Lesson 3. Education and Social Institutions

I. Introduction
In this lesson, you will explore the evolution of the educational system and
the influence of social institutions in Benguet. You will investigate the rich
cultural heritage of
the Ibaloy, Kankanaey, and Ikalahans, focusing on their unique traditions and
practices. From the roots of the oral tradition in precolonial times to the
revolutionary influence of American teachers called Thomasites, you will
dissect the impact of education on society. You will also highlight various
social structures that have shaped these societies and explore the shared
cultural ethos of community and cooperation.
1. Educational Institutions (Benguet’s Education)
Oral Tradition: In the precolonial times, knowledge and skills were passed
down through storytelling, chants, songs, and rituals. This was led by pang-
amaen/am-ama (elders) known for their wisdom and experience.
American Influence: The American teachers known as the Thomasites
revolutionized Benguet’s education system, particularly through their
introduction of the “Three R’s”
– Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic. The Thomasites innovatively
employed an “adult Class mode delivery” method. Evening classes
were conducted for adults who spent their days farming or engaging in
other livelihood activities. Through chalk and blackboards, under the
light of the saleng and kerosene lamp on later years, the Thomasites
taught these adult learners how to read, write, and perform basic
Arithmetic.

2. Social Institutions (Ibaloy, Kankanaey, and Ikalahans)

1. In the Ibaloy society, there is a distinct division into classes, with the
wealthy (baknang) and the poor (abitug). The Kankanaey’s society is
organized around the ‘ili’ or village, Which is their largest social unit.
For the Ikalahans, social structures are based largely On kinship,
forming bilateral groups of kin for mutual support (Cordillera Schools
Group, 2003; Prill-Brett, 2015; Rice, 1974).
2. Aduyon/Alluyon: This Ibaloy and Kankana-ey system of mutual and
reciprocal work (Adonis, 2011).
3. Khamal/Kamal: This Batares practice involves gathering neighbors to
help with heavy-Labor projects, such as building a house or community
projects.
4. Albubo: This Kankana-ey tradition represents communal unity,
helpfulness, and Cooperation (NCIP, 2021).
 5. Dang-as/Da-ngah: This is the Kalanguya traditional practice of
voluntary service.

Lesson 4. Games and Sports, Oral Literature, Music and Dances,

and Festivals
I. Introduction
This lesson explores the diverse and fascinating Benguet cultural
heritage. It will take You on a journey through Benguet’s rich history and
traditional practices, ranging from games and sports to literature, dances,
and musical instruments, culminating in the vibrant festivals that paint
the cultural landscape of this region. By participating in this lesson, you
will develop a deep appreciation for the cultural heritage of the Benguet
people and gain insights into the rituals, customs, and traditions that
shape their way of life.
Games and Sports
Kadang-kadang – primarily, it is a racing game played using a pair of
bamboo poles with equal lengths and a stepladder of foot size to serve as
the platform for the player’s feet. The bamboo has a height of 10 feet from
the ground. (Yungco, 2012).
Dongba ni Kavajo – It is an Ibaloi term for horse race which aims to
showcase the culture of Cordillerans being a cowboy because of the
influence of the American cowboys during the American period. Horse riding
is one of the cultures of the Cordillerans because horses were there during
the old times of civilization. The Dongba Ni Kavajo is one of the most awaited
events, during the Adivay festival. The race has been celebrated every year
since 1900’s at Wangal Oval, La Trinidad, Benguet (AGSHAN ONLINE, 2017).
Literature
Cordillera literature, including that of the Benguet, is almost entirely oral,
often featuring themes of legends, myths, epics, riddles, and proverbs. It is
traditionally recited or sung during special occasions like wakes, rituals, and
festivities (Chan, 2018).
Examples:
1. Ad-dem is sung during the badjog ritual
2. Angba during the cho-ongas ritual
3. Agsangay during the tam-mo ritual
4. Tah-miyas during wakes
5. Ba’diw is used in various occasions or gatherings (Santos, 2017)
 6. Burburtia, are a form of entertainment and socialization, particularly
during wakes
These are crafted based on observations of the environment (Chan, 2014;
AGSHAN ONLINE, 2017). Examples of riddles from Ibaloy, Kankanaey, and
Kalanguya groups are provided (Department of Education, 2003).
Dances and Musical Instruments
Tayaw/Tayao (Ibaloys, Kankana-eys, and Kalanguyas of Benguet). It is an
expression of joy or celebration and is not performed during a wake (Aplaten,
2012; Catimo, 2017).
Examples (NCIP, 2021):
1. Tayaw ni Mabiday – performed by the surviving children of the
deceased and
2. Iwak Basi Tayaw – a celebration of bountiful crop harvests
Tallak (Kankana-ey). It was originally performed to keep inhabitants awake
and on guard against enemies, but has evolved into a dance for community
celebrations and festivals (NCIP, 2021). It was named after the
accompanying instrument made from annitap or annadong Wood.
Bendian (originating from Kabayan, Benguet). It is a ritual and ceremonial
dance to celebrate victory and vengeance. It is now modified to honor
Kaboniyan/Kabunian for a bountiful harvest (Aplaten, 2012; Catimo, 2017).
Taychek (Karao people). It is performed by women wearing native attire to
the tune of men playing the Itondak music. It is performed during the cañao,
a thanksgiving and healing ritual for sick family members (NCIP, 2021).
Festivals
Adivay. This is an agro-tourism festival celebrated in Benguet that focuses
on rediscovering the rich history, culture, arts, trades, and industries of the
province. It was conceptualized to bring together all the tribes of Benguet to
share their cultures, traditions, and successes.
Kapi/Kapi Festival. This festival celebrates the coffee culture of the
province, highlighting the importance of coffee in Benguet’s economy.
Strawberry Festival (La Trinidad, Benguet). A celebration to promote the
region’s strawberries through a parade, street dancing, trade fair, and
strawberry picking.
Begnas (Kankanaey of Benguet). This is conducted to show gratitude to the
spirits for a bountiful harvest and to ask for guidance and protection for the
next planting season.
UNIT 2. WORLDVIEW
Overview
You will explore the daily lives of the Benguet community, understanding
their interactions with the divine and nature. As you navigate through this
enriching unit, you will engage in a variety of activities to gain a deeper
respect and appreciation for this distinct cullture.
Lesson 1. Customary Spiritual Beliefs and Value System
I. Introduction
Welcome to an exploration of the customary spiritual beliefs and value
system of the ethnolinguistic groups of Benguet! This rich tapestry of belief
encompasses a multitude of deities, spirits, and cultural practices deeply
woven into everyday life. Guided by this lesson, you will dive deep into
understanding these traditions, their importance, and how they shape the
worldviews of the indigenous peoples of Benguet.
The Benguet people’s spiritual beliefs and value system inform their
worldviews and customs, involving the belief in benevolent gods and specific
rituals for their invocation. (Lewis, 1992). They believe in unseen beings or
spirits originating from the skyworld and the Underworld, exerting influence
over hUmans (Sacla, 1987; Baucas, 2003).
Spirits are categorized into those associated with people (living or dead) and
those related to natural entities like forests, rivers, and the underworld
(Baucas, 2003). Deities have distinct specialties, and the intervention of a
deity requires a priest (manbunung) to recite the right prayers and present
appropriate offerings (Lewis, 1992).
Kabunyan is the supreme unseen god with power over other gods and spirits
(Baucas, 2003). Spiritual leaders, or native priests, play a crucial role in the
community. They perform rituals, interpret omens, provide comfort and
healing, and give thanks to deities (Sacla, 1987).
The Inayan value system speaks to the interconnectedness of all things,
influencing conduct, ethics, and values within family, community, and the
environment. This system encourages respect for nature and promotes social
values like compassion, cooperation, and harmony with the environment
(Province of Benguet, 2021).
There is an unwritten law (lawa, pidjew/pi’jew, paniyew/panyew, or Inayan)
that supports peaceful relationships and discourages acts harmful to others
or the environment. It is based on the fear of offending perceived beings and
reinforces responsibility, respect, and goodness (Province of Benguet, 2021).
Lesson 2. Rituals and Ceremonies
I. Introduction
This lesson focuses on the rituals, and ceremonies of the Benguet people of
the Philippines, which includes unique practices such as mummification.
Understanding these traditions will allow you to appreciate and explore their
culture in its proper context.
Benguet peoples have long followed unwritten customary laws, which
regulate various aspects of life such as inheritance, marriage, and crime
detection and punishment, with some variations between the different
ethnolinguistic groups (Sacla, 1987; Moss, 1920). Notable Benguet rituals
include the following (Province of Benguet, 2021):
1. Peshit/Pedit: A series of celebrations performed by the wealthy class for
increased prestige and social recognition
2. Lawit and Kafi: Performed after a burial for the protection of the living
relatives
3. Ngilin: A ritual of mourning observed after a marriage or death
4. Sepdat and Timungaw: Healing rituals performed by the
mansip-ok/mansib-ok and the mambunong
5. Keshaw/Kedaw: Rituals to cure illness caused by discontented spirits of
dead relatives
6. Pakde/Pakshel, Forest Management, and Diyaw, which show respect
for nature
7. Ubbo or Alluyon/Aduyon, Dang-as or Da-ngah, and Tongtong,
which show respect for others
8. Mummification is a practice of the Benguet people, specifically the
Ibaloy. Reserved for the elite, this long ritual process uses salts, herbs, and
fire, and usually takes up to two years (Balangcod, 2017; UNESCO, 2004;
UNESCO, 2006).
Benguet people also have unique courtship and marriage practices, such as
Kalon/Tomok and Kaising that involve parental involvement and agreement
(Northern Dispatch, 2004; Igualdo, 1989).
Health, illnesses, and healing among the Benguet people are knotted with
spiritual beliefs and practices, involving deities, rituals, and intervention of
the mansip-ok and mambunong.
Examples of Benguet’s Indigenous Healing Practices:
1. Selshey ni Sakit/ Keshow (Ibaloy): This is a ritual to ward-off
diseases, misfortunes, or strained relations. It involves offerings of
Tapey (rice wine), tobacco, and a black pig, along with a prayer by the
mambunong. The ritual has been performed recently to drive away the
Covid-19 virus (NCIP, 2021).
2. Aspol (Karao): This ritual is performed to heal someone who is
unconscious, unaware, or insane. It is believed that the person’s soul
was taken by bad spirits. The ritual involves offerings of farm tools,
chicken, and Tapey (rice wine), and a prayer by the mambunong for
the return of the lost soul and restoration of the sound mind (NCIP,
2021).

UNIT 3. TECHNOLOGICAL FEATURES

Overview
In this unit, you will explore the richness and diversity of Benguet’s
culture, and the transformation of traditional land ownership concepts
in the Cordillera region. You will explore Benguet’s textiles, arts, and
crafts, understand their historical influences, traditional designs, and
symbolic meanings. You’ll gain insights into the clothing and tattooing
practices as well as its sociocultural significance. You’ll learn about the
traditional concept of land ownership among the indigenous Cordillera
people, how it’s rooted in their worldview and spiritual beliefs, and how
these practices have transformed. From textiles to land stewardship,
this unit illuminates the interplay of culture, tradition, and change in
these unique aspects of Philippine society.

Lesson 1. Symbols, Textiles, Arts and Crafts

I. Introduction
This lesson invites you to explore the rich cultural heritage of
Benguet’s textiles, arts, and crafts. You will uncover the historical
influences, traditional designs, and symbolic meanings behind the
clothing and tattooing practices of various Benguet groups.
Benguet textiles were influenced by traders and migrants from the lowland,
originally coming from the Ilocanos of Tagudin and Bangar, Ilocos Province
(Sacpa-ey & Tabangcura,2009). Textiles were once associated with wealth
and status. Various designs are incorporated, often featuring the figure “x”
and an eyelet design (Sacpa-ey & Tabangcura, 2009).
For the Ibaloy: Women’s skirt: divit or etten; Women’s blouse: kambal/sa-
dey/sambra; Rich women: wear red and black; Headbands, bead necklaces,
and bronze bracelets or karing; Men: wear kubal or binoslan as loin cloth.
For the Kankanaey: Similar attire to the Ibaloy with differences in color
designs; Attire: bangkodo; Men: wear g-string called wanes or kuba, a head
wraparound called bedbed, and a hat made of rattan or balaka.
For the Karao: Men: wear kogal (a g-string) and bengel (a headgear);
Women: wear a blouse called sambra and a skirt called safey.
For the Kalanguya: Men: wear a loincloth or G-string called kubal; Women:
wear woven skirts called lakba and a blouse from the same material (Sumeg-
ang, 2005).
For the Iwak: Men: wear a loincloth or kubal; Women: wear a skirt called
etten (Nueva Viscaya State University, n. D.).
One of the arts of Benguet is tattooing. It is a significant part of Benguet
culture in the past. Tattooed mummies, such as those in Kabayan and Apo
Anno of Buguias, showcase this tradition. The term for tattooing varies
among the indigenous languages: bátek (Ibaloy, Lepanto) and bátak
(Kankanaey). The term burik refers to a person “tattooed all over the body”
in the Ibaloy-speaking communities (Province of Benguet, 2021).
Lesson 2. Traditional Concept of Land Ownership and its
Transformation
I. Introduction
Land ownership is an essential concept within societies and
civilizations, particularly its roots in indigenous traditions. This
lesson delves into the traditional concept of land ownership within
the indigenous Cordillera people of the Philippines and how these
concepts have transformed over time, particularly in Benguet.

Indigenous people of the Cordillera view land as equivalent to life, both

being gifts from the Creator personified as Kabunian, Lumauig, Umayayong,
Mah-nongan, or Wigan for the Ifugaos (Molintas, 2004). In Benguet, land was
granted by Kabunyan for cultivation, care, and sustenance, encapsulating all
resources below and above the earth's surface. The Ibaloy traditionally based
economic and ritual activities on the “primi occupanti” principle, which
means boundaries were established through improvements and resource
exploitation in a particular geographic area (Prill-Brett, 2015). Traditional
Ibaloys engaged in wet-rice agriculture, swidden farming, mining, hunting,
and fishing. The 'baknang' or rich employed others to help with animal care,
ritual preparation, land tilling, and other tasks (Albano, 2017). Land use
depended on the occupant and the favors they received from various gods
and spirits (Hamada-Pawid, 1983).
Forest conservation systems and practices in the Cordillera are unique to
each community but share many similarities. A forest lot or “Chontog”
among the Karaos in Bokod, Benguet, was communally managed and
included several specific use areas: kadasan (mossy forest), kejowan (pine
forest), budusan/pastolan (pastureland), nikayan (food gathering area), Uma
(shifting cultivation system), and payew (rice fields) (Ngohayon et.al., 2015).
Conversion of forests to agricultural lands for commercial vegetable farming
and logging for lumber, driven by increasing needs and wants, have eroded
the indigenous way of life and led to environmental impacts (Prill-Brett,
2015). However, despite the changes, the traditional concept of land in
Benguet as a shared resource that cannot be sold or used as collateral
persists, with the expectation that it must be passed on to one's heirs
(Hamada-Pawid, 1983).

Lesson 3. Engineering and Architecture

I. Introduction
This lesson will delve into the traditional practices of the Benguet People in
engineering and architecture. You will examine the various indigenous
materials employed in construction, taking a look at their sustainably built
housing and mining practices, alongside the innovative methods they utilized
in their rich cultural environment.
Engineering
Traditional Ibaloy houses (balai and baeng) are built near farms and fields on
posts (tokod) about five feet from the ground, typically consisting of one
room with a door but no windows. Wealthy families (baknang) use wooden
floors (chit-al) and walls (chingching), sourced from abundant local pine
trees. In contrast, less wealthy families employ bark bamboo for floors and
walls, and cogon grass for roofs.
Lode Mining involves using fire-tempered wood or steel, sometimes
lengthened with a wooden handle, to dig along gold-bearing veins. Tunnels
are made by building a fire against the face of rocks and dashing cold water
on the heated surface.
Placer Mining involves seeking a section of a gold-carrying waterway,
constructing an embankment, and controlling water flow through a canal
that allows stones and sand to flow toward a sieve, separating dirt from
sand.

Architecture
Benguet architecture is characterized by the use of local materials such as
wood, stone, and thatch, reflecting the environment’s influence and
sustainable building practices.
Abundant pine trees provide material for wooden floors and walls in
wealthier households, while less affluent families use bark bamboo for the
same. Cogon grass is used for roofing. Traditional Ibaloy houses are
elevated, built on posts about five feet from the ground, and are Single-room
structures with doors but no windows. Usually, houses have fenced yards to
deter animals.

UNIT 4. POLITICAL FEATURES

Overview
This unit offers an in-depth exploration of the unique indigenous political
systems and customary justice mechanisms of the Benguet people. You will
explore the intricacies of the governance systems and laws of the Benguet
people, examining the role of various institutions such as the council of
elders, the abonan, and conflict resolution. This unit will also focus on the
process of Tongtongan or tavtaval as a platform for decision-making. You will
study mechanisms like Tongtong and sapata, their principles, processes, and
how they are employedin the resolution of disputes. This unit aims to provide
a rich understanding of the indigenous political structures and justice
practices that shape the societies in Benguet.

Lesson 1. Indigenous Governance and Laws

I. Introduction
This lesson presents an insightful examination of the unique cultural
dynamics of the indigenous governance systems and laws of the Benguet
people. This provides you a vivid overview of the governance institutions
such as the council of elders (yangkaama or Yangkabahkol), abonan, and the
Ibaloy People’s Council of Elders. It also highlights the concept of
Tongtongan or tavtaval and how it serves as a platform for decision-making
and conflict resolution.
Indigenous peoples’ culture significantly impacts their governance systems,
binding individuals to formal and informal mechanisms of social control and
organization (Buendia &, Brillantes, n. D.). The Karao people have a council
of elders called yangkaama or Yangkabahkol that governs their ancestral
domain. The abonan is an indigenous institution where elders make
decisions on ancestral domain issues and hold rituals (NCIP, 2021).
The Ibaloy People’s Council of Elders includes people from all socio-economic
backgrounds. They continue to follow their customary governance system for
societal organization and decision-making. In Kabayan, any wise, old
individual can join the Tongtongan or tavtaval (dialogue) gathering, whereas,
among the Kalanguya, the Tongtong is headed by respected elders known as
nangkaama. Any elder violating community customs can lose their status
(Province of Benguet, 2021).
Lesson 2. Administration of Justice
I. Introduction
This lesson will delve into the fascinating realm of customary justice systems
practiced by the Benguet people. We will explore the unique mechanisms
employed by these people such as Tongtong and sapata, their principles,
processes, and applicability. These practices provide rich insights into how
societies can resolve disputes through consensus, restoration of
relationships, and community involvement.
The Ibaloy People’s Council of Elders use their customary justice system for
conflict resolution, often settling disputes amicably through elders (Buendia
and Brillantes, 2015).
The Kankana-ey people, on the other hand, practice Sapata, where in the
absence of strong evidence or witnesses, the accused and the accuser swear
to adi-kaila (unseen, higher entities) and let them decide the guilt (Adonis,
2011).
Tongtong, a traditional dispute resolution practice, is used to settle disputes
within the community, including land boundary disputes and other crimes.
The practice involves a gathering of elders who resolve the conflict, often
resulting in penalties such as feeding the arbiters or the community
(Cordillera Schools Group, Inc., 2003). Tongtong is used to resolve various
cases, including relationship conflicts, property matters, and behavior-
related issues (Rice, 1974).
Common principles of the Tongtong observed among ethnolinguistic groups
of Benguet include: immediate, final and executory judgment; public
hearings with everyone invited to express their opinions; immediate
restoration of broken relationships through community celebrations; and
involvement of the guilty party’s kin in the payment of fines (Province of
Benguet, 2021). The Tongtongan or tavtaval aims to resolve conflicts
through dialogue rather than establishing guilt and severing relationships.
Penalties are enforced through customary methods such as the butchering of
animals. The conduct of Tongtong includes: initiation by the offended party;
public narration of the case by both parties; presentation of opinions by the
elders leading to a consensus; finalization of the consensus decision and
immediate enforcement through community celebration (Rice, 1974).