Topics/ instructions 2nd test 20%

El examen es de ejecución: Prueba oral

1. Para la parte oral, deben mencionar, desarrollar, explicar al menos 3 conceptos acerca de
Programming Fundamentals, explicar sus ideas por al menos 1 minuto.

2. Robotics, explicar la preguntas

What is Robotics?

What are some of the common types of robots? (3)

What industries are using robotics? (3)

Fundamental Programming Concepts

The following are six basic programming concepts:

1. Variable declaration

Variables are containers for storing values. The variable declaration indicates that the operating system is going
to reserve a piece of memory with that variable name. You can define a variable with alphabets, digits, and
underscores. Variable names can start with an alphabet or an underscore but cannot start with a digit. Some
variable types across several programming languages are:

• Constant variable: You can use constant variables to store data whose value doesn't change
throughout the program.

• Global variable: You can declare global variables outside a function. These variables are accessible
throughout the program.

• Class variable: You can access class variables within a specified class. These variables are accessible
by specifying their class names.

• Instance variable: You can declare instance variables inside a class but outside a method. These
variables are accessible throughout the class in which you've declared them.

• Local variable: You can declare local variables in classes, methods, or instances. You can access these
variables only within the specified class or method.

2. Control structures

A control structure specifies the flow of control in a program. Analyzing certain parameters and conditions
determines the flow direction of a program. Control structures make it easier to understand a flow of logic when
developing algorithms or writing programs. There are three basic types of control structures:

• Sequential logic: The flow of a program executes in a specific order without skipping, jumping, or
switching to another block of code.

• Selection logic: A condition determines whether a block of code gets executed or skipped. Common
examples include if and else-if.

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 • Iteration logic: A block of code repeats a fixed number of times to achieve the desired result. Common
examples include for and while loop.

3. Data structures

A data structure provides an effective way to store and retrieve data. There are various data structures that
computer programmers can use to complete tasks and run applications. These are some common data
structures used in software development:

• Arrays: Arrays organize data by storing similar elements together and using contiguous memory
allocation. You can use arrays to store an ordered list of items.

• Stacks: Stacks are linear structures that follow a last-in, first-out (LIFO) order for executing operations.
You can use stacks to implement backtracking algorithms.

• Queues: The queue is a linear structure that follows a first-in, first-out (FIFO) order for executing
operations. You can use them in mail queues, CPU scheduling, and first-come, first-serve (FCFS)
scheduling.

• Linked lists: Linked lists are linear data structures that use pointers to link elements as opposed to
contiguous memory locations. You can use them to implement stacks, queues, and graphs.

• Binary trees: Binary trees are non-linear structures that contain nodes that have two possible values or
directions. You can use binary trees to represent hierarchy and determine structural relationships in
data.

• Graphs: Graphs contain nodes and edges connected to one another. You can use these data structures
to study maps, resource allocation in operating systems, and social media networks.

4. Object-oriented programming

Object-oriented programming is based on the concept of objects and classes where an object may contain data
in the form of attributes and methods. Classes are user-defined blueprints or prototypes from which you can
create objects. For example, consider a class that represents a person. The person class contains attributes
such as name, date of birth, blood group, nationality, gender, and height. You can then use this class as a
blueprint to create objects where each object would represent a different person with a unique set of attributes.
Some important concepts in object-oriented programming include:

• Encapsulation: Encapsulation is the binding of data elements, such as variables and properties and
member methods, into one unit.

• Abstraction: This enables you to hide specific details about a class and provide only essential
information to the outside world. For example, the working mechanism of a web server is unknown to
the end-user, who clicks on a button and receives the required information.

• Inheritance: This is the ability to create a new class from an existing class. For example, you can create
a child class which inherits all the properties of its parent class and has its own set of additional
properties and methods.

• Polymorphism: Using polymorphism, you can access objects of different types using the same
interface where each object provides its own implementation.

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5. Debugging

Debugging is the process of removing errors from computer programs that allow software development and
engineering teams to produce functioning software. Through debugging, they can examine individual sections of
code to ensure that the program works as intended. Below is a list of possible programming errors:

Syntax error

A syntax error occurs when there is an erroneous sequence of characters or tokens in the code that doesn't
follow the syntax of a programming language. These may include indentation errors, missing brackets, extra
commas, and misspelt commands. Programming tools detect these errors at compile time and display the line
number and type of error, along with the error description. You can review the error description and modify the
code so that it follows the right syntax.

Logical errors

A logical error occurs when there is a flaw in the algorithm or logic of the code, which either halts the execution
of a program or produces a wrong output. You encounter logical errors only during run-time since there are no
errors in the code's syntax. For example, wrongly initializing a variable can cause a logical error in the code.

Latent errors

Latent errors, also known as hidden errors, arise when you use a specific set of data as input to the program.
When you forget to account for an outlier or edge case, a program can fail or produce incorrect results. For
example, you may have created a program that accepts users' dates of birth but does not account for characters
or negative numbers an end-user may enter incorrectly. Here, the program may either halt its execution or
crash.Related: Understanding the Difference Between Coding vs. Programming

6. Programming tools

Integrated development environments (IDEs) are applications that allow programmers to write, compile, and
execute code. IDEs provide a central interface that contains tools which facilitate code completion, code
compilation, debugging, and syntax highlighting. Some IDEs also allow you to add plugins, enabling you to
navigate the framework codebase and add your custom classes and features. You can use IDEs for:

• Writing code: You can use IDEs to write and edit program code to complete a set of tasks.

• Compiling code: IDEs compile code by translating human-readable code to a format that is
understandable by the computer.

• Debugging code: IDEs help you detect errors in a code and make fixes.

• Monitoring resources: You can monitor various parameters such as disk space, resource consumption,
memory usage, free space on the disk, and cache memory, which help you optimize your code to run
faster and more efficiently.

• Building automation tools: Some IDEs also provide automated tools for development tasks.

Tips to improve programming skills

Here are some tips to improve your programming skills:

• Take additional courses. Consider taking additional courses to enhance your programming skills and
credential in the IT field. Training courses include practice tests, quizzes, and capstone projects that can
help improve your skills.
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 • View source-code. It's a good practice to review the source code of modules to gain insight into their
design structure and implementation procedure. This assists you in designing your own custom module
for a program.

• Work on mini-projects. By working on end-to-end projects, you get to learn the overall structure of a
program, along with best coding practices and optimization techniques. A project involves various
phases, such as the collection of data, preparing the data for analysis, developing the algorithm, testing
the code, and deploying it.

• Take part in coding competitions. Competitive coding can enhance your algorithmic skills and
problem-solving abilities. You can also learn more about data structures and discrete mathematics
through competitive coding.

• Follow other programmers. You can also review the code-base of other programmers on various
platforms, such as GitHub or Kaggle. This allows you to improve your programming skills and stay
updated with the latest IT developments.

3. Deben leer un párrafo que esta al final de este documento, deben estudiar la pronunciación, se
llama: What is process automation?

Robotics
What is Robotics?
In simple terms, robotics combines science, engineering, and technology to design, construct, operate, and use
machines programmed to replicate, substitute, or assist humans in completing tasks of varying complexity.
These machines are known as robots.

Robots have a long history, dating back to ancient Greece; notably, the first digital-operated and programmable
robot debuted in the mid-twentieth century. Robotics quickly took over key industries like automotive
manufacturing, with early spot-welding robot prototypes used in General Motors facilities in 1961. Throughout
the years, robotics has developed increasingly sophisticated machines to benefit a wide range of industries.

Today, robots are in use everywhere around the globe, from college clubs to Fortune 100s. Companies and
individuals alike are harnessing the power of robotics more than ever before, with the value of the Global
Robotics Market rising to over 27 billion USD in 2020.

What are some of the common types of robots?

The most common types of robots include:

Autonomous Mobile Robots (AMRs)

Using sophisticated sensors, artificial intelligence, and machine learning, autonomous mobile robots
(AMRs) can support many tasks, including delivering items, carrying out safety and security checks, inventory
automation, rescue missions, crop harvesting, and even space exploration.

Automated Guided Vehicles (AGVs)

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As a form of autonomous mobile robots, automated guided vehicles (AGVs) are movable robots capable of
navigating mapped routes via wires on a floor, radio waves, cameras, magnets, or lasers. These robots have
several applications, including transporting heavy materials in factories and warehouses.

Articulated Robots

One of the main features of an articulated robot is rotary joints that can range from simple two-jointed
structures to complex systems of multiple interacting joints and materials. The articulated robot is a typical type
of industrial robot and often resembles a human arm.

Humanoids

A humanoid robot resembles a generic human body form. The specialized design is typically used for mimicking
human motions and interactions. A common use case of humanoid robots is automating tasks to increase
efficiency and cost-savings.

Cobots

A cobot is a contracted term for a collaborative robot. These robots work side-by-side with human workers. They
differ from other robots because their function is not intended to do work in place of human employees. Often
they are compact and perform a variety of tasks in the metal industry, automotive, electronics, laboratories, and
hospitals.

What industries are using robotics?

Many industries are using robotics to benefit their operations. Some of the most popular industries are:

Agriculture

Robotics has become a cost-effective method for agricultural businesses to meet growing global demand.
Farmers deploy specialized autonomous robots to perform routine tasks like planting, pest and weed
management, and harvesting.

Construction

Robots assist construction teams with autonomous technologies that support efficiency, accuracy, and safety
on job sites. Emerging developments in robotics are helping construction companies operate massive
construction machinery like diggers and dozers autonomously and even complete specialized tasks like
welding, drilling, and brick-laying.

Energy

The energy industry has turned to robots for inspecting and maintaining the security of remote sites. As a result,
robotics has played a significant role in the increasing affordability of clean energy by decreasing system
installation and maintenance costs.

Healthcare

The healthcare industry has turned to robots to free its employees from monotonous and repetitive tasks like
cleaning, delivery, dispensing medications, and hospital logistics. Robots can also perform more complex tasks
like surgery, rehabilitation, and diagnostics. As the robotics industry advances, more sophisticated machines
are in development to improve the efficiency of medical professionals and the quality of patient care.

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Manufacturing

One of the earliest adopters of robotics, manufacturing uses robots to increase workforce efficiency, offload
monotonous or dangerous tasks, and enable human workers to focus on more complex tasks.

Shipping & Delivery

Robotics has made a significant impact on managing logistics for shipping and delivering goods. For example,
many robotics companies deploy autonomous delivery bots fleets to complete the last-mile delivery processes
for supermarkets, grocery stores, restaurants, and more.

Mining

In recent years, mining companies began to use autonomous devices for surveillance, information gathering,
and analysis in the mining industry. For example, autonomous machines can navigate closed or abandoned
mines for precious raw materials while providing a safer work environment for human minors.