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WASTE PROBLEMS
AND MANAGEMENT IN
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
WASTE PROBLEMS
AND MANAGEMENT IN
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
Edited by
Umair Riaz, PhD
Shazia Iqbal, PhD
Moazzam Jamil, PhD
First edition published 2023
Apple Academic Press Inc. CRC Press
1265 Goldenrod Circle, NE, 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW,
Palm Bay, FL 32905 USA Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 USA
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© 2023 by Apple Academic Press, Inc.
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and explanation without intent to infringe.
Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication
Title: Waste problems and management in developing countries / edited by Umair Riaz, PhD, Shazia Iqbal, PhD,
Moazzam Jamil, PhD.
Names: Riaz, Umair, editor. | Iqbal, Shazia, editor. | Jamil, Moazzam, editor.
Description: First edition. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: Canadiana (print) 20220285152 | Canadiana (ebook) 20220285179 | ISBN 9781774910542 (hardcover) |
ISBN 9781774910559 (softcover) | ISBN 9781003283621 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Refuse and refuse disposal—Developing countries.
Classification: LCC TD790 .W37 2023 | DDC 363.72/8091724—dc23
Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Names: Riaz, Umair, editor. | Iqbal, Shazia, editor. | Jamil, Moazzam, editor.
Title: Waste problems and management in developing countries / Umair Riaz, Shazia Iqbal, Moazzam Jamil.
Description: First edition. | Palm Bay, FL : Apple Academic Press Inc., [2023] | Includes bibliographical references and
index. | Summary: “This new volume offers effective solutions to the mismanagement of waste, particularly in developing
countries, by providing an understanding of different types of wastes, their generation, and use of advanced technologies
for waste management, and by focusing on integrating the technical and regulatory complexities of waste management.
Waste Problems and Management in Developing Countries provides a comprehensive overview of the characterization,
issues, and regulatory development of waste management for sustainable solutions and prevention techniques. It covers
the various types of pollution, including pollution from plastics, industrial activities, metals, livestock, healthcare, food
loss and waste, etc. It explores new techniques for thermal and radioactive waste management and includes such methods
as vermicomposting and composting for organic wastes management and profitable use. The volume also looks at the
role of modern technologies and legislation measures to manage biosolid waste. The volume includes numerous data
sets obtained from various surveys and highlights special categories of waste that may not fit precisely into either RCRA
Subtitle D (solid wastes) or Subtitle C (hazardous wastes). Academicians, researchers, and students will find the volume
to be a comprehensible volume about waste management and its diversity, exploration, exploitation, and management
strategies”-- Provided by publisher.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022031835 (print) | LCCN 2022031836 (ebook) | ISBN 9781774910542 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781774910559
(paperback) | ISBN 9781003283621 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Refuse and refuse disposal--Developing countries. | Factory and trade waste--Developing countries.
Classification: LCC TD790 .W35 2023 (print) | LCC TD790 (ebook) | DDC 363.72/8091724--dc23/eng/20220912
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022031835
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022031836
ISBN: 978-1-77491-054-2 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-77491-055-9 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-00328-362-1 (ebk)
About the Editors
Umair Riaz, PhD, is working as an Assistant

Professor at Department of Soil and Environmental
Sciences, MNS-University of Agriculture, Multan,
Pakistan. Dr. Riaz also served Punjab Agriculture
Research Department as a Scientific Officer for 6
years, specializing in waste management, metal
toxicology, phytochemistry, and phytoremediation.
Dr. Riaz’s research interests are related to mineralogy
studies with emphasis on plant nutrition. He has
supervised graduate and postgraduate students of
environmental sciences for the past the years. He is the author of more than 50
research papers and book chapters, and he has presented and participated in
numerous state, national, and international conferences, seminars, workshops,
and symposia. Dr. Riaz has worked as a research associate in Higher Education
Commission (HEC) funded projects regarding field studies. He has received
many awards, appreciations, and recognitions for his services to the science of
soil, water, pesticide, and fertilizer testing analysis. He has also served as an
editorial board member and reviewer of international journals.
Shazia Iqbal, PhD, is an Assistant Professor in the

Department of Soil and Environmental Sciences,
College of Agriculture, University of Sargodha,
Pakistan. She specializes in rhizosphere and phos
phorus availability to plants. She conducted her
research work on the effects of rhizosphere proper
ties and microbial community on phosphorus avail
ability. She has published many papers in national
and international journals and has published more
than 10 book chapters with international publishers.
She also worked as a reviewer of international journals. She has presented
her research work at many national and international seminars, workshops,
vi About the Editors
symposia, and conferences and is a member of the International Soil Science

Society. She is an active participant in national and international science
activities. She recently completed her PhD in soil sciences at the Univer
sity of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan. During her academic era, she has
received many certificates and awards of merit.
Moazzam Jamil, PhD, is Professor (Chairman)/

Registrar at the Department of Soil Science at
Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Pakistan. Dr.
Jamil has expertise in soil fertility and plant nutrition.
He has published more than 100 research papers and
book chapters in well-reputed journals and books.
Dr. Jamil supervised more than 40 graduate and
postgraduate students. He is the recipient of several
fellowships at both national and international levels.
He also served as an Agricultural Officer (Lab) at the Soil and Water Testing
Laboratory for Research, Bahawalpur. Currently, he is involved with a number
of international research projects with various government organizations. He
has organized international conferences, workshops, and seminars. He is a
member of various national and international societies and has served as a
reviewer and editor for professional journals.
Contents
Contributors.............................................................................................................ix
Abbreviations .........................................................................................................xiii
Preface .................................................................................................................. xvii
PART I: Waste Generation in Developing Countries ..........................................1

1. Solid Waste Generation and Its Characteristics ..........................................3
Laila Shahzad, Asma Mansoor, and Syed Mustafa Ali
2. Mismanagement of Waste in Developing Countries ..................................31

Muhammad Ameen, Muhammad Anwar-Ul-Haq, Muhammad Irfan Sohail,
Fatima Akmal, and Ayesha Siddiqui
3. Sustainable Management of Waste in Developing Countries: Insight

into Sustainability and Waste Management: Why It Is Needed?.............73
Laila Shahzad, Asma Yasin, Faiza Sharif, and Muhammad Umer Hayyat
4. Problems and Challenges Associated with Waste:

Waste Prevention Techniques ......................................................................99
Tariq Mehmood, Saira Bibi, Afzal Ahmed Dar, Muhammad Aammar Tufail,
Muhammad Sohaib, Umair Riaz, Ghulam Rasool, Anam Ashraf,
Awais Shakoor, and Mukkaram Ejaz
PART II: Waste Categories, Bases, Pollution Potential,

and Management.........................................................................................137
5. Environmental Sources and Threats of Plastic Pollution to
Developing Worlds and Eco‑Friendly Solutions ......................................139
Fatima Akmal, Muhammad Irfan Sohail, Muhammad Azhar, Yasir Hameed,
Jibbing Xiong, Muhammad Farhan, and Ayesha Siddiqui
6. Industrial Waste, Types, Sources, Pollution Potential, and

Country‑Wise Comparisons.......................................................................169
Hafiz Abdul Kareem, Sobia Riaz, Haleema Sadia, and Rizwan Mehmood
7. Livestock Waste, Types, Sources, Pollution Potential, and

Country‑Wise Comparisons.......................................................................205
Sobia Riaz, Rizwan Mehmood, Hafiz Abdul Kareem, and Haleema Sadia
viii Contents
8. Radioactive Wastes: Management by Potential Treatments ...................233

Aryadeep Roychoudhury and Swarnavo Chakraborty
9. Health Care Waste: Pollution Potential from Generation to

Disposal, Management, and Treatment ....................................................257
Sami Ullah Qadir, Vaseem Raja, and Naseer Ahmad Dar
10. Food Loss and Waste, Types, Sources, Pollution Potential, and
Country‑Wise Comparison ........................................................................291
Samina Khalid, Muhammad Irfan Ullah, and Aman Ullah Malik
11. Thermal Waste Management Techniques .................................................329

Muhammad Sajid, Muhammad Irfan Ahamad, Adnan ul Rehman,
Muhammad Saif Ur Rehman, and Muhammad Mohsin Azim
PART III: Modern Techniques for Waste Management .................................363

12. Vermicomposting: A Sustainable and Environment‑Friendly
Approach for Organic Waste Management..............................................365
Zubair Aslam, Safdar Bashir, Korkmaz Belliturk, Sami-ur-Rehman,
Lixin Zhang, Qamar uz Zaman, and Ali Ahmad
13. Composting for Organic Wastes Management and Profitable Use ........403
Muhammad Ashir Hameed, Abdul Qadir, Zia Ur Rahman Farooqi,
Sadia Younas, Fazila Younas, and Muhammad Mahroz Hussain
14. Role of Modern Technologies and Legislation Measures to

Manage Biosolid Waste...............................................................................431
Tabinda Athar, Anamika Pandey, Mohd. Kamran Khan, Zulfiqar Ahmad Saqib,
Muhammad Salman Sarwar, Aqsa, Umer Farooq, Mehmet Hamurcu,
and Sait Geizgin
Index .....................................................................................................................463
Contributors
Ali Ahmad
Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture, Agriculture University Road, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Muhammad Irfan Ahamad

Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Earth Surface System and Environmental Carrying Capacity,
College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Northwest University, Xi’an 710127, China
Fatima Akmal
Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad 38040, Pakistan
Syed Mustafa Ali

Health Informatics, University of Manchester, UK
Muhammad Ameen
Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture and Environment, The Islamia University of
Bahawalpur, 63100, Pakistan; E-mail: [email protected]
Aqsa
Anam Ashraf
School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
Muhammad Azhar
Muhammad Mohsin Azim

Department of Chemistry, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
Zubair Aslam
Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture, Agriculture University Road, Faisalabad, Pakistan;
E-mail: [email protected]
Tabinda Athar
Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad 38000, Pakistan;
Safdar Bashir
Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of Agriculture, Agriculture University Road,
Faisalabad, Pakistan
Korkmaz Belliturk
Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, Namık Kemal Üniversitesi,
Kampüs Cad No:1, 59030 Süleymanpaşa/Tekirdağ, Turkey
Saira Bibi
Pak-Austria Fachhochschule, Institute of Applied Science and Technology, Mang, Haripur,
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa 24421, Pakistan
x Contributors
Swarnavo Chakraborty
Department of Biotechnology, St. Xavier’s College (Autonomous), 30, Mother Teresa Sarani,
Kolkata 700016, West Bengal, India
Naseer Ahmad Dar

Department of Environmental Sciences, Govt. Degree College Shopian 192303, Jammu and Kashmir, India
Afzal Ahmed Dar
School of Environment Science and Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology,
Xian 710000, China
Mukkaram Ejaz
School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Lanzhou Jiaotong University, Lanzhou 730070,
Gansu, People’s Republic of China
Muhammad Farhan
Department of Geodesy and Survey Engineering, College of Earth Science and Engineering,
Jianging Campus Hohai University, Nanjing, People’s Republic of China
Umer Farooq
Zia Ur Rahman Farooqi

Sait Geizgin
Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, Selcuk University, Konya 42130, Turkey
Muhammad Ashir Hameed

Yasir Hameed
Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Ecosystem Health,
College of Environmental and Resources Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058,
People’s Republic of China
Mehmet Hamurcu
Muhammad Anwar‑Ul‑Haq
Muhammad Umer Hayyat

Sustainable Development Study Center, GC University Katchery Rd, Lahore 54000, Pakistan
Muhammad Mahroz Hussain

Hafiz Abdul Kareem

College of Grassland Agricultural Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, United States;
[email protected]
Samina Khalid
Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS University Islamabad, Vehari Campus, Punjab,
Pakistan; E-mail: [email protected]
Mohd. Kamran Khan

Contributors xi
Aman Ullah Malik

Postharvest Research and Training center, Institute of Horticultural Sciences,
University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Punjab, Pakistan
Asma Mansoor
Visiting Lecturer Environmental Science NUML, Lahore, Pakistan
Rizwan Mehmood
Stored Grain Management Cell, Department of Entomology, University of Agriculture Faisalabad 38040,
Pakistan
Tariq Mehmood
College of Environment, Hohai University Nanjing 210098, China; E-mail: [email protected]
Anamika Pandey
Abdul Qadir
Sami Ullah Qadir

Department of Environmental Sciences, Govt. Degree College, Kokernag 192221, Jammu and Kashmir,
India; E-mail: [email protected]
Vaseem Raja
Department of Botany, Govt. Degree College for Women’s Pulwama 192301, Jammu and Kashmir, India
Ghulam Rasool
College of Hydrology and Water Resources, Hohai University, Nanjing 210098, China
Adnan ul Rehman
Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Earth Surface System and Environmental Carrying Capacity,
College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Northwest University, Xi’an 710127, China
Muhammad Saif ur Rehman

Department of Chemical Engineering, Khwaja Fareed University of Engineering and Information
Technology, Abu Dhabi Road, Rahim Yar Khan, Pakistan
Sami‑Ur‑Rehman
College of Life Science, Northwest A&F University, 3 Taicheng Rd, Yangling District, Xianyang,
Shaanxi, China
Sobia Riaz
Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of Agriculture Faisalabad 38040, Pakistan;
Umair Riaz
MNS-University of Agriculture, Multan, Pakistan
Aryadeep Roychoudhury
Department of Biotechnology, St. Xavier’s College (Autonomous), 30, Mother Teresa Sarani,
Kolkata 700016, West Bengal, India; E-mail:[email protected]
Haleema Sadia
Department of Botany, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad 38040, Pakistan
Muhammad Sajid
Department of Materials and Chemical Engineering, Yibin University, Yibin 644000, Sichuan China;
E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
xii Contributors
Zulfiqar Ahmad Saqib

Muhammad Salman Sarwar

School of Chemical and Materials Engineering, National University of Science and Technology,
Islamabad 44000, Pakistan
Laila Shahzad
Sustainable Development Study Center, GC University Katchery Rd, Lahore 54000, Pakistan;
Awais Shakoor
Department of Environment and Soil Science, University of Lleida, Avinguda Alcalde Rovira Roure 191,
25198, Lleida, Spain
Faiza Sharif
Muhammad Sohaib
College of Food and Agricultural Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, KSA
Muhammad Irfan Sohail

Ayesha Siddiqui
Department of Botany, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad 38040, Pakistan
Muhammad Aammar Tufail

Department of Civil, Environmental and Mechanical Engineering, University of Trento, Trento 38123,
Italy
Muhammad Irfan Ullah

Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, University of Sargodha, Punjab, Pakistan
Jibbing Xiong
Jiangsu key Laboratory of Resources and Environment information Engineering,
China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China
Asma Yasin
Fazila Younas
Sadia Younas
Department of Chemistry, The Government Sadiq College Women University, Bahawalpur 63100, Pakistan
Qamar Uz Zaman
Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Lahore, 1-Km Raiwind Rd, Sultan Town, Lahore,
Punjab, Pakistan
Lixin Zhang
College of Life Science, Northwest A&F University, 3 Taicheng Rd, Yangling District, Xianyang,
Shaanxi, China
Abbreviations
AD anaerobic digestion
AEC American Earthworm Company
AIDS acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
ANP Ayubia National Park
API American Petroleum Institute
BEP best environmental practices
BOD biological oxygen demand
Ca calcium
CBMWTFs common BMW treatment facilities
CIEL Center for International Environmental Law
C:N ratio carbon: nitrogen ratio
CO carbon monoxide
CO2 carbon di oxide
COD chemical oxygen demand
CPCB Central Pollution Control Boards
CWs constructed wetlands
DAFs dissolved air flotations
DCs developing countries
DEFRA Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs
EC electrical conductivity
EDCs endocrine disrupting compounds
EEA European environment agency
EFW energy-from-wastes
EML executive management level
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
EU European Union
FAO Food and Agricultural Organization
FHL formate hydrogen lyase
FLW Food loss and waste
FSC food supply chain
FUSIONS Food Use for Social Innovation by Optimizing Waste
Prevention Strategies
FYM farmyard manure
g gram
xiv Abbreviations
GDP gross domestic product

GHGs greenhouse gases
GISs Geographic Information Systems
GIZ Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit
GNI Gross National Income
GPRS General Packet Radio Service
GSM Global System for Mobile Communications
GWI Global Waste Index
GWMO Global Waste Management Outlook
H2 hydrogen gas
HCl hydrochloric acid
HCUs health care units
HCW health care waste
HDI Human Development Index
HDPE high-density polyethene
HEC Higher Education Commission of Pakistan
HLPE High-Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition
HLW high level wastes
HRT hydraulic retention time
HTG high-temperature gasification
INWAMI United Nations Integrated Waste Management for Improved
Livelihoods
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
ISWA International Solid Waste Association
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature
IWW industrial waste water
K potassium
KCCA Kampala Capital City Authority
km−2 kilo per square meter
L liter
LCA life cycle analysis
LDPE low-density polyethylene
LFGR landfill gas recovery
LLW low level wastes
LPG liquefied petroleum gas
LTG low-temperature gasification
m meter
MBT mechanical biological treatment
Mg magnesium
Abbreviations xv
mm millimeter
MoEF Ministry of Environment and Forests
MRCO Mandatory Recycling and Composting Ordinance
MRSA methicillin resistant staphylococcus aureus
MSW municipal solid waste
MSWM municipal solid waste management
MT million metric ton
MW municipal waste
N nitrogen
NBP National Biosolids Partnership
NEP National Environmental Policy
NORM naturally occurring radioactive materials
NOx nitrogen oxides
NSSWM National Strategy for Solid Waste Management
ODA ocean dumping act
ODS ozone depleting substances
OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
OSPAR Oslo/Paris convention (for the Protection of the Marine
Environment of the North-East Atlantic)
P phosphorus
PAH polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
PBDE polybrominated diphenyl ethers
PCBs polychlorinated biphenyl
PCDFs polychlorinated dibenzofurans
PCDDs polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins
PET polyethylene terephthalate
PF phytoremediation factor
POS point of sale
POPs persistent organic pollutants
PP polypropylene
PPE personal protection equipment
PS polystyrene or styrofoam
PVC polyvinyl chloride
RBC rotating biological contactor
RCRA Resources Conservation Recovery Act
RDF refused-derived fuel
REFRESH Resource Efficient Food and Drink for the Entire Supply Chain
RFID radio-frequency identification
S sulfur
xvi Abbreviations
SAGD steam-assisted gravity drainage

SARS severe acute respiratory syndrome
SBRs sequencing batch reactors
SMEs small to medium-sized enterprises
SNF spent nuclear fuel
SOPs standard operating procedure
SOx sulfur oxides
SS suspended solids
SW solid waste
SWG solid waste generation
SWM solid waste management
TDS total dissolved solids
TF transfer factor
TRUW transuranic wastes
TWM thermal waste management
UBCs used beverage cartons
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNEP United Nation Environment Programme
US United States
USD United States Dollar
USDA-ERS United States Department of Agriculture Economic Research
Service
USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency
VOCs volatile organic compounds
WAS waste activated sludge
WCED World Commission on Environment and Development
WFD Waste Food Directive
WM waste management
WRAP Waste and Resources Action Programme
WRI World Resource Institute
WtE waste-to-energy
WWF World Wilde Fund for Nature
ZWS zero waste strategy
μm micrometer
°C degree centigrade
m-3 per meter cube
m-2 per square meter
Preface
The world population is increasing day by day and reportedly will rise to
nine billion by 2050. More population means a greater need for more daily
life necessities that will lead to more waste production. Waste is a serious
problem of today’s world as it is affecting all the biological life on planet
Earth. Environmental issues triggered by wastes are water, air, and soil
contamination, which pose threats to human health. The contemporary
research works have elaborated the hazardous physiochemical effects of
wastes on biota especially in fresh water and terrestrial living organism.
With the latest advancement in science and technology, huge amount
of biosolid waste is produced throughout the globe and is posing serious
threats to human beings, the environment, and agricultural lands. Biosolids
are rich sources of energy and nutrients, and their proper management can
help to reduce the burden on landfills, along with various other advantages.
The livestock industry provides food and livelihood and contributes to the
economy. Meanwhile it is a main cause of persistent organic compounds,
odors, and harmful gases.
Industries like tannery, pulp and paper, sugar, fertilizer, and textiles produce
heavy metal pollution that adversely affects the environment, especially the
water streams and cause serious diseases. Wastes released from healthcare
departments from patients suffering from contagious diseases spread this
infection to humans directly or indirectly through different environmental
segments if not properly handled. These infections become widespread due
to the haphazard disposal.
Radioactive wastes are produced by exploitation of radioactive materials
for the production of nuclear power in nuclear reactors, generation of nuclear
weapons. Utilities of nuclear fission reactions and other forms of nuclear
applications in the medical and research fields pose serious threats to the
environment and different forms of life existing on this planet. The use of
radioactive materials has increased every year since the last few decades,
leading to a massive accumulation of radioactive wastes in the environment.
Due to improper disposal of these wastes, exposure to humans and other
xviii Preface
living beings to harmful irradiation from these radioactive wastes has led to
the progressive rise in health issues and other potential dangers in society. It
has become necessary to ponder upon the management and proper handling
of these wastes to control the rise in harmful effects on biological life due to
exposure to these wastes.
In many parts of the world, the problem of large amounts of waste is solved
through proper waste management. But waste management has always been
a serious problem for the last few decades. Unlike developed countries, waste
management is a serious issue in developing countries, including Pakistan.
This is because of a lack in waste collection strategies and processes as well
as awareness of its environmental impacts. One can think of the need of
sustainability in waste management; however, it provides an opportunity
of handling the waste before its production. Composting of waste and then
using this compost as a nutrient source for agricultural land leads to dual
benefits but it must be established at a large commercial scale. Minimizing
or changing the consumption patterns of waste can lead to sustainable long-
term benefits of resource management of developing countries. Solutions
of waste management lay in proper collection, segregation, recycling and
reusing, and creating secondary use of collected waste. In addition to this,
handling waste properly has an opportunity to provide employment on a
large scale and will definitely generate revenue. Waste has to be seen as an
opportunity rather as a burden.
This book covers the characterization and problems, issues and regulatory
development of waste management, and the management of municipal solid
wastes, focusing on integrating the technical and regulatory complexities of
waste management, particularly in developing countries. It also addresses
hazardous wastes and their management from the perspectives of identifica
tion, transportation, and requirements for generators as well as the treatment,
storage, and disposal facilities. This book describes all the main categories
of wastes under regulation in developing countries as compared with the
developed world. It also incorporates an extensive set of problems presented
and includes numerous datasets obtained from different surveys. Special
categories of waste that may not fit precisely into either RCRA Subtitle
D (solid wastes) or Subtitle C (hazardous wastes) are highlighted in some
chapters.
Academicians, researchers, and students will find this a comprehensible
volume about waste management and its diversity, exploration, exploitation,
Preface xix
and management strategies, and thus they will find this book to meet the
requirements of training, teaching, and research.
We are extremely grateful to the authors who have contributed chapters in
this book. We express our thanks to Apple Academic Press for their coopera
tion and publication of this book.
—Umair Riaz
Shazia Iqbal
Moazzam Jamil
PART I
Waste Generation in Developing Countries
CHAPTER 1
Solid Waste Generation and

Its Characteristics
LAILA SHAHZAD1*, ASMA MANSOOR2, and SYED MUSTAFA ALI3
1
Sustainable Development Study Center, GC University Katchery Rd,
Lahore 54000, Pakistan
2
Environmental Science NUML, Lahore, Pakistan
3
Informatics, University of Manchester, UK
*
Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
This chapter provides an overview of waste generation and its characteris

tics in different developing countries. An increase in waste generation and
variety of characteristics is one of the consequences of global urbaniza
tion. Over 90% of the generated waste is often disposed of in open dump
spaces or mostly burned in low-income countries. An uncontrolled waste
generation without proper management has led to diverse environmental and
human health problems. Managing solid waste is a serious challenge to the
administration of small towns and metropolitan areas. Waste characteristics
are explained which is essential to the long-term efficient and successful
waste management policy. It is the initial step to estimate potential recovery
of materials, identify sources of waste generation, facilitate the design of
processing machineries, analyze physiochemical properties of the wastes,
and sustain the compliance with guidelines. Both qualitative and quantita
tive characteristics of generated waste depend on seasonal changes, people
lifestyle, population dynamics, geographic, and local laws. Therefore, this
Waste Problems and Management in Developing Countries. Umair Riaz, Shazia Iqbal, & Moazzam Jamil (Eds.)
© 2023 Apple Academic Press, Inc. Co-published with CRC Press (Taylor & Francis)
4 Waste Problems and Management in Developing Countries
chapter covers the depth of characteristics of solid waste generated in different

developing countries and their possible health impacts and solutions.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The definition of solid waste undergoes many changes over the time. The
framework was approved for hazardous and nonhazardous waste manage
ment programs in 1976. According to this, “solid waste” means any garbage
that includes solids, nonsoluble materials, semisolids, comprising gases and
liquids in containers resulting from domestic, mining, agriculture, industrial,
commercial, and operations activities. It is imperative to note that the solid
waste is not only limited to physical solid. Some solid wastes exist in liquid
form, others are found in semisolid, or gaseous form. In the 21st century,
some discarded things have been eliminated from the class of solid waste
like radioactive waste, domestic sewage, point source discharge, in-situ
mining, hazardous secondary waste from the petroleum industry, and coke
products (World Bank, 2020).
The waste problem is called the reflection of a society. The status of a
society is related to its economic condition, historical background, cultural
values, and environment. A complete knowledge regarding the status of
society provides a direction to resolve the waste issues. For example,
seashell mounds or kitchen waste by shellfish eaters in past give evidence
to how people in particular society lived. With the passage of time, society
becomes relatively wealthy and modern, it starts to rely on the extraction
and metabolism of large quantities of resources including energy, in order
to support the continuing population. An inevitable consequence of more
consumption of resources led to the high quantity of solid waste production.
All processes include extraction of input material, manufacture of products,
consumption of material to generate the solid wastes. As we know the laws
of thermodynamics, it stated that materials and energy can be changed from
one form to another but never demolished. In the ancient world, there is
basically zero waste produced, the reason is that the wastes of one organism
become the food for another. This natural process of recycling of materials
follows the principle of sustainability (Miller and Spoolman, 2011).
The global total magnitude of solid waste is 1.7–1.9 billion metric tonnes
(Gichamo and Gökçekuş, 2019). The generation of solid waste is anticipated
to increase to approximately 3.40 billion tonnes by the half of the 21st century
(World Bank, 2020). This quantity is high than the doubling of population
growth rate over the same time-lapse. Explicitly, waste generation and
Solid Waste Generation and Its Characteristics 5
its characteristics like physical and chemical may fluctuate at the country
level, province, city, and even within the various regions of the same city.
It also changes from high-income countries to low-income countries as the
increasing amount and complexity of solid waste linked with economy,
industries growth, and urban population has drastic problems, particularly
for developing nations (Table 1.1).
TABLE 1.1 Developing Economiesa: Rates of Growth of Real GDP.

Country 2016 2017 2018 2019b 2020c 2021c
Bangladesh d
7.1 7.3 7.9 8.1 7.8 7.1
Pakistan d
5.6 5.8 3.3 3.3 2.1 3.3
Indiad 8.2 7.2 6.8 5.7 6.6 6.3
Philippines d
6.9 6.7 6.2 5.9 6.2 6.3
Kenya 5.9 4.9 6.3 5.6 5.5 5.7
Afghanistan 2.2 2.7 2.7 3 2.7 4.3
Nepald 0.6 8.2 6.7 7.1 6.3 5.3
Ethiopia 8.5 8.1 6.8 7.3 7.5 7.4
Yemen −14.8 −5.9 2.7 1.2 3.6 4.3
Indonesia 5 5.1 5.2 5 5.1 5.2
a
World Bank data (World Bank, 2020).
b
Partly estimated.
c
Measured by UN world economic forecasting model.
d
On the basis of fiscal year.
For example, collected works have reported that the waste generation
has a positive correlation with the income level of a country. According to a
statistic, waste generation in developed countries (daily per capita) is likely
predicted to grow by 19% in 2050 than developing countries where it is
expected to grow between 40 and 50%. Studies show that the generation
of waste initially decreases as the income levels drop and then starts rising
at a faster rate with high income. The fastest-growing continents are Africa
and South Asia where total waste generation will be increasing to more than
triple and double, respectively, in 2050. In these regions, most of the solid
waste is openly discarded, and the pattern of its generation has wide conse
quences for the society health, and economy, thus needing serious actions
(World Bank, 2020). The country of Nigeria, Africa’s most populous nation,
is facing challenges related to the management of piles of waste genera
tion. Its rapidly emerging capital, Lagos, a city of 20 million population, is
known as the “garbage capital of the world.” The citizens of this city throw
away 11,000 tonnes of solid waste regularly. Meanwhile, the city struggles
to produce electrical power, sometimes they survive with only 3–4 h/day of
electricity (Ike et al., 2018).
In the modern world, in developed countries, a waste generation might
be limited because of the research in material sciences, adoption of waste
reduction approaches, and advancement in technology. On the other hand,
as we know, developing countries are lacking in financial resources, good
governance, research, and development. This may also be the reason for
difference in magnitude and characteristics of waste generation in the
developed and developing countries. We are currently experiencing it, need
to change since the solid waste is growing world problem with dramatic
social and environmental impacts (Gichamo and Gökçekuş, 2019).
This chapter explores the generation of solid waste, its characteristics,
and composition in developing countries, and also highlights the factors
determining the rate of waste generation and ways to reduce its harmful
effects.
1.2 WASTE GENERATION: A BIG PROBLEM
Solid waste generation (SWG) is emerging in every corner of the world,

particularly in all urbanized areas. SWG is known as the most challenging
problem encountered by developing nations that are suffering from drastic
environmental hazards due to high SWG. In urban cities, high generation of
solid waste stimulated the sanitary issues like water facilities, waste manage
ment, and infrastructure (Liyala, 2011)
In developing countries, the waste generation and its management by
burgeoning metropolitan cities are exploiting functions of the municipalities
and national governments. Developing countries do not have adequate waste
management regulations such as trash collection services, local, and national
organizations to handle the solid wastes. There are three reasons that explain
the failure; firstly, lack of real stakeholder participation in taking efficient
decisions and planning processes. Because their involvement is crucial for
understanding the continuously varied relationships among government
authorities, decision-makers, and social dynamics (Gichamo and Gökçekuş,
2019).
As it is a difficult process that demands cooperation between a wide range
of stakeholders. Like, government bodies are failed to implement the waste
minimization practices and collaborate with municipal bodies in determining
the sites for waste management. It is the dilemma that municipalities are
not having a proper organizational system with well-trained staff. Politi
cians are not leading their role in promoting waste management campaigns.
Improper role of academia influence the culture of solid waste management.
Public participation is hardly seen because of the lack of awareness and their
unwillingness. NGOs and private institutions in developing countries have
sufficient funds to resolve solid waste issues (Guan, 2011).
Secondly, the lack of knowledge that the system is composed of different
level hierarchy like generation points, trash collection, transport, transfer,
treatment, and final disposal destination. Thirdly, identifying that there
are external factors influencing the system such as financial, institutional,
environmental, technical, sociocultural, and legal (Dhokhikah and Trihadin
ingrum, 2012). Developing countries are characterized by poor information,
inadequate data, and difficulties obtaining real figures on their waste quan
titative analysis (Friedland et al., 2011). There are multiple reasons such as
reduced funding, shortage of management skills, priorities to be solved, and
inefficient local authorities (Khair et al., 2018). Data reliability and gathering
from developing countries are generally difficult to attain due to limited open
data sources, mismanagement of waste collection, and rural–urban migration
inflow at the national level (Kawai and Tasaki, 2016).
1.2.1 PHILIPPINES
Philippines, a developing country, is ranked as the third-largest producer of

solid waste among the countries of Southeast Asian. Approximately, every
individual will be making five extra kilograms of waste by 2030 (Romero,
2020). Manila is the capital of the Philippines and is setting the worst example
among developing countries. Its citizens generate an estimated 8000 tonnes
of garbage on daily basis. Unfortunately, the government being a crucial
stakeholder was unable to collect the waste, aware the people about waste
reduction techniques. This resulted the piles of waste at many dumping sites,
which were home for insects (flies, etc.) and animals (rats, other vermin, etc.).
The dumping sites also encouraged needy people to collect the items from
trash to earn the money for their survival. As poorest people even lived on
the dumping site in shanties that emitted methane fumes and various toxins.
Two decades ago, a bulk of trash called Payatas hit by typhoon disaster and
219 people were killed. Right after the incident, the government cleared
the site, unfortunately, a new dumping site was operated that continued to
provide a source of earning money for many scavengers (Duru et al., 2019).
1.2.2 SWEDEN
Among developed countries, Sweden set a successful example in solid waste

management as they are using garbage as a useful resource for community
development. Sweden recycles or reuses about 99% of all household waste
and converts it into energy and various products. For example, heating the
homes in winter and biogas is used in transportation and electricity genera
tion. The reason behind their success is the public participation that is very
appreciable. Further, they are educating children about the adoption of
recycling from the childhood. The manufacturing companies in many areas
take the responsibility for the proper handling of waste produced from their
products. The Swedish government encourages the producers to generate
more efficient goods that can be easily recycled. Being an EU member,
Sweden considers the environment as serious concern and also has effective
legislation for efficient resources management in the food market. At present,
food chain industry stakeholders signed an agreement as an initiative to
reduce 50% food garbage by 2030, according to the sustainable development
agenda (Swedish Cleantech, 2020). That is why Sweden has been declared
as a global leader in waste management.
1.3 CHARACTERISTICS AND COMPOSITION OF SOLID WASTE
Solid waste is categorized on the basis of its composition and sources.

The composition of solid waste includes a plastic material, paper, rubber,
leather, kitchen waste, glass, metal, garden waste, etc. The sources of the
waste encompass markets, municipal, factories, agriculture, and demoli
tion sites (Zhou et al., 2014). Often industrial waste may be governed by
environmental concerns depending on its hazardous nature like ignitable,
corrosivity, and toxicity.
1.3.1 COMPOSITION OF SOLID WASTE
The composition of waste is the physical existence of different types of

materials in solid waste. It is usually identified by conducting a standard
field survey of target areas. And samples of waste are extracted from genera
tors or final disposal locations and separated into categories of composition.
The physical composition varies across economy scenarios demonstrating
various trends of composition. High-income or developed nations produce

relatively low organic waste like 32% of total waste and also produce bulk of
dry waste that is easily recyclable such as E-waste, plastic, metal, tires, and
textiles, cover almost 51% of total waste (Sharma and Jain, 2020).
Developing countries produce 53% food waste and 56% green waste as
the GDP level decreases (Figure 1.1) (Baawain et al., 2017). Developing
countries are unable to manage rapidly changing waste composition without
adequate systems. These variations in the composition bring light on
consumption patterns, living standard, and financial status of people living
in developing countries. For example, downward shift of organic waste from
64 to 56% can be seen in Figure 1.1 (Kumar and Samadder, 2017).
FIGURE 1.1 Waste composition by income level (%).
In India, daily total waste generation is about 91.01 g per capita and only
organic waste is 74 g per capita. According to a recent study, average house
hold waste generation had a positive correlation with household income
status and education level, moreover, depicted a negative association with
the number of family members. Organic waste material comprises almost
82%, which has a high recovery rate. The volume of total organic waste is
about 232 Gg per year (Ramachandra et al., 2018).
1.3.2 SOURCES OF SOLID WASTE
Most of the solid waste arises from major anthropogenic activities and
animal actions that are thrown away as unwanted material. These can be
both organic and inorganic waste given by a society, which do not pose any
benefits to the first hand (Olukoju, 2018).
1.3.2.1 MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
Municipal solid waste (MSW) entails the combined discarded material

originated by residential areas and workplaces excluding factories, examples
are cardboard, food wastes, steel, iron, pet bottles, yard wastes, kitchen
unnecessary residue, plastics, metals, glass, and E-waste. Solid waste in the
municipality, comprises diverse and uniform wastes, determined by their
original sources such as urban, periurban regions. The generation rate of
MSW is quicker than that of urban population growth due to the increasing
demand for goods and services. In developed countries, most of MSW is
dumped in landfill sites and some hazardous waste is burned in incinerators
to kill pathogens. Many studies stated that developing countries are mainly
generated households MSW (55–80%), followed by workplaces or market
able areas (10–30%) (Nabegu, 2017). Much of it ends up in open dumps
where scavenger finds the items which they can sell for recycling and earn
money. Mostly biodegradable waste is a major fraction having economic
benefit and accounts for 54% with a moisture content of 60%. This propor
tion of waste is similar to the fraction noted in many countries such as India
40–60% (Lahiry, 2019), Nigeria 60–80% (Sridhar and Hammed, 2014), and
Philippines 61–70% (World Bank, 2020).
1.3.2.1.1 Case Study 1: Pakistan, Bangladesh, Yemen
The population of the developing country, Pakistan, is growing annually by

2.4%. Currently, Pakistan is the home for 212.2 million people and is among
the 10th most populous countries of the world. Lahore is the capital of the
province Punjab and is considered as a second metropolitan city in Pakistan.
This city has been modernized by means of an urbanization shift for stan
dard lifestyle and economy upgradation. The daily SWG would reach 7150
tonnes daily with 0.65 kg per capita (Figure 1.2). The physical components
of MSW are biodegradable, plastic, textile, diaper, and paper material (Azam
et al., 2020). The majority of big cities of Pakistan like Karachi, Lahore, and
Islamabad bear the same seasons, and some factors like geography, industry
sector, infrastructure, and living culture influence the production of solid
waste (Korai et al., 2017).
FIGURE 1.2 Solid waste generation in Lakhodair landfill, Lahore Pakistan.
Bangladesh is the country representing 160 million populations, and

29.4% out of it lives in the urban regions. They generate nearly 23,688 tonnes
of MSW on daily basis and almost 70% covers organic waste (Alam and
Qiao, 2020). According to World Bank, food waste is highest in developing
countries like Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Yemen (Figure 1.3).
1.3.2.2 INDUSTRIAL WASTE
The industrial waste is comprised of mines material, factories, poultry farms,

construction material, manufacturing processes, and supply of goods and
services. This type of waste may be solid, liquid, or gaseous including dirt,
masonry, oil, chemicals, concrete, and gravel (Azam et al., 2020).
Industrial waste is divided into two categories: nonhazardous and
hazardous waste. It is stated that nonhazardous industrial wastes have
characteristics between municipal and hazardous waste, which does not cause
a threat to public health or environment, such as cartons, plastic, metals, glass,
rock, and organic waste. As hazardous industrial waste possesses the hazard
potential, If it is managed in improper manner, depends on its concentration,
chemical, or infectious features that may contribute to or cause death or

an increase the incapacitating reversible, illness, or ecological damage. As
it is poisonous, chemically reactive, flammable, and toxic, such as medical
discarded material, dried batteries, pesticide spray, dry-cell batteries, and ash.
There are two largest groups of hazardous wastes, such as organic compounds
(pesticides, Polychlorinated biphenyls, and dioxins) and nondegradable toxic
metals (lead, mercury, and arsenic). The four chemical characteristics are used
as means for detecting hazardous potential and include ignitability, reactivity,
and toxicity (Miller and Spoolman, 2011).
FIGURE 1.3 Comparison of municipal solid waste composition.

Source: Data based on 2016: World Bank.
1.3.2.2.1 Ignitable
This kind of waste is combustible and leads to ignition. For example, solvent-
based paints, petroleum products like gasoline, detergents, and other wastes
are flammable. Mostly these are available in both liquid and solid forms.
Wood and paper can easily catch flame and erupt the combustion (World
Bank, 2020). Solid waste can be hazardous due to its ignitability potential
(Swedish Cleantech, 2020).
1.3.2.2.2 Corrosivity
These wastes are acidic or basic in nature which have pH < 2.0 or >12 and
are present in aqueous that can easily soluble flesh and metals, for example,
hydrocarbons, electroplating, sulfuric acid, oil, pesticides (Supplit et al.,
2007).
1.3.2.2.3 Reactivity
A reactive waste undergoes violent chemical reactions under normal condi

tions like lithium, sulfur batteries, and explosives. This reactive waste is
dangerous and can be explosive in reaction with water at high temperatures
or normal optimum conditions (Weltens et al., 2012).
1.3.2.2.4 Toxicity
It is the ability of a chemical to cause a living organism to undergo adverse

effects upon exposure. Toxic compounds or chemicals are found in industrial
wastes that are leached into water tables and deteriorate the drinking water
quality. These chemicals are arsenic, chromium, cadmium, and mercury
(Guan, 2011).
1.3.2.3 AGRICULTURAL WASTE
Agricultural waste products such as bagasse, corn, cotton, rice, and wheat
straw are mainly caused by the usage of agricultural practices. These
by-products have a high calorific value. Moreover, these waste products also
consist of chemical components such as ash, carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen.
However, the waste material that is primarily produced by farm shops or
vegetable packing plants is not a part of an agricultural waste.
1.3.2.4 MEDICAL WASTE
The diagnostic testing, treatment, and biological products used for humans and
animals are considered to be the leading causes for generating medical waste.
These products mainly include laboratory samples, media cultures, lancets,
syringes, body parts, and fluids. Medical wastes can have detrimental effects
on human health. However, these are not the only waste products, microbio
logical and biotechnology waste, human anatomical waste, and animal waste
are also fall in the category of medical waste (Miller and Spoolman, 2011).
1.3.2.5 E-WASTE
In developing countries, disposal of E-waste is informal that causes harmful

public health and environmental pollution problems. On the other hand,
recycling and processing of electronic waste has a great risk to employees in
developed nations. Proper precautions should be adopted to handle risks during
recycling procedures. E-wastes include tetrabromo-bisphenol A (TBBA),
chromium VI, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), lead lithium, mercury, toner dust, and
other radioactive materials. Before disposal, the above-mentioned chemical
compounds need to be treated. The diseases such as cancer, bronchitis, liver,
and kidney damage are caused by these E-waste chemicals. Humans could
be more vulnerable to environmental hazards like soil degradation and water
contamination caused by these compounds (GIZ, 2019).
1.4 FACTOR AFFECTING RATE OF WASTE GENERATION AND

CHARACTERISTICS
The quality and quantity of solid waste can be defined by various determi
nants such as income level, education status, population density, and human
development (Figure 1.4). Moreover, the ever-rising population is causing
immense pressure on demand for shelter, food, and other natural resources.
The rise in community lifestyle standards, increasing population, and drastic
have greatly accelerated SWG.
1.4.1 POPULATION DENSITY
The swift rise of population in most of the developing countries has posed
challenges to respective governments to provide decent and quality of life to
its citizens as stated in their constitutions. According to recent data, 83% of

the population on planet earth is habituated in low-income countries. African
and Asian regions experience dramatic increases in urban population. This
dramatic increase in urban population eventually causes a radical increase
in SWG.
FIGURE 1.4 Factors influencing solid waste generation, composition, and characteristics.
1.4.2 CULTURE
The increasing SWG is mainly caused due to human behavior and its
solution that can only be achieved by changing that behavior. Moreover,
public awareness and attitudes have about waste, which can affect the whole
process of SWM. The study revealed that national traditions and living style
of people have also caused the variations in the composition of solid waste
(Olukoju, 2018).
1.4.3 CONSUMPTION AND LIVING HABITS
Researchers have additionally located a hike in SWG because of the boom

withinside the growing call for meals worldwide and different necessi
ties, there was an escalation in quantity of waste being generated on daily
basis through each family member. Consumption and dwelling behavior in
exclusive areas and seasons are together a number of the maximum essential
elements influencing the traits of home waste. The quantity of generated
stable waste commonly accelerated in summertime season and has caused
apparent variations in waste characteristics (Guan, 2011).
1.4.4 EDUCATION
Citizens having low education levels are supposed to throw their waste
on streets and other undesignated locations set by the municipalities.
Uneducated people discourage the waste sorting and waste collection
services. Public awareness and participation are the main factors in reducing
waste generation. Public involvement is a necessary tool to make the
society cleaner and healthy. Without public participation, the utilization of
resources will become less efficient and will lead to poor sustainability. A
study investigated that public education on waste separation can develop the
proper waste management system and decrease the cost of its disposal (Iraia
et al., 2015).
1.4.5 MICROECONOMICS AND FAMILY SIZE
SWG is influenced by sociodemographic and economic aspects; average

family size and structure, employment status, and monthly income. The
study reported that the composition of waste and the social activities have
direct relation and influence each other in a particular society. Research
was conducted in cities of Indonesia. It disclosed that the city contains high
waste generation has high population density and high economic growth
characteristics. Many environmental problems are essential parts of society
where households play an important role. For example, a family that has
babies generates more waste comprised of diapers. Also, households with
only older people show the low quantity of domestic waste as compared to
mixed-age households (Abdel-Shafy and Mansour, 2018).
1.4.5.1 CASE STUDY 2: ETHIOPIA
Ethiopia is one of the developing regions of Africa poses many environ

mental challenges due to industrial activities and rapid population growth.
A study reported that family size was positively associated with waste
generated by each household. On the other hand, educational status had a
negative correlation. Other studies reported the same results in Bangladesh
and Nigeria. A possibility for this could be the effect of education on the
attitude of individuals toward waste generation.
Scientists also found an encouraging correlation between SWG and
people characteristics of income, education, and cultural patterns. Each
family member’s income and waste generation rate has no significant
association due to cultural background. In Ethiopia, citizens regardless of
their socioeconomic status, spend their income on Injera (local bread).
On the daily basis, total waste generated was 88,000 kg in Jimma
city of Ethiopia and the solid waste production was 0.55 kg (average per
capita), similar to Malaysia waste generation which is 0.5 kg (average per
day). Almost domestic and institution waste were 87% and 13% produced,
respectively. Approximately, 70% of population is engaged in agriculture
occupation (Duru et al., 2019).
1.4.6 INFRASTRUCTURE AND TECHNOLOGY
The rapid growth of population in developing countries has created number

of opportunities of infrastructural challenges and land use planning that
collapse the capability of national and municipal governments. Unfortu
nately, lacking in infrastructure and technology development increases the
high dependence on raw material and limits the utilization of waste reduc
tion activities such as recycling. Moreover, inadequate landfill infrastructure
amplifies the mismanagement of SWG (Al-Khatib et al., 2010).
1.4.7 PUBLIC INSTITUTION
It is dilemma that both within nations and between nations, waste is often
transferred from higher-income to lower-income regions where there are
fewer environmental regulations and less protection for those who work with
waste (Duru et al., 2019).
1.4.8 CLIMATIC FACTORS
Climatic factors such as rainfall, humidity, and temperature in different seasons

influence the both characteristics and quantity of solid waste. Humidity and
rainfall fluctuate the water concentration of solid waste directly. Flooding
produces piles of household waste which intensifies the load on nearby waste
dumping sites. Heatwaves of high energy in the hot summer season, increase
odor and dust from arable sites. Also, increased frequency in rainfall during
summer causes the high risk of flooding affecting access to health services,
facilities, water quality, and use of mobile waste management plants. After
glacier melting, rising sea levels will lead to increase the erosion of coastal
dumping sites causing pollution of coastal waters (Gichamo and Gökçekuş,
2019). Usually, coal and wood are used for the heating purposes of homes in
winter in the most rural area of developing countries, both of these materials
yield ash that is thrown away with domestic waste and disturb the composi
tion of ambient atmospheric gases (Aldrin, 2017).
1.4.9 GEOGRAPHY
Area of living has effects on waste composition, solid waste, and extent of
awareness. A study was conducted in Indonesia that shows residents of urban
area have marginally higher awareness rate about solid waste management
than the people in the suburb. The city center is responsible for less waste;
0.18 kg per capita on a daily basis and suburban area generates high waste
0.295 kg per capita (Khair et al., 2018).
1.4.10 TOURISM
Tourism is fast growing industry and a driving force for an increase in

MSW generation in developing countries like Kenya, India, Pakistan, and
Philippines (Murava and Korobeinykova, 2016). Yet, systematical waste

generated from the tourism sector remains uncounted and hidden behind
residential waste flows. Study shows that an average tourist may generate
more MSW than a local resident. Unsurprisingly, mostly waste is generated
by the hospitality industry. Usually, the tourist spots are located in remote
areas deprived of proper infrastructure and services for the management
of MSW. This amalgamation can lead to a vicious cycle of tourism that
extinguishes natural environment and host communities (Diaz-Farina et al.,
2020). For example, Ayubia National Park is one of the highly fascinating
and beautiful destinations in Pakistan and it maintains three types of forest
ecozones; subalpine meadows, moist temperate coniferous, and subtropical
chir pine forest, forest. Almost every year in the summer season, more than
120k tourists visit the park. Since the last few years, hotels and restaurants
have been generating 2940–3225 kg/day waste due to tourists’ pressure. This
is an alarming situation as approximately, tourists generate 3.38–3.84 kg/
capita/day solid wastes. Growing solid waste is constantly disturbing the
biodiversity and also badly distressing aquatic resources.
1.5 HARMFUL EFFECTS ASSOCIATED WITH SOLID WASTE

GENERATION
As we discussed earlier in this chapter, the rate of hazardous material is rapidly

increasing in terms of total quantity and per capita average. In developing
countries, rapid increase in urbanization, overproduction, irregular waste
collection, improper sorting systems, open dumping, burning, unpleasant
odors, and inappropriate disposal of MSW are serious threats to public health
and environmental safety (Azam et al., 2020).
1.5.1 LAND USE
A large area is allocated for waste dumping site which is a tremendous

opportunity, especially in a country that has limited land space. Those land
areas could also be utilized for sustainable development that would generate
higher GDP for the country. While the governments of developing countries
are bound to spend substantial budget on recycling and expansion of landfill
sites. There is an alarming situation to investigate the root causes behind
the piles of solid waste and to adopt measures to mitigate the generation
rate. Moreover, the increasing rate of malnutrition, the extreme humanitarian
crises, and death from starvation in many countries of the developing world
also require the awareness and consciousness campaigns in food wastage
(Diaz-Farina et al., 2020).
1.5.2 IMPACTS ON ENVIRONMENT
Solid waste releases greenhouse gases (GHGs) that contribute in climate

change. Approximately 5% of global GHG in the form of CO2, CH4, and
N2O are caused by emissions from dumping sites (Gichamo and Gökçekuş,
2019). As we mentioned earlier, more than 70% of solid waste is degradable
and is found in low-income economies which majorly account for GHG
emissions. The landfill is the third biggest emission source of methane gas
around the globe. A study was conducted which stated that Pakistan stands
as 135th country for global methane emissions, adding almost 0.8% global
GHG (Zuberi and Ali, 2015).
1.5.3 IMPACTS ON HUMAN
Solid waste pollution has drastic impacts on human health. Uncontrolled

SW increases the spreading and breeding of dengue mosquitoes (Khalid and
Ghaffar, 2015). For example, a decade ago, 40,000 people were affected
by dengue fever in Pakistan and almost 17,256 cases were reported in city
Lahore (Khan and Abbas, 2014). The spread of dengue fever has suffered
10,000 people in Rawalpindi, another city of Pakistan (Farmer, 2019).
1.5.3.1 CASE STUDY 3: KIBERA SLUM, KENYA
Increased population has supplanted the existing social amenities such as

houses, schools, and hospitals as strategies of urban planners. This has resulted
in the explosion of informal settlements, whose geographical locations are
surrounded by a poor environment that has unhealthy living conditions to
mankind. The study elucidates that limited knowledge, pessimistic approach
from the locals, and bad governance are the factors for the continued hostile
status of African’ biggest slum “Kibera” territory in Nairobi, Kenya. Kibera
forms the part of Nairobi 6 million population (Figure 1.5). An estimate of
the total population in the 225-hectare of area settlement between 500,000
and 700,000 inhabitants. According to government data, 82% of Kenyan

people live in an informal and poor community and use charcoal material
for energy. Their livelihood dependence on fuelwood rapidly decline
the Kenya’s forests and cause the adverse effects on the local climatic
condition, wild animals and plants, water resources, and forest inhabitants.
Most of Kibera’s residents subsist on less than a dollar a day. Half of them
are unemployed. Kibera generates approximately an average of 205 metric
tonnes (226 tonnes) of waste per day and 75,000 tonnes per year. There
was no proper waste collection system, half of the waste ends up in public
spaces which was an eyesore and a menace to public health (Ouma, 2020).
In Kibera, the prevalence of diarrhea mostly among children under age
three is 40%, more than three times higher than rest of the city (The New
Humanitarian, 2012).
FIGURE 1.5 Burning and human contact with solid waste in Kibera, Nairobi Kenya.
1.6 WAYS TO REDUCE WASTE GENERATION
Since the 1990s, people in the developed regions of the world commenced
to encourage the concept of diverting waste materials with a famous slogan
“Reduce, Reuse, Recycle,” also known as the 3Rs. The adoption of this
phrase incorporates a practical approach to the waste management because
each technique gives benefits to the environment from the high priority to
the low. From an environmental viewpoint, priority is given to the first two
Rs because these prevention approaches resolve the issues regarding waste.
Moreover, reduce and reuse methods are energy efficient, save money, reduce
land pollution, and assist in protecting ecology (Friedland et al., 2011).
1.6.1 REDUCE
Among the 3Rs, “Reduce” is the first approach because decreasing the
resource inputs is the efficient way to attain the optimum decline in solid
waste. This is also called as waste prevention and waste minimization as
well. There are many ways to minimize the waste generation. One approach
is source reduction, which pursues to minimize the waste by reducing in the
initial process of manufacture. Thus, source reduction optimizes the energy
efficiency as it generates less output materials and avoids long disposal
processes. The utilization of fewer resources will also provide economic
benefits. This approach is effective at both individual and corporate levels
(Diaz-Farina et al., 2020).
For example, in ancient time, computer machine was large in size and
occupied many square feet area. Now modern computers are lightweight,
small in size, and easy to handle through the use of composite materials.
Another example is if a class teacher gives two pages handout material
to her students, she reduces 50% of paper use by providing double-sided
photocopies to students. The overall energy used by machine to photocopy
them over time will probably be reduced. Moreover, if a manager does not
hand out any paper sheets but send copies of the document to the employees
by email. This is also the good example of source reduction. In the manufac
turing process, the application of source reduction will result the reducing
the output materials that go for packaging. Hence, new packaging material
may provide the same protection to the product with minimum resources.
The second approach is to manufacture the products that are easy to
repair, reform, and compost. Third, charge fee to every consumer for the
quantity of solid waste they throw away on roads or streets. Provide free
service of waste collection for recyclable and reusable materials. Forth,

implement cradle-to-grave accountability rules and legislations that require
manufacturing factories to get back various used products, such as motor
vehicles, and other electronic appliances as some developed countries adopt.
Fifth, shift the urban transportation systems from car to mass transit and
bicycles (Gichamo and Gökçekuş, 2019).
1.6.2 REUSE
Rather than waste disposal, “Reuse” involves cleaning and using a products
that allow an object to cycle within a system for longer time period. This
process of waste reduction decreases the pollution, usage of matter, saves
money, and improves the economy by creating jobs. No additional energy or
resources are required to produce more material.
For example, a used letter envelope can be reused by writing the new
information over it. Here, residence times of the envelope in the system are
getting increased but the waste generations are reduced. Sometimes reuse
involves the repairing an existing material costing money and time, labor,
and energy. For example, when we reuse a disposable polystyrene cup more
than one time, though reuse involves cleaning the cup and generating some
wastewater, also adding some energy cost. Reuse is successful and common
practice in many developing countries. In Northeast Thailand, government
built 19 Buddhist temples from lots of beer bottles. The colorful used bottles
beautifies the temples and allows light penetration into the temple interiors.
Bottles caps were also reused to make mosaics artwork (Lew, 2020).
1.6.3 RECYCLING
Recycling is the practice by which waste objects are sorted and converted into
input material then used to produce new products. The informal way of waste
recycling is a common practice for survival in developing countries. There
are push factors that engage poor people into waste picking, fundamentally
like economic. Waste pickers are vulnerable groups of our society such as
unemployed and disabled people, recent migrants, women, children, and old
aged people. They live in an unsafe and filthy environment, and usually work
in open dumps and on streets, where they constantly contact with all types of
solid waste that poses high risks to their health. In developing countries, only
16% materials are recycled in the waste stream (Lew, 2020).
For example, Lahore roughly recycled almost 27% of waste through the
informal way. Currently, there are no operative waste disposal facilities that
follow formal recycling systems. This city does not represent the high perfor
mance of government in the waste management sector. However, waste pickers
collect the used paper and pulp industry recycle it. In Indonesia, recycling
reduces approximately 10% of total waste. The scavengers are also playing
vital role in decreasing SW in Iran (Dhokhikah and Trihadiningrum, 2012).
1.6.4 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING
Various projects like environmental training and education have played a

significant role in enhancing recycling and reducing waste generation (Han
et al., 2018). Increased willingness of the commercial sector to support
recycling is an encouraging sign of public support for the environment.
For example, Tetra Pak Pakistan is collaborating with various international
partners such as World Wilde Fund for nature, waste management companies,
pulp industry, and recycling partners to initiate the recycling of used beverage
cartons (UBCs) in Pakistan (Tetra Pak, 2017). In 2015, they almost facilitated
the recycling of more than 22,000 tonnes of UBCs. Likewise, in Nairobi
Kenya, recycling company Taka Taka solutions is working with German
organization; Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit
(GIZ) to recycle an impressive 95% of the 40 tonnes of rubbish generated each
day. On the other side, consumers are more likely to buy products that can
be easily recycled. Some consumers have purchased small home appliances
that reduce the volume of waste and facilitate recycling. Moreover, living
habits, traditional and national cultures, and consumption of goods alter the
production and composition of domestic waste. The insights into generated
waste allow making suggestions for improved education status (GIZ, 2019).
1.7 FUTURE SCENARIO AND SUSTAINABILITY
As the worldwide, volume of solid waste continues to grow, it is clear that

the problems related to waste extend beyond the national borders. Solutions
to these problems require international coordination among all developing
countries. Some international agreements are regional but they have to
be international. Like the developed nations such as European Union and
United Nations have several regulations about the reductions of solid
wastes, developing nations must follow their footprint toward sustainable
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and, as he died in the eighty-fourth year of his age, it will make the
year 1683, as stated by Mr. Backus, that in which his death
happened.
“It appears of record, that on the 16th day of January, 1683, Mr.
Williams, with others, signed a settlement of a controversy which
had long existed between some of the people of Providence and
some of those of Pawtuxet, relative to the Pawtuxet purchase; and
that, on the 10th day of May following, John Thornton, in a letter to
Mr. Hubbard, mentioned his death. So he must have died between
January 16 and May 10, 1683.
“The freemen of Providence, in town meeting, July 15, 1771,
appointed a committee, viz. Stephen Hopkins, Amos Atwell, and
Darius Sessions, Esqrs. to draft an inscription for a monument, which
it was then intended to erect to his memory. In their vote on that
occasion, Mr. Williams was called “the Founder of the Town and
Colony.” The committee did nothing, and the business has slept from
that time. In the summer of that year, (forty-eight years ago) when
much was said respecting a monument for him, though nothing
could be agreed on, his grave was shown to me, near the east end
of the house lot now owned by Mr. Dorr. The foot grave-stone was
then gone, and the top of the other broken off, so that only the
lower part appeared, without any inscription. There were several
other grave-stones near his, in memory of some of the Ashton
family, who were connected with Mr. Williams, on which the
inscriptions were entire. Thinking it a duty to preserve some
knowledge of the place, where was deposited the dust of the
founder of our State, I have repeatedly, of late years, sought for
those monuments, without being able to find any traces of them;
though I think I can, within a rod or two, show where they were
placed, so that, on digging the ground, the graves may, perhaps, be
discovered.
“There is no doubt but that Mr. Williams lived, the latter part of his
life, upon the estate whereon he was buried, which was called the
Crawford estate, after the connection of the Crawford and Fenner
families, by the marriage of Gideon Crawford with Freelove Fenner,
daughter of Arthur Fenner, April 13, 1687; which Arthur Fenner, July
31, 1688, gave to his three daughters, Freelove, Bethiah and Phebe,
thirty-one acres of land, “in Providence Neck,” all which became the
property of Mr. Crawford, who married Freelove Fenner, and I believe
was exchanged or negotiated for Mr. Williams’ estate, near the
spring.”[395]
As Mr. Williams’ grave and others before mentioned were on that
estate, I applied, on the 12th of May, 1813, to Mrs. Mary Tripe, a
descendant of the said Gideon Crawford, then in the seventy-second
year of her age, for information respecting them. She was a woman
of intelligence, good sense and information, and careful of what she
said. She informed me that your ancestor, Roger Williams, lived in a
house which was on the east side of the main street, a little south of
the Episcopal church, the foundation whereof then remained, which
she showed me, within sight of her house, and which I believe is
also now removed, as I saw nothing of it, on looking for it, the last
time I was in Providence. So transitory are all things pertaining to
humanity! She told me there was no doubt that Mr. Williams was
buried at the place which I have mentioned; that she had always
been told so; and that she remembered seeing fruit trees growing
there, when she was a girl; that her father once owned that and the
estate where Moses Brown, Esq. now lives; and that there was a
gang-way, fourteen feet wide, south of Mrs. Tripe’s house, given by
Mr. Williams, to go to his spring, originally laid out from river to river,
near which gang-way his house stood.
“I have an original letter, in the hand writing of Mr. Williams, to the
freemen of the town of Providence, dated “11, 3, 60,” [May 11,
1660] claiming personal estate of John Clowson, who had been
murdered by Waumaion, an Indian, on the 4th day of the preceding
January, containing additional proof that Mr. Williams then lived near
the spring before mentioned.
“I can give no satisfactory information relative to the other queries
in your letter, but what may be derived from the records of
Providence; nor have I any recollection of any circumstance which
indicated that Mr. Williams left a will.
“It gives me pleasure to be able to furnish useful information to
any of my friends, from documents in my possession. Though in
haste, I have written diffusely, in answer to your letter. So far as it
goes, I believe the information it contains is correct. That it may in
some degree, answer your expectations, and the purpose for which
you wanted it, is the wish of
“Yours, respectfully,
THEODORE FOSTER.”
The following extracts from a letter, inserted in the American, of

July 20, 1819, deserve to be inserted, as illustrative of the subject
before us:
“Providence, July 17, 1819.
“Messrs. Goddard & Knowles,
“Observing, in your paper of yesterday, a letter from the Hon.

Theodore Foster, respecting Roger Williams, the founder of this
State, I am induced to lay before the public the following facts,
communicated to me by the late Capt. Nathaniel Packard, of this
town, about the year 1808. About fifty years since, there was some
stir about erecting a monument to commemorate that distinguished
divine, civilian and statesman, and there was a difference of opinion
as to the place of his burial. Capt. Packard was then absent, but had
he been present, he could have pointed out the very spot where
Roger Williams’ house stood, and where he was buried. When he
was about ten years old, one of the descendants of Roger Williams
was buried at the family burying-ground, on the lot right back of the
house of Sullivan Dorr, Esq. Those who dug the grave, dug directly
upon the foot of the coffin, which the people there present told him
was Roger Williams’. They let him down into the new grave, and he
saw the bones in the coffin, which was not wholly decayed, and the
bones had a long, mossy substance upon them. Roger Williams was
born in 1599, and died in 1683. Captain Packard was son of Fearnot
Packard, who lived in a small house, standing a little south of the
house of Philip Allen, Esq. and about fifty feet south of the noted
spring. In this house Captain Packard was born, in 1730, and died in
1809, being seventy-nine years old. He was born forty-seven years
after Williams died. So if he was ten years old when Williams’
descendant was buried, it was fifty-seven years after Williams died.
“As the people at the funeral of Williams’ descendant told Captain
Packard that Williams was buried in the grave dug upon, there can
be no doubt that Roger Williams was buried in the lot back of Mr.
Dorr’s house, in his own family burying-ground, where I myself have
seen stones to a number of the graves, within twenty years, which
have since been removed. But, though the stones are not to be
found, yet I cannot but venerate the spot where, I have no doubt,
the dust of one of the greatest and best men that ever lived mingled
with its mother earth.
“Mrs. Nabby Packard, widow of Captain Packard, who is eighty-five
years old, told me, this day, that her late husband had often
mentioned the above facts to her; and his daughter, Miss Mary
Packard, states, that her father often told her the same.
“As to where Roger Williams’ dwelling-house stood, Captain

Nathaniel Packard told me, that when he was a boy, he used to play
in a cellar, which had a large peach-tree in it, which cellar, he said,
was situate on a lot back of the house built by Thomas Owen, father
of the late Hon. Daniel Owen, afterwards owned by Levi Whipple,
and now owned by the heirs of the late Simeon H. Olney, directly
north of the house owned by Ezra Hubbard, and near where an
outbuilding now stands. The people, at that time, called it Roger
Williams’ cellar. Mrs. Nabby Packard, Nathaniel Packard’s widow, told
me this day, that she came to live where she now lives, when she
was eighteen years old, which was sixty-seven years ago, and that
she well remembers the cellar, and that it was called Roger Williams’
cellar. The site of the house was a little east of Roger Williams’
spring, and situate directly on the road laid out from said spring, to
the upper ferry, (now Central Bridge.) The spring is called Roger
Williams’ spring, and he owned the land all around it, being the very
place where he sat upon the rock, and conversed with the Indians.
The above facts, derived from Captain N. Packard, his widow and
daughter, are indubitable evidences, that his house was where it is
above stated to have been, and that he was buried in the lot back of
Mr. Dorr’s house.”
It is hoped, that the prosperous city of Providence will not, much

longer, endure the reproach of permitting her founder’s grave to
remain without any memorial to indicate the spot. It is already too
late, perhaps, to ascertain the precise place where his ashes lie, but
it may be found, within a few feet. The ground around it ought to be
obtained by the city, a handsome monument erected, and the whole
enclosed within a permanent iron fence, and adorned with trees,
shrubbery, &c. It would thus form an interesting spot, which the
citizen would visit with interest, and which the stranger would seek
as one of the principal points of attraction. It has been proposed to
erect a monument in some other part of the city; but it would be
absurd to place it any where else than on the spot where his bones
are interred. The spot itself is interesting, because he owned it, and
was buried there. It is surprising that his children ever allowed it to
be sold.
In regard to the family of Mr. Williams, little is now known. Even
his lineal descendants seem to have a very scanty knowledge of
their ancestor. A few facts have been collected, though I cannot
vouch for their accuracy.
His wife, it is supposed, survived him, but when and where she
died, we know not.
It is nearly certain, that he left no will. He probably had very little,
if any property, to bequeath.
He had six children:
1. Mary, born at Plymouth, the first week in August, 1633.
Whether she was married or not, is uncertain. In Mr. Williams’ book
against George Fox, he speaks of his daughter Hart, as residing in
Newport. Mary may have married a person of this name.
2. Freeborn, born at Salem, the end of October, 1635. Of her,
nothing further is known to me.
3. Providence, born at Providence, the end of September, 1638.
He died unmarried, in Newport [another account says, in
Providence] March, 1685–6.
4. Marcy, born July 15, 1640. She was married to Resolved
Waterman, of Warwick, by whom she had four sons and one
daughter. After his death, she was married to Samuel Winsor, of
Providence, by whom she had two sons and one daughter. After his
death, she was married to —— Rhodes, of Pawtuxet, by whom she
had several children.
5. Daniel, born February 15, 1641–2. He married Rebecca Power,
widow of Nicholas Power. He died May 14, 1712. He had five sons,
Peleg, Roger, Daniel, Joseph, Providence. Peleg had four sons, Peleg,
Robert, Silas, Timothy; and two daughters, who were married to
Daniel Fisk and John Fisk. Roger had two daughters, one of whom
was married to Jonathan Tourtellot, and the other to David Thayer.
Daniel died unmarried. Joseph had two sons, Benoni and Goliah.
Providence had one daughter, Elizabeth.
6. Joseph, born the beginning of December, 1643. He married
Lydia Olney, December 17, 1669. He had three sons, Joseph,
Thomas and James. Joseph had one son, Jeremiah, and eight
daughters, who were married to Francis Atwood, William Randall,
Joseph Randall, John Randall, William Dyer, Benjamin Potter,
Benjamin Congdon, John Dyer. Thomas had three sons, Joseph,
Thomas and John, and several daughters. James had four sons,
James, Nathaniel, Joseph and Nathan.
Joseph Williams lived, for several years, on a farm in Cranston,
three or four miles from Providence, where he died, August 17,
1724, in the eighty-first year of his age, and was buried in the family
burying ground, on the farm, where his grave stone now stands,
with this inscription:
“Here lies the body of Joseph Williams, Esq. son of Roger
Williams, Esq. who was the first white man that came to Providence.
He was born 1644. He died August 17, 1724, in the eighty-first year
of his age.
In King Philip’s war, he courageously went through,
And the native Indians he bravely did subdue,
And now he’s gone down to the grave, and he will be no more,
Until it please Almighty God his body to restore,
Into some proper shape, as he thinks fit to be,
Perhaps like a grain of wheat, as Paul sets forth, you see.
(Corinthians, 1st book, 15th chapter, 37th verse.)”
His wife died a few days after him, and was buried by his side. Her
grave-stone bears this inscription:
“In memory of Lydia Williams, wife of Joseph Williams, Esq. who
died September 9, 1724, in the eightieth year of her age.”
In the same yard, is the grave of their youngest son. The stone
has this inscription:
“Here lies the body of James Williams, son of Joseph Williams and
Lydia his wife, who was born September 24, 1680, died June 25,
1757, in the seventy-seventh year of his age.
He was of a moderate temper and easy mind,
He to peace was chiefly inclined;
In peace he did live, in peace he would be,
We hope it may last to eternity.”
Note I. p. 389.
That Mr. Williams ought to be regarded as the founder of the State
of Rhode-Island, cannot be denied. His settlement of Providence, the
first town in the State; his services in procuring the cession of the
island by the Indians; his efforts to procure the first charter, and his
various sacrifices and toils for the welfare of the whole colony, entitle
him to the merit of being considered as the founder, though other
men, like Mr. Clarke, rendered great and important services. Mr.
Williams claims this honor, in his letter inserted on page 349 of this
volume.
His principles have steadily prevailed in Rhode-Island, till the
present hour. No man has ever been molested, on account of his
religious principles. Gentlemen, of all the existing denominations,
have been elected magistrates. Mr. Callender said, in 1738: “The civil
state has flourished, as well as if secured by ever so many penal
laws, and an Inquisition to put them in execution. Our civil officers
have been chosen out of every religious society, and the public
peace has been as well preserved, and the public councils as well
conducted, as we could have expected, had we been assisted by
ever so many religious tests.”—p. 107.
In respect to the religious concerns of the colony, it may be said,
that if they had been such as they have sometimes been
represented, an argument could not fairly be drawn from them
unfriendly to Mr. Williams’ principles. It must be recollected, that
intolerance prevailed in the neighboring colonies, and Rhode-Island
was a refuge for men of all opinions. There was consequently a
great variety of sects, all weak, at first, and unable to do much
towards the support of religion. Rhode-Island thus suffered from the
intolerance of her neighbors; for if they had granted the enjoyment
of religious liberty to their citizens, many who went to Rhode-Island,
and created disturbances there, would have remained in the other
colonies. The difficulties which arose, in the early part of the history
of Rhode-Island, are rather proofs of the evils of intolerance in the
other colonies, than evidences of the injurious tendencies of Mr.
Williams’ doctrines. If all the uneasy and discordant spirits in the
other States of New-England were driven, by the force of intolerant
laws, into Massachusetts, she would speedily lose some portion of
her high character for morality and good order.
But the state of religion in Rhode-Island has been misrepresented.
Mr. Callender, nearly a hundred years ago, vindicated the character
of the State. He said, that there were, in the fourteen towns which
then composed the state,[396] thirty religious societies, all of which
were then supplied with ministers, except probably the meetings of
Friends. Of these societies, nine were Baptists, nine Friends, five
Congregationalists, five Episcopalians, and two Sabbatarians.[397] Mr.
Callender says, “Thus, notwithstanding all the liberty and indulgence
here allowed, and notwithstanding the inhabitants have been
represented as living without a public worship, and as ungospellized
plantations, we see there is some form of godliness every where
maintained.”—p. 68. He says, in another place:
“I take it to have been no dishonor to the colony, that Christians,
of every denomination, were suffered to lead quiet and peaceable
lives, without any fines, or punishments for their speculative
opinions, or for using those external forms of worship, they believed
God had appointed, and would accept. Bigots may call this confusion
and disorder, and it may be so, according to their poor worldly
notions of religion, and the kingdom of Christ. But the pretended
order of human authority, assuming the place and prerogatives of
Jesus Christ, and trampling on the consciences of his subjects, is, as
Mr. R. Williams most justly calls it, “monstrous disorder.”—p. 50.
“Notwithstanding our constitution left every one to his own liberty,
and his conscience; and notwithstanding the variety of opinions that
were entertained, and notwithstanding some may have contracted
too great an indifference to any social worship, yet I am well
assured, there scarce ever was a time, the hundred years past, in
which there was not a weekly public worship of God, attended by
Christians, on this island, and in the other first towns of the
colony.”—p. 51.
It is believed, that at the present time, there are as many religious
societies in Rhode-Island, as in other States, in proportion to the
population, and that the ministry is as well supported, though it is
done by the voluntary liberality of the respective societies. The state
of morality and religion would, it is believed, bear a favorable
comparison with that in other States.
But the true test of the effects of Mr. Williams’ principles is their
operation on a large scale. The religious liberty which prevails in the
United States demonstrates, that religion may be sustained, and
diffused, without any dependence on the civil power. It is believed,
that in no other nation on earth, are the principles of Christianity so
efficacious in their influence on the great mass of the inhabitants; in
no other country, are revivals of religion so frequent; in no other
country, are there so few crimes. Here we leave the argument. May
the principles of Roger Williams soon prevail in every land, and the
kingdoms of this world become the kingdoms of our Lord and of his
Christ.
1. .sp 1
“Laudator temporis acti,
Se puero, castigator censorque minorum.”
Horace de Arte Poet. l. 173–4.
2. It is mortifying and painful, that truth compels us to except any persons

among us from this remark.
3. Mr. Savage, in his edition of Winthrop, (vol. i. p. 42) excited, by the

following note, a hope, which was unhappily disappointed: “Deficiency in all
former accounts of this great, earliest asserter of religious freedom, will, we may
hope, soon be supplied by a gentleman, whose elegance and perspicuity of style
are already known. Several quires of original letters of Williams’ have been seen by
me, transcribed by or for the Rev. Mr. Greenwood, of this city.”
4. “Cœlum non animum mutant, qui trans mare currunt.”

Ep. lib. i. 11.
5. The records of the church say 1598, (Benedict, vol. i. p. 473) but this
statement appears to be a mistake. Mr. Williams, in a letter dated July 21, 1679,
(Backus, vol. i. p. 421) said that he was then “near to fourscore years of age.” This
proves that he was not born in 1598, and makes it probable that the next year
was the true time.
6. Baylies’ History of Plymouth, vol. i. p. 284. See Appendix to this work, (A.)
7. George Fox digged out of his Burrowes, written in 1673.
8. Wood, in his Athenæ; Oxonienses, after giving an account of a gentleman

named Roger Williams, says, “I find another Roger Williams, later than the former,
an inhabitant of Providence, in New England, and author of (1) A Key to the
Language of New-England, London, 1643, Oct. (2) The Hireling Ministry none of
Christ’s, or a Discourse of the Propagation of the Gospel of Christ Jesus, London,
1652, qu. &c. But of what university the said Williams was, if of any, I know not,
or whether a real fanatick or Jesuit.” This assertion of Wood renders it doubtful
whether Mr. Williams was educated at Oxford, or elsewhere. In the absence of all
evidence, it might be thought more probable that he received his education at
Cambridge, where a large proportion of the leading Puritans were educated. Coke
himself was a graduate of Cambridge, and would probably prefer to place Williams
there. Inquiries have been sent to England, for information on this point, but they
have not been successful.
9. Benedict, vol. i. p. 473–4.
10. The refusal of the Pope, Clement VII. to sanction the divorce, would have
been honorable to him, if it had not undeniably sprung from political motives. He
at first prepared a bull, granting Henry’s request, but in a short time he thought it
more conducive to his political interests to suppress it, and in a fit of anger against
the King for a supposed insult, the Pope issued his sentence, prohibiting the
divorce, and threatening the King with excommunication if he did not recognise
Catharine as his wife. In six days after, he received intelligence which made him
earnestly desire to annul his sentence, but it was too late. His attribute of
infallibility was now found inconvenient. He could not retract. Henry was
exasperated and renounced his political allegiance, though, in his controversy with
Luther, which won for him from the Pope the title of Defender of the Faith, he had
argued that the primacy of the Pope was of divine right! Histoire du Concile de
Trent, livre i. p. 65, Amsterdam edition, 1686.
11. Elizabeth often said, that she hated the Puritans more than she did the
Papists. Neal, vol. i. p. 319.
12. Neal (vol. i. p. 236) gives the following specimen of the arbitrary manner
in which the ministers were treated. It is an account of the examination of the
London clergy: “When the ministers appeared in court, Mr. Thomas Cole, a
clergyman, being placed by the side of the Commissioners, in priestly apparel, the
Bishop’s chancellor from the bench addressed them in these words: ‘My masters,
and ye ministers of London, the Council’s pleasure is, that ye strictly keep the
unity of apparel, like the man who stands here canonically habited with a square
cap, a scholar’s gown priest-like, a tippet, and in the church a linen surplice. Ye
that will subscribe, write volo; those that will not subscribe, write nolo. Be brief,
make no words.’ Some of these distressed ministers subscribed for the sake of
their families, but thirty-seven absolutely refused. They were immediately
suspended from office, and told, that unless they should conform in three months,
they should be wholly deprived of their livings. In 1585 and 1586, it was found, by
a survey, that there were only 2000 ministers, who were able to preach, to serve
10,000 churches. Bishop Sandys, in one of his sermons before the Queen, told her
Majesty, that some of her subjects did not hear one sermon in seven years, and
that their blood would be required of some one. Elizabeth thought three or four
preachers in a county sufficient.” Neal, vol. i. p. 359.
13. Neal, vol. i. preface.
14. Neal, vol. i. preface.
15. Neal, vol. ii. p. 28.
16. Prince, p. 107.
17. Mr. Williams had some personal intercourse with the monarch, but of what
kind does not appear. In his letter to Major Mason, he refers to King James, whom
I have spoke with.
18. “Although the discusser acknowledged himself unworthy to speak for God
to Master Cotton, or any, yet possibly Master Cotton may call to mind, that the
discusser (riding with himself and one other, of precious memory, Master Hooker,
to and from Sempringham) presented his arguments from Scripture, why he durst
not join with them in their use of Common Prayer.” Bloody Tenet made more
Bloody, p. 12.
19. Mr. William Harris, in a letter, speaks of a Mr. Warnard, as a brother of

Mrs. Williams, apparently meaning the wife of Roger Williams. This is the only hint
which the author has found, respecting the family of Mrs. Williams. Her name, by
some strange mistake, is stated, in the records of the church at Providence, to
have been Elizabeth, instead of Mary, her real name. These records led Mr.
Benedict, in his valuable History, (vol. i. p. 476) into the same error. On his
authority, one of the descendants of Roger Williams, now living, named a child
Elizabeth, in honor, as she meant it, of her venerable maternal ancestor.
20. Holmes’ Am. Annals, vol. i. p. 146.
21. This extensive grant included a considerable part of the British colonies in
North America, the whole of the New England States, and of New York; about half
of Pennsylvania; two thirds of New Jersey and Ohio; a half of Indiana and Illinois;
the whole of Michigan, Huron, and the whole of the territory of the United States
westward of them, and on both sides of the Rocky Mountains; and from a point
considerably within the Mexican dominions, on the Pacific Ocean, nearly up to
Nootka Sound. This enormous grant shows how imperfectly the geography of the
country was known, by James and his counsellors. The Council soon found their
undertaking an unprofitable speculation, and surrendered their patent to the
Crown. See Hon. E. Everett’s Anniversary Address at Charlestown, June 28, 1830,
pp. 13, 31.
22. Winthrop’s Journal, vol. i. p. 5.
23. Everett’s Address, p. 27.
24. Hutchinson, vol i. p. 24.
25. It is stated, that not less than two hundred persons died, from the time
the company sailed from England, in April, up to the December following. Everett’s
Address, p. 50.
26. This gentleman came from England. He claimed the whole peninsula of
Boston, because he was the first white man who slept there. He hospitably invited
Gov. Winthrop and his friends to remove thither, on account of a fine spring of
water there. He soon left Boston, alleging that he left England because he did not
like the Lords Bishops, but he could not join with the colonists, because he did not
like the Lords Brethren. His rights as the first occupant were acknowledged, and
thirty pounds were paid to him in 1634. He removed to a spot in the present town
of Cumberland, (R. I.) about six miles from Providence, and the river which flows
near now bears his name. He lived to an old age, and occasionally preached at
Providence and other places. Tradition says, that he sometimes secured the
attention of his hearers by a skilful distribution of apples. His orchard flourished
long after his death, and some of the trees are, it is said, yet standing.
27. President Quincy’s His. Dis. Sept. 17, 1830, p. 19.

28. It may be profitable to the men of this generation to read the following
account, given by Hutchinson, vol. i. p. 27.
“The weather held tolerable until the 24th of December, but the cold then
came on with violence. Such a Christmas eve they had never seen before. From
that time to the 10th of February their chief care was to keep themselves warm,
and as comfortable, in other respects, as their scant provisions would permit. The
poorer sort were much exposed, lying in tents and miserable hovels, and many
died of the scurvy and other distempers. They were so short of provisions, that
many were obliged to live upon clams, muscles, and other shell fish, with ground
nuts and acorns instead of bread. One that came to the Governor’s house, to
complain of his sufferings, was prevented, being informed that even there the last
batch was in the oven. Some instances are mentioned of great calmness and
resignation in this distress. A man who had asked his neighbor to a dish of clams,
after dinner returned thanks to God, who had given them to suck of the
abundance of the seas, and of treasures hid in the sands. They had appointed the
22d of February for a fast; but on the 5th, to their great joy, the ship Lyon, Capt.
Peirce, one of the last year’s fleet, returned, laden with provisions, from England,
which were distributed according to the necessities of the people. They turned
their fast into a thanksgiving.”
29. This was a regular colony ship. Her arrival from England, with emigrants,
supplies, &c. is often noted in the Journal. The following November, on the 2d, she
arrived with the Governor’s wife, the famous John Elliot, and others. But,
unfortunately, she was cast away on the 2d of November, 1633, upon a shoal off
the coast of Virginia.
G.
30. In the first edition this was printed “man.” Mr. Savage, in a note, says: “In
the original MS. this word has been tampered with, perhaps by some zealot, yet it
appears clearly enough to be Winthrop’s usual abbreviation for that which is
restored in the text, and Prince read it as I do.”
31. Quincy’s Hist. Dis. 1830, p. 20.
32. Hutchinson, vol. i. Appendix, No. 1.
33. The reply of the ministers of the church to this objection is worthy of
notice, as confirming the views which have been stated respecting their feelings
toward the Church of England. “They did not (they declared) separate from the
Church of England, nor from the ordinances of God there, but only from the
corruptions and disorders of that Church; that they came away from the common
prayer and ceremonies, and had suffered much for their non-conformity in their
native land, and therefore, being in a place where they might have their liberty,
they neither could nor would use them, inasmuch as they judged the imposition of
these things to be a violation of the worship of God.” Magnalia, b. i. ch. iv. § 8.
34. Snow’s History of Boston, p. 30.
35. Winthrop, vol. i. p. 32.
36. Ibid, vol. i. p. 87.
37. Snow’s Hist. of Boston, p. 42.
38. Winthrop, vol. i. p. 30, note.
39. Extract from a letter of Mr. Cotton. Hutchinson, Appendix iii.
40. See Dr. Wisner’s valuable Historical Discourses, May 9 and 16, 1830.
41. Mr. Backus, and some other writers, have this date 1631, either by
mistake, or by neglecting the difference between the old and the new style. Some
confusion has thus been introduced into the accounts of Mr. Williams.
42. Magnalia, b. v. ch. 17.
43. Emerson in his History of the First Church is not more explicit. He says,
(p. 13) “It has been said of this man, that he refused communion,” &c.
45. The moral law was considered as divided into two tables, the first table
containing the first four commandments, which relate to our duties towards God;
and the second table, containing the other six commandments, which prescribe
certain duties towards men.
46. The note of Mr. Savage, in his edition of Winthrop, vol. i. p. 53, deserves
to be quoted:
“All, who are inclined to separate that connection of secular concerns with the
duties of religion, to which most governments, in all countries, have been too
much disposed, will think this opinion of Roger Williams redounds to his praise.
The laws of the first table, or the four commandments of the decalogue first in
order, should be rather impressed by early education than by penal enactments of
the legislature; and the experience of Rhode Island and other States of our Union
is perhaps favorable to the sentiment of this earliest American reformer. Too much
regulation was the error of our fathers, who were perpetually arguing from
analogies in the Levitical institutions, and encumbering themselves with the yoke
of Jewish customs.”
47. 1 His. Col. vi. p. 246.
48. Prince, p. 355. Mr. Williams’ name is found in a list of persons, “desiring to
be made freemen,” at the last Court, which met October 19, 1630, nearly four
months before his arrival in America. Prince, p. 331. This author explains the
difficulty, by saying (p. 377,) that the October list “comprehends all those who
entered their desires between that time and May 18, 1631.” It appears, therefore,
that Mr. Williams, with characteristic decision, entered his name on the list very
soon after his arrival.
49. 1 His. Col. vi. pp. 24, 56.
50. Ibid.
51. Mr. Baylies, in his Memoir of Plymouth, vol. i. p. 266, says, that Mr.
Williams left Salem, because he had “become discontented in consequence of
some difference of opinion between him and Mr. Skelton, the pastor.” This appears
to be a mistake. Mr. Upham, in his Second Century Lecture, p. 12, calls Mr.
Skelton, “the faithful defender of Roger Williams.”
52. “He was freely entertained among us, according to our poor ability,
exercised his gifts among us, and after some time was admitted a member of the
church, and his teaching well approved; for the benefit whereof I shall bless God,
and am thankful to him ever for his sharpest admonitions and reproofs, so far as
they agreed with truth.” Prince, p. 377.
53. Memorial, p. 151.
54. Cotton Mather, in his Magnalia, b. ii. ch. iv. relates the following incident,
as having occurred during this visit. Though the extract shows his strong
prejudices, it may be worth an insertion as an illustration of the temper and
manner of those times. “There were at this time in Plymouth two ministers,
leavened so far with the humors of the rigid separation, that they insisted
vehemently upon the unlawfulness of calling any unregenerate man by the name
of good-man such a one, until by their indiscreet urging of this whimsey, the place
began to be disquieted. The wiser people being troubled at these trifles, they took
the opportunity of Governor Winthrop’s being there, to have the thing publicly
propounded in the congregation; who, in answer thereunto, distinguished between
a theological and a moral goodness: adding, that when juries were first used in
England, it was usual for the crier, after the names of persons fit for that service
were called over, to bid them all, Attend, good men and true; whence it grew to
be a civil custom in the English nation for neighbors living by one another to call
one another good-man such a one, and it was pity now to make a stir about a civil
custom, so innocently introduced. And that speech of Mr. Winthrop’s put a lasting
stop to the little, idle, whimsical conceits, then beginning to grow obstreperous.”
If the preceding statement is true, it may be charitably viewed as an
indication of the scrupulous conscientiousness of Mr. Williams, who thought,
perhaps, that names are sometimes things, and was unwilling that the term good
man should be indiscriminately applied to all men. If he yielded to Gov. Winthrop’s
explanation, it proves, that he was not so obstinate in trifles, as he has been
represented.
55. Weymouth.
56. Backus, vol. i. p. 56. Some writers insinuate, that he went back without an
invitation.
57. Memorial, p. 151.
58. Memorial, p. 151. Mr. Smith was an English minister, who separated from
the Church of England, and went to Holland, where he embraced the sentiments
of the Baptists. He is said to have baptized himself, for want of a suitable
administrator, and hence was called a Se-Baptist. Dr. Toulmin remarks, on this
assertion, “This is said on the authority of his opponents only, who, from the
acrimony with which they wrote against him, it may be reasonably concluded,
might be ready to take up a report against him upon slender evidence.” Neal’s
History of the Puritans, vol. ii. p. 72, note. Mr. Neal says, that “he was a learned
man, of good abilities, but of an unsettled head.” His adoption of Baptist principles
explains this reproach.
59. The Rev. John Foster, in his essay on the epithet Romantic.
60. See Appendix B. for some remarks on the Anabaptists.
61. Backus, vol. i. pp. 57, 516. Dr. Bentley, 1 His. Col. vi. p. 247, says, that the
child was born in Salem, but Mr. Backus’ statement is more probable, and he
quotes the Providence Records as authority.
62. There is a strange confusion in the statements of different writers

respecting the duration of Mr. Williams’ stay at Plymouth, and the date of his
removal. Morton says, that he preached at Plymouth about three years, and was
dismissed in 1634. Baylies repeats this statement. Hutchinson says, that he
remained at Plymouth three or four years; Cotton Mather says two years, and Dr.
Bentley states, that he returned to Salem before the end of the year 1632. But Mr.
Backus supposes the time of his removal from Plymouth to have been in August,
1633. “His first child was born there the first week in August, 1633, (Providence
Records) and Mr. Cotton, who arrived at Boston the fourth of September following,
says, he had removed into the Bay before his arrival.” (Tenet Washed, part 2, p.
4.) It is certain, from Winthrop’s Journal, vol. i. p. 117, that Mr. Williams had
returned to Salem previously to November, 1633, for under that date Winthrop
says, that he “was removed from Plymouth thither, (but not in any office, though
he exercised by way of prophecy).” The expression implies, that he had recently
removed, and this agrees with the supposition that he returned to Salem in
August.
63. Mr. Skelton’s name is first mentioned by Winthrop, and Dr. Bentley (1 His.
Col. vi. p. 248) attributes to Mr. Skelton the open opposition.
64. “Perhaps,” says Mr. Savage, “the same expressions from another would
have given less offence. From Williams they were not at first received in the
mildest, or even the most natural sense; though further reflection satisfied the
magistrates that his were not dangerous. The passages from the Apocalypse were
probably not applied to the honor of the King; and I regret, therefore, that
Winthrop did not preserve them.”
65. It was probably this book, to which Mr. Coddington alluded, in his bitter
letter against Mr. Williams, inserted at the close of Fox’s Reply. Mr. W. is there
charged with having “written a quarto against the King’s patent and authority.”
66. A writer in the North American Review, for October, 1830, p. 404, says:
“The Kings of Europe did, in some instances, assert the right to subdue the natives
by force, and to appropriate their territory, without their consent, to the uses of
the colonists. The King of Spain founded this right solely on the grant of the Pope,
as the vicegerent of Christ upon earth. The Kings of England, in the sixteenth
century, placed it on the superior claims, which Christians possessed over infidels.”
67. Reply to Cotton on the Bloody Tenet, pp. 276, 277.
68. Magnalia, book i. c. v. § 5.
69. Travels, vol. i. p. 167.
70. Mr. Endicott’s zeal on this point may be learned from the following
incident, related by Winthrop: “March 7, 1633. At the lecture at Boston a question
was propounded about veils. Mr. Cotton concluded, that where (by the custom of
the place) they were not a sign of the woman’s subjection, they were not
commanded by the apostle. Mr. Endicott opposed, and did maintain it by the
general arguments brought by the apostle. After some debate, the Governor,
perceiving it to grow to some earnestness, interposed, and so it brake off.” Vol. i.
p. 125.
Hutchinson (vol. i. p. 379) says, on the authority of Hubbard, that “Mr. Cotton,
of Boston, happening to preach at Salem, soon after this custom began, he
convinced his hearers that it had no sufficient foundation in the Scriptures. His
sermon had so good an effect, that they were all ashamed of their veils, and never
appeared covered with them afterwards.”
71. Hutchinson, vol. i. p. 142.
72. Neal’s Hist. Puritans, vol. i. p. 184.
73. The question about the lawfulness of the cross caused much agitation and
controversy. “Some of our chief worthies,” says Cotton Mather, (Magnalia, b. vii. c.
ii. § 9) “maintained their different persuasions, with weapons indeed no more
dangerous than easy pens, and effects no worse than a little harmless and learned
inkshed.” Mr. Hooker wrote a tract of nearly thirteen pages, in defence of the
cross. Winthrop says, that the Court were “doubtful of the lawful use of the cross
in an ensign.” The militia refused to march with the mutilated banners. The matter
was finally settled, by leaving out the cross in the colors for the trained bands, and
retaining it in the banners of the castle and of vessels.
74. His. Col. vi. p. 246.
75. That is, April 30. Winthrop adopted, a few months before, this mode of
denoting time. It seems to have arisen from a desire to avoid the Roman
nomenclature, as heathenish. Perhaps an aversion to the Romish church had a
share in producing the change. The custom continued for more than fifty years,
when it was gradually abandoned, except by the Friends, or Quakers, and
Hutchinson thinks, that the popular prejudice against them hastened the decline of
the custom. The months were called 1st, 2d, &c. beginning with March, and the
days of the week were designated in the same way.
76. Since these remarks were written, the author has found in Mr. Williams’
“Hireling Ministry none of Christ’s,” an “Appendix as touching oaths, a query.” This
Appendix is as follows: “Although it be lawful (in case) for Christians to invocate
the name of the Most High in swearing; yet since it is a part of his holy worship,
and therefore proper unto such as are his true worshippers in spirit and in truth;
and persons may as well be forced unto any part of the worship of God as unto
this, since it ought not to be used but most solemnly, and in solemn and weighty
cases, and (ordinarily) in such as are not otherwise determinable; since it is the
voice of the two great lawgivers from God, Moses and Christ Jesus, that in the
mouth of two or three witnesses (not swearing) every word shall stand: Whether
the enforcing of oaths and spiritual covenants upon a nation, promiscuously, and
the constant enforcing of all persons to practise the worship in the most trivial and
common cases in all courts (together with the ceremonies of book and holding up
the hand, &c.) be not a prostituting of the holy name of the Most High to every
unclean lip, and that on slight occasions, and a taking of it by millions, and so
many millions of times in vain, and whether it be not a provoking of the eyes of
his jealousy who hath said, that he will not hold him (what him or them soever)
guiltless, that taketh his name in vain.” It seems, from this paragraph, that he
considered taking an oath to be an act of worship; that a Christian might take one
on proper occasions, though not for trivial causes; that an irreligious man could
not sincerely perform this act of worship; and that no man ought to be forced to
perform this act, any more than any other act of worship. His own practice was
agreeable to his theory. He says, in his George Fox digged out of his Burrowes,
(Appendix, pp. 59, 60) “cases have befallen myself in the Chancery in England, &c.
of the loss of great sums, which I chose to bear, through the Lord’s help, rather
than yield to the formality (then and still in use) in God’s worship, [alluding,
perhaps, to the use of a book, holding up the hand, &c.] though I offered to
swear, in weighty cases, by the name of God, as in the presence of God, and to
attest or call God to witness; and the judges told me they would rest in my
testimony and way of swearing, but they could not dispense with me without an
act of Parliament.”
77. Tenet Washed, pp. 28, 29.
78. Backus, vol. i, p. 62.
79. In his “Hireling Ministry none of Christ’s,” he says, on this subject, “we
may hinder and harden poor souls against repentance, when, by fellowship in
prayer with them as with saints, we persuade them of their [already] blessed state
of Christianity, and that they are new born, the sons and daughters of the living
God.” p. 22. This argument is unsound, because we do not “hold fellowship” with
the impenitent, by praying in their presence; but the argument shows Mr. Williams’
conscientious regard for the welfare of men.
It is worthy of remark, here, that while Winthrop states this charge as a
general proposition, Hubbard (207) and Morton (153) assert, that Mr. Williams
refused to “pray or give thanks at meals with his own wife or any of his family.”
This was probably an inference from Mr. Williams’ abstract doctrine. Several of the
charges against him might be thus traced to the disposition to draw inferences. A
curious instance is given by Cotton Mather, (Magnalia, b. vii. ch. ii. § 6.) Mr.
Williams, he says, “complained in open Court, that he was wronged by a
slanderous report, as if he held it unlawful for a father to call upon his child to eat
his meat.” Mr. Hooker, then present, being moved hereupon to speak something,
replied, “Why, you will say as much again, if you stand to your own principles, or
be driven to say nothing at all.” Mr. Williams expressing his confidence that he
should never say it, Mr. Hooker proceeded: “If it be unlawful to call an
unregenerate person to pray, since it is an action of God’s worship, then it is
unlawful for your unregenerate child to pray for a blessing upon his own meat. If it
be unlawful for him to pray for a blessing upon his meat, it is unlawful for him to
eat it, for it is sanctified by prayer, and without prayer unsanctified. (1 Tim. iv. 4,
5.) If it be unlawful for him to eat it, it is unlawful for you to call upon him to eat
it, for it is unlawful for you to call upon him to sin.” Our fathers were adepts in
logic. Mr. Hooker’s syllogisms do not now seem very convincing, but they must
have puzzled Mr. Williams, if he held the notions ascribed to him. Accordingly,
Cotton Mather adds, that “Mr. Williams chose to hold his peace, rather than to
make any answer.” We may wonder, nevertheless, that Mr. Williams has not been
accused of starving his children, to the horror of succeeding generations!
80. The Court, in March, 1634–5, passed an act, “entreating of the brethren
and elders of every church within their jurisdiction, that they will consult and
advise of one uniform order of discipline in the churches, agreeable to the
Scriptures, and then to consider how far the magistrates are bound to interpose
for the preservation of that uniformity and the peace of the churches.”
81. Ecclesiastes, vii. 7.
82. Winthrop, vol. i. p. 167, note.
83. Winthrop places the banishment under the date of October, but the
Colonial Records, (I. 163) state, that it took place, November 3, 1635.
84. See Appendix C.
85. Backus, vol. i. p. 516. He called this daughter Freeborn. This was in the
taste of the times. The first three children christened in Boston church were
named Joy, Recompense and Pity. It is worthy of remark, that the name Freeborn
was given, while the father was the object of what he doubtless thought
oppression. It shows his indomitable spirit.
86. MSS. Letter.
87. This is the ground on which Mr. Cotton himself justified the punishment of
heretics. See the “Bloody Tenet.”
88. About the same time that Bossuet, the most illustrious champion of the
Church of Rome, was engaged in maintaining, with all the force of his
overwhelming eloquence, and inexhaustible ingenuity, that the sovereign was
bound to use his authority in extirpating false religions from the state, the Scotch
Commissioners in London were remonstrating, in the name of their national
Church, against the introduction of a ‘sinful and ungodly toleration in matters of
religion;’ whilst the whole body of the English Presbyterian Clergy, in their official
papers, protested against the schemes of Cromwell’s party, and solemnly declared,
‘that they detested and abhorred toleration.’ ‘My judgment,’ said Baxter, a man
noted in his day for moderation, ‘I have always freely made known. I abhor
unlimited liberty or toleration of all.’—‘Toleration,’ said Edwards, another
distinguished divine, ‘will make the kingdom a chaos, a Babel, another
Amsterdam, a Sodom, an Egypt, a Babylon. Toleration is the grand work of the
Devil, his master-piece, and chief engine to uphold his tottering kingdom. It is the
most compendious, ready, sure way to destroy all religion, lay all waste and bring
in all evil. It is a most transcendent, catholic and fundamental evil. As original sin
is the fundamental sin, having the seed and spawn of all sins in it, so toleration
hath all errors in it, and all evils.’ Verplank’s Discourses, pp. 23, 24. Similar
language was used in this country. The Rev. Mr. Ward, in his Simple Cobler of
Agawam, written in 1647, utters his detestation of toleration, and says: “He that is
willing to tolerate any religion, or decrepit way of religion, besides his own, unless
it be in matters merely indifferent, either doubts of his own, or is not sincere in it.”
89. 1 His. Col. vi. p. 248.
90. Mr. Haynes was preceded by Mr. Dudley, who was a stern man, and
particularly opposed to toleration. He died soon after, with a copy of verses in his
pocket, written with his own hand. The two following lines made a part of it:
“Let men of God in court and churches watch

“O’er such as do a toleration hatch.”
Mr. Haynes also accused Governor Winthrop as too mild. Winthrop, vol. i. p.
178.
91. Mr. Cotton denied, in his Reply to the Bloody Tenet, that he had any
agency in the banishment of Mr. Williams, but avowed that he approved of it. Mr.
Williams asserts, “Some gentlemen who consented to the sentence against me,
solemnly testified with tears, that they did it by the advice and counsel of Mr.
Cotton.” These two assertions may be reconciled, perhaps, by the remark of Mr.
Cotton, that “if he did counsel one or two, it would not argue the act of the
government.”
92. In the Bloody Tenet such phrases as these are repeatedly applied to Mr.
Cotton: “I speak with honorable respect for the answerer”—“the worthy
answerer”—“a man incomparably too worthy for such a service.”
93. Baylies’ History of Plymouth, vol. i. chap. 4.

94. 2 His. Col. vol. ix. pp. 235, 236.
95. Key, Introduction.
96. Key, ch. 21.
97. The remark of Tacitus, respecting the German tribes, is true of the
Indians: “Reges̄ ex nobilitate, Duces ex virtute sumunt. Nec Regibus infinita aut
libera potestas, et Duces exemplo potius quam imperio; si prompti, si conspicui, si
ante aciem agant, admiratione præsunt.” De Mor. Ger. c. vii.
98. Key, ch. 22.
99. Encyclopædia Americana, art. Indians.
101. Roger Williams says, “I have known many of them run between
fourscore or an hundred miles in a summer’s day, and back in two days.” Key, ch.
11.
102. Key, ch. 2.
103. When boiled whole it was called msickquatash, and it is still eaten in
New-England, under the name of suckatash. The ground corn, when boiled, was
called Nasaump. “From this,” says Roger Williams, “the English call their samp,
which is the Indian corn, beaten and boiled, and eaten hot or cold with milk or
butter, which are mercies beyond the natives’ plain water, and which is a dish
exceeding wholesome for the English bodies.” Key, ch. 2.
104. This shell fish is now called quahawg. The blue part of the shell seems to
have been broken off, drilled, ground to a round, smooth surface, and polished. It
appears that the white parts of the quahawg shell were in like manner made into
wampum. Morton’s Memorial, Appendix, p. 388.
106. The remark of Lord Bacon is applicable to the native tribes of our land.
“It is certain, that sedentary and within door arts, and delicate manufactures (that
require rather the finger than the arm) have in their nature a contrariety to a
warlike disposition; and generally all warlike people are a little idle, and love
danger better than travail.” Essay 29.
107. They supposed that their elysium was situated in the southwest, because
the wind from that quarter is always the attendant or precursor of fine weather. It
was not unnatural for an ignorant savage to imagine, that the balmy and delightful
breezes from the southwest were “airs from heaven.”
108. Key, ch. 21.
109. The Rev. John Eliot, called the Indian apostle, was settled as the teacher
of the church in Roxbury, in 1632. He learned the Indian language, and
commenced preaching to the natives. In 1651, an Indian town was built, on a
pleasant spot on Charles river, about 16 miles from Boston, and called Natick. A
house of worship was erected, and a church of converted Indians was formed, in
1660. In 1661, he published the New Testament, in the Indian language, and in a
few years after, the whole Bible, and several other books. His labors for the
welfare of the natives were very great, and his success was gratifying. In 1670,
there were between 60 and 70 praying communicants. The example of Eliot was
followed by others, especially by the Mayhews, who labored among the Indians on
Nantucket and Martha’s Vineyard. Many churches were formed in various places
besides Natick, schools established, books printed, and other efforts made for the
welfare of the natives. The aggregate number of praying Indians, in 1674, has
been estimated as follows:
In Massachusetts, principally under Mr. Eliot’s care, 1100

In Plymouth, under Mr. Bourne, 530
In Plymouth, under Mr. Cotton, 170
On the island of Nantucket, 300
On Martha’s Vineyard and Chappequiddick, under the Mayhews, 1500
3600
See Morton’s Memorial, note U, p. 407, and Qu. Register of the Am. Ed. Soc.
for Feb. 1832. Adams’ Bio. Dic. art. Eliot and Mayhew.
110. The illustrious Professors Adelung and Vater, and Baron Humboldt,
deserve a special mention. They are the authors of that astonishing work, the
Mithridates.
111. The Cherokee language exceeds even the Greek in its power to express,
by the inflection of a single word, delicate modifications of thought. An example is
given in the Appendix to the 6th volume of the Encyclopædia Americana. It is also
a specimen of the length to which the words in the Indian languages are often
extended. The word is, Winitaw´tigeginaliskawlungtanawneli´tisesti, which may be
rendered, “They will by that time have nearly done granting [favors] from a
distance to thee and to me.” This word is understood to be regularly inflected,
according to fixed rules. If so, the Cherokee language must have an arrangement
of modes, tenses and numbers, which few if any other languages on earth can
equal.
112. 2 His. Col. ix. 227.
113. The number assigned, in the same work, to Europe, is 587; to Africa,
276; to Asia, 987. Total, in the world, 3064.
114. 2 His. Col. ix. 233, 234.
115. Heckewelder and Edwards assert this fact.
116. Key, introduction.
117. Vattel’s Law of Nations, book i. sections 81 and 209.
118. “And God blessed them, and God said unto them, Be fruitful and multiply
and replenish the earth, and subdue it.” Genesis, i. 28.
119. The patents which they brought with them were, in theory, unjust; for
they implied, in terms, the absolute control of the English monarch over the ceded
territory, and contained no recognition of the rights of the natives. But the
Christian integrity of the Pilgrims corrected, in practice, the error or defect of the
patents. An able writer says: “It is beyond all question, that the early settlers at
Plymouth, at Saybrook, and, as a general rule, all along the Atlantic coast,
purchased the lands upon which they settled, and proceeded in their settlements
with the consent of the natives. Nineteen twentieths of the land in the Atlantic
States, and nearly all the land settled by the whites in the western States, came
into our possession as the result of amicable treaties.” “The settlers usually gave
as much for land as it was then worth, according to any fair and judicious
estimate. An Indian would sell a square mile of land for a blanket and a jack-knife;
and this would appear to many to be a fraudulent bargain. It would, however, by
no means deserve such an appellation. The knife alone would add more to the
comfort of an Indian, and more to his wealth, than forty square miles of land, in
the actual circumstances of the case.” See a very judicious article in the North
American Review, for October, 1830. We may add, that, at this day, a square mile
of land might be bought in some parts of the United States, for less than the first
settlers paid the Indians for their lands. Indeed, as the writer just quoted says,
“There are millions of acres of land in the Carolinas, which would not, at this
moment, be accepted as a gift, and yet much of this land will produce, with very
little labor, one hundred and fifty bushels of sweet potatoes to the acre.” Vattel
says, (book i. § 209) “We cannot help praising the moderation of the English
puritans, who first settled in New-England, who, notwithstanding their being
furnished with a charter from their sovereign, purchased of the Indians the land
they resolved to cultivate. This laudable example was followed by Mr. William
Penn, who planted the colony of Quakers in Pennsylvania.”
120. The consternation which the war with Black Hawk spread over the
western country the last year, may give some faint idea of the horrors of an Indian
warfare in the early days of the colonies.
121. See Opinion of the Supreme Court of the United States, at January term,
1832, in the Cherokee case.
122. There is a strange confusion in the statements of different authors

respecting the time of Mr. Williams’ banishment, and of the settlement of
Providence. The above date is unquestionably correct, for reasons which will
hereafter be presented.
123. Letter to Major Mason.
124. Letter of Roger Williams.
125. Letter to Major Mason.
126. Key, chap. ii.
127. The venerable Moses Brown assures me, that he has ascertained this
fact, to his own satisfaction.
128. William Harris, John Smith (miller), Joshua Verin, Thomas Angell and
Francis Wickes. R. I. Register, 1828, article written by Moses Brown.
129. Equivalent to the modern How do you do?
130. The lands adjacent to this spot were called Whatcheer, in memory of the
occurrence.
131. “Tradition has uniformly stated the place where they landed, to be at the
spring southwest of the Episcopal church, at which a house has recently been built
by Mr. Nehemiah Dodge.” Moses Brown.
132. Mrs. Hemans’ noble ode, “The Landing of the Pilgrim Fathers.” This
beautiful stanza applies with more literal truth to Roger Williams and his
companions, than to all the Pilgrim fathers.
133. Published in the Providence Gazette, from January to March, 1765, and
republished in the 2 Mass. His. Col. ix.
134. Mass. Rec. vol. i. p. 163.
135. Backus, vol. i. 74.
136. The Plymouth settlers, in 1623, began to plant their corn the middle of
April. Prince, p. 216.
138. In a letter to the author, from John Howland, Esq. of Providence, one of
the most intelligent and active members of the Rhode-Island Historical Society, he
says, “When our Society was first formed, it was proposed to fix on the day of his
arrival here, as the day of the annual meetings of the Society; and till that day
could be ascertained, we decided on the day of the date of the charter of Charles
II.”
139. Backus, vol. i. p. 89.
140. Rhode-Island Register, 1828.
141. “Under the general name of Narraganset, were included Narraganset

proper, and Coweset. Narraganset proper extended south from what is now called
Warwick to the ocean; Coweset, from Narraganset northerly to the Nipmuck
country, which now forms Oxford, (Mass.) and some other adjoining towns. The
western boundaries of Narraganset and Coweset cannot be definitely ascertained.
Gookin says, the Narraganset jurisdiction extended thirty or forty miles from
Seekonk river and Narraganset Bay, including the islands, southwesterly to a place
called Wekapage, four or five miles to the eastward of Pawcatuck river; that it
included a part of Long-Island, Block-Island, Coweset and Niantick, and received
tribute from some of the Nipmucks. After some research, I am induced to believe,
that the Nianticks occupied the territory now called Westerly. If so, then the
jurisdiction of the Narragansets extended to the Pawcatuck, and perhaps beyond
it.”—Whatcheer, Notes, p. 176.
142. This is transcribed from a copy furnished by John Howland, Esq. It

differs a little from that contained in Backus, vol. i. p. 89. The orthography is
conformed to modern usage.
143. “The great hill, Notaquoncanot, mentioned as a bound, is three miles

west from Weybosset bridge. Mashapaug is about two miles south of the hill.—J.
H.”
144. Mr. Backus (vol. i. p. 90) has this reading: “He acknowledged this his act
and hand; up the streams,” &c. But the reading in the text is retained, according
to Mr. Howland’s copy. The deed was written by Roger Williams, but the
memorandum by some other person.
146. Backus, vol. i. p. 290.
147. See above. He adds, “It hath been told me, that I labored for a licentious
and contentious people; that I have foolishly parted with town and colony
advantages, by which I might have preserved both town and colony in as good
order as any in the country about us.” The following letter from his son may be
properly quoted here, as confirming the preceding statements:
“To all them that deem themselves purchasers in the town of Providence, if
they be real purchasers, I would have them make it appear.
“Gentlemen,
“I thought good in short to present you with these few lines, concerning the
bounds of Providence, &c. I have put forth several queries to several men in the
township, to be answered; but have not any answer from any of them; and, as I
judge, doth not care to have any discourse about it. Therefore, now I speak to you
all, desiring your honors will be pleased to consider of the matter, and to answer
me to one or two queries; that is, whether you have any thing under my father’s
hand to prove the bounds of this town afore those twelve men were concerned; or
whether my father disposed of any of the township to any other persons since the
twelve men were first in power, &c. If my father had disposed or sold his whole
township, and they he sold it to, or have it under his hand, prove the sale,
although it was but for one penny, God forbid that ever I should open my mouth
about it, &c. It is evident, that this township was my father’s, and it is held in his
name against all unjust clamors, &c. Can you find such another now alive, or in
this age? He gave away his lands and other estate, to them that he thought were
most in want, until he gave away all, so that he had nothing to help himself, so
that he being not in a way to get for his supply, and being ancient, it must needs
pinch somewhere. I do not desire to say what I have done for both father and
mother. I judge they wanted nothing that was convenient for ancient people, &c.
What my father gave, I believe he had a good intent in it, and thought God would
provide for his family. He never gave me but about three acres of land, and but a
little afore he deceased. It looked hard, that out of so much at his disposing, that I
should have so little, and he so little. For the rest, &c. I did not think to be so
large; so referring your honors to those queries you have among you,
“Your friend and neighbor,
“DANIEL WILLIAMS.
“Providence, Aug. 24, 1710.
“If a covetous man had that opportunity as he had, most of this town would
have been his tenants, I believe.
D. W.”
148. The first deed was “written in a strait of time and haste,” as he alleged,
and contained only the initials of the names of the grantees. He was censured for
this by some of them, as if he had done it for some sinister design! They urged
him to give them another deed, which he finally did, on the 22d of December,
1666, when the document in the text was written, retaining the original date.
149. The name, New Providence, appears in a few documents written by Mr.
Williams himself, and by others, but it was soon discontinued. The origin of the
epithet New may have been, a desire to distinguish the town from the island of
Providence, one of the Bahama islands, on which a plantation was begun in 1629.
Holmes’ Annals, vol. i. p. 201. This island has since received the name of New
Providence. The town of Roger Williams was entitled to the precedence.
151. This seems to be loosely expressed. Mr. Williams could not mean that he
delivered the deed to the grantees in 1637, for several of the persons named, did
not arrive in Providence till after April, 1638. (Backus, vol. i. p. 92.) His own deed
of cession is dated Oct. 8, 1638. He probably meant, that he delivered the deed,
signed by the sachems in 1637, to the purchasers. This deed was dated March 24,
the last day of 1637, old style.
152. An anchor, reclining.
153. We are surprised at the form of this signature. That Mrs. Williams could
not write, would be incredible, if it were not rendered certain that she could write,
by a reference to her letters, in a public document at Providence. It is probable,
that she wrote the initials, believing them to be sufficient; and some person added
the words, the mark of, and wrote the name at length.
154. Mr. Backus so understood it. Vol. i. p. 93.
155. He found “Indian gifts” very costly. He was under the necessity of
making frequent presents. He says, that he let the Indians have his shallop and

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