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Digital Manufacturing
and Assembly Systems
in Industry 4.0
Science, Technology, and Management Series
Series Editor, J. Paulo Davim

This book series focuses on special volumes from conferences, workshops,

and symposiums, as well as volumes on topics of current interested in all
aspects of science, technology, and management. The series will discuss top-
ics such as, mathematics, chemistry, physics, materials science, nanosciences,
sustainability science, computational sciences, mechanical engineering, in-
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agement sciences, economical science, human resource management, social
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Handbook of IoT and Big Data

Edited by Vijender Kumar Solanki, Vicente García Díaz, J. Paulo Davim

Advanced Mathematical Techniques in Engineering Sciences

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Soft Computing Techniques for Engineering Optimization

Kaushik Kumar, Supriyo Roy, and J. Paulo Davim

Digital Manufacturing and Assembly Systems in Industry 4.0

Edited by Kaushik Kumar, Divya Zindani, and J. Paulo Davim
Digital Manufacturing
and Assembly Systems
in Industry 4.0

Edited by
Kaushik Kumar
Divya Zindani
J. Paulo Davim
CRC Press
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Kumar, K. (Kaushik), 1968- editor. | Zindani, Divya, 1989- editor. |

Davim, J. Paulo, editor.
Title: Digital manufacturing and assembly systems in industry 4.0 / edited by
Kaushik Kumar, Divya Zindani, and J. Paulo Davim.
Description: Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, CRC Press, 2019. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019007839| ISBN 9781138612723 (hardback : alk. paper) |
ISBN 9780429464768 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Manufacturing processes--Data processing. | Assembly-line
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Contents

Preface..................................................................................................................... vii
Editors.......................................................................................................................xi
Contributors.......................................................................................................... xiii

Section I Overview

1. Intelligent Manufacturing Systems, Smart Factories and

Industry 4.0: A General Overview...............................................................3
Ercan Oztemel

2. Industry 4.0: Opportunities and Challenges for Turkey...................... 31

Hakan Erkurt, Özalp Vayvay, and Elif Yolbulan Okan

3. Industries of Future...................................................................................... 59
Hridayjit Kalita, Divya Zindani, and Kaushik Kumar

Section II Applications

4. Applying Theory of Constraints to a Complex Manufacturing

Process.............................................................................................................. 75
Vishal Naranje and Srinivas Sarkar

5. A Multi-objective Tool Path Optimization Methodology

for Sculptured Surfaces Based on Experimental Data and
Heuristic Search........................................................................................... 101
N. A. Fountas, N. M. Vaxevanidis, C. I. Stergiou, and R. Benhadj-Djilali

6. A Computer Simulation Approach to Improve Productivity of

Automobile Assembly Line: A Case Study............................................ 141
Vishal Naranje and Anand Naranje

Index...................................................................................................................... 161

v
Preface

The editors are pleased to present the book Digital Manufacturing and
Assembly Systems in Industry 4.0 under the book series Science, Technology,
and Management. The book title was chosen by looking at the present trends
and shifts in the industrial world and the future of the same.
Industrial revolutions were the giant steps for mankind toward global
development and prosperity. The industrial revolution started in around
1750 with industry 1.0 (the first industrial revolution) where human and
animal power was replaced by mechanical power systems like the steam
engine, spinning wheel, and water wheel, resulting in an enhancement and
betterment in productivity. It took about a century to introduce electricity,
assembly lines, conveyor belts, etc., and initiation toward mass production
was made. This was designated as the second industrial revolution (industry
2.0). In the nineteenth century, under the third industrial revolution (indus-
try 3.0), integrated manufacturing with electronics provided automated pro-
duction machinery.
Presently, with globalization and an open market economy, the market has
become consumer driven or customer dictated. This has given rise to the
fourth industrial revolution or industry 4.0. This has initiated the amalga-
mation of the internet, information and communication technologies (ICT),
and physical machinery with coinage of words, such as Internet of Things
(IoT), Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT), collaborative robot (COBOT), big
data, cloud computing, virtual manufacturing, and 3D printing, which have
marked their presence into our daily lives. Industry 4.0 has been designed
toward development of a new generation of smart factories or currently
coined as “customized or tabletop factories” with increased production flex-
ibility allowing personalized and customized production of articles in a lot
as small as a single unique item. Hence, today’s facilities are to be provided
to a customer situated at one side of the globe to control and monitor his
product being produced in a manufacturing unit available on the other side
of the world.
This book is primarily intended to provide researchers and students with an
overview of digital manufacturing and assembly systems, a vital component
of the buzzword “industry 4.0.” Digital manufacturing and assembly systems
are modularly structured with cyber-physical systems (CPS), as “convertible
machines,” “smart assembly stations,” and “smart part logistic.” These ele-
ments communicate and cooperate with each other in real time, integrat-
ing the physical processes with virtual information in an augmented reality
fashion to eliminate errors and maximize the production process efficiency.
Furthermore, aided assembly improves the duration and safety of fastening
and picking activities through several technologies, as internet, ICT, IoT, IIoT,

vii
viii Preface

COBOT, big data, cloud computing, digital manufacturing, additive manufac-

turing, etc. Computerized numerical control (CNC) machines and reconfigu-
rable tools are integrated through adequate controls in an open architecture
environment to produce a particular family of customized parts ensuring a
scalable, convertible, and profitable manufacturing process. The big data gen-
erated by the manufacturing process is consistently growing and becoming
more valuable than the hardware that it generates. However, to make use of it,
manufacturers must distinguish the useful data from big data. After which,
the useful data must be correctly analyzed in order for it to be meaningfully
interpreted and understood. Thus, the resource that manufacturers require is
not only big data but also the ability to manage the data and turn it into useful
data that can be used for decision support and maximize the profit margin.
Several benefits can then be derived. By exploiting digital manufacturing,
manufacturing enterprises expect to achieve the following:

1. Shortened product development;

2. Early validation of manufacturing processes;
3. Faster production ramp-up;
4. Faster time to market;
5. Reduced manufacturing costs;
6. Improved product quality;
7. Enhanced product knowledge dissemination;
8. Reduction in errors; and
9. Increase in flexibility.

The chapters here are categorized in two parts namely: Section 1: Overview
and Section 2: Applications
Section 1 contains Chapters 1 through 3, whereas Section 2 has Chapters 4
through 6.
Section 1 starts with Chapter 1, which provides a general overview of intel-
ligent manufacturing, smart factories, and industry 4.0, taking the attention
of the reader to possible methods, methodologies, business models, and
progress (trends) along these lines. Information about a general framework
and a reference model has also been explained. The chapter also provides
a roadmap for managing a healthy transformation from the machine-
dominant industry to knowledge-powered manufacturing suites. A set of
references have been provided to support the readers for their own research
and studies.
Chapter 2 concentrates on the history of the development of technology-
based industrialization with special emphasis toward digital transforma-
tion and industry 4.0 with a special concentration on Turkey’s technological
outlook. Turkey, with its geopolitical position, dynamic private sector, and
demographic and economic potential has always been an important country
Preface ix

for the global business world. This chapter points out the importance of
industry 4.0 for Turkey and aims to suggest a roadmap for the needed adap-
tation strategies to industry 4.0 for various Turkish sectors.
Chapter 3, the last one in Section I, speculates about the future factories
in tune to the development of digitalization and customization. For custom-
ized and high-demand products, the flexible manufacturing has become the
need of the market and time. Lack of flow of information between the pro-
ducers and the customers was a big issue and needed to be solved entirely.
The solution was provided with improvement in the digital technology and
its integration with the information technology, which ensured flow of data
from machine to machine or across company boundaries, sophisticated algo-
rithms incorporated to optimize the information in the network and com-
municate with the CPS, or the machines for the best possible solution to any
operational problem. In this chapter, the general overview of the manufac-
turing world in the future (or the future industries), their fundamental tech-
nologies, their future ethics and laws to be followed, their characteristics,
and their impact on the socioeconomic–political domain has been discussed
in detail.
In the previous chapter, the usage of sophisticated algorithms was identi-
fied. In Chapter 4, the first one in Section II, the Theory of Constraints (TOC)
was applied to a complex manufacturing environment of the case company
Futur Décor in order find bottlenecks in their production processes and
develop ways to eliminate them and improve organizational performance.
After exploiting these constraints and successfully breaking the bottlenecks,
the cycle time of the primary and secondary constraint processes were
reduced and, thereby, improved factory processes. Companies facing similar
challenges in similar industries, to improve their performance as well, could
apply the methods used in this chapter.
Chapter 5 also presents the application of an intelligent algorithm.
The ­ chapter provides a generic solution for the heuristic tool path
­optimization of complex sculptured surface CNC machining. The three-­
objective optimization problem is established as an integrated automation
­function ­involving the criteria mentioned, as well as the existing objects of
a ­cutting-edge Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) system and solved
by adopting the Pareto multi-­objective approach. The automation function
is handled by an intelligent algorithm. The proposed approach for heuris-
tic sculptured surface CNC tool path optimization has been validated by
comparing the results obtained from actual five-axis cutting experiments
conducted, to those available by existing methods in literature for the same
problem. It was shown that the proposed approach not only can outperform
those methods in terms of high-­precision cutting but may also constitute
a practical environment for profitable, ­reliable, and flexible intelligent tool
path selection to machine-complex-sculptured surfaces.
Chapter 6, the last chapter of the section and the book, describes computer
simulation models, developed to imitate a real-world automobile component
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x Preface

assembly line in order to analyze the cycle time and calculate efficiency of
the assembly line. The model has been developed under WITNESS PwE
RELEASE 3.0 simulation software. Two assembly lines have been chosen for
the study. The use of industrial engineering tools like work study, method
study, line balancing, two handed process charts and 5S are being used to
recoded the data and identify alternatives for productivity improvement of
assembly line. Based on the result of this study, the total cycle of Assembly
Line 1 has been reduced, and the production rate has increased for both
cases. Simulation methodology has been conducted to verify and validate
the model before applications to the case study.
First and foremost, we would like to thank God for giving us power to
believe in our passion and pursue our dreams. We could never have done
this without the faith we have in you, The Almighty.
We would like to thank our grandparents, parents, and relatives for allow-
ing us to follow our ambitions. Our families showed patience and tolerated
us for taking yet another challenge that decreased the amount of time we
could spend with them. They were our inspiration and motivation. Our
efforts will come to a level of satisfaction if the professionals concerned with
all the fields related to industry 4.0 are benefitted.
We also thank all the contributors, our colleagues, and friends. This book
not only was inspired by them but also directly improved by their active
involvement in its development.
We owe a huge thanks to all of our technical reviewers, editorial advisory
board members, book development editor, and the team of CRC Press per-
sonnel for their availability on this huge project. All of their efforts helped
to make this book complete, and we couldn’t have done it without their con-
stant coordination and support.
Last, but definitely not least, we would like to thank all individuals who
had taken time out and helped us during the process of editing this book.
Without their support and encouragement, we would have probably given
up the project.

Kaushik Kumar

Divya Zindani

J. Paulo Davim
Editors

Kaushik Kumar, BTech in mechanical engineering, REC (Now NIT),

Warangal; MBA in marketing, IGNOU; and PhD in engineering, Jadavpur
University, is presently an associate professor in the Department of
Mechanical Engineering, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, India.
He has 16 years of teaching and research and over 11 years of industrial
experience in a manufacturing unit of global repute. His areas of teaching
and research interest are conventional and non-conventional quality man-
agement systems, optimization, non-conventional machining, CAD/CAM,
rapid prototyping, and composites. He has 9 patents, 26 books, 13 edited
books, 42 book chapters, 136 international journal publications, and 21 inter-
national and 8 national conference publications to his credit. He is on the
editorial board and review panel of seven international journals and one
national journal of repute. He has been felicitated with many awards and
honors.

Divya Zindani, BE, mechanical engineering, Rajasthan Technical University,

Kota; M.E. design of mechanical equipment, BIT Mesra, is presently pursu-
ing a PhD (National Institute of Technology, Silchar). He has over two years
of industrial experience. His areas of interests are optimization, product and
process design, CAD/CAM/CAE, rapid prototyping, and material selection.
He has 1 patent, 4 books, 6 edited books, 18 book chapters, 2 SCI journal, 7
Scopus indexed international journals, and 4 international conference publi-
cations to his credit.

J. Paulo Davim received his PhD in mechanical engineering in 1997, M.Sc.

in mechanical engineering (materials and manufacturing processes) in
1991, licentiate degree (five years) in mechanical engineering in 1986 from
the University of Porto (FEUP), the aggregate title from the University of
Coimbra in 2005, and D.Sc. from London Metropolitan University in 2013.
He is EUR ING by FEANI and senior chartered engineer by the Portuguese
Institution of Engineers with an MBA and specialist title in engineering
and industrial management. Currently, he is professor at the Department
of Mechanical Engineering of the University of Aveiro. He has more than
30 years of teaching and research experience in manufacturing, materi-
als, and mechanical engineering with special emphasis in machining and
tribology. Recently, he also expressed interest in management/industrial
engineering and higher education for sustainability/engineering education.
He has received several scientific awards. He has worked as evaluator of proj-
ects for international research agencies as well as examiner of PhD thesis for
many universities. He is the editor in chief of several international journals,

xi
xii Editors

guest editor of journals, editor of books, series editor of books, and scientific
advisor for many international journals and conferences. At present, he is
an editorial board member of 25 international journals and acts as reviewer
for more than 80 prestigious Web of Science journals. In addition, he has also
published as editor (and co-editor) for more than 100 books and as author
(and co-author) for more than 10 books, 80 book chapters, and 400 articles in
journals and conferences (more than 200 articles in journals indexed in Web
of Science/h-index 45+ and SCOPUS/h-index 52+).
Contributors

J. Paulo Davim Kaushik Kumar

Department of Mechanical Department of Mechanical
Engineering Engineering
University of Aveiro BIT Mesra
Aveiro, Portugal Ranchi, India

R. Benhadj-Djilali Anand Naranje

Faculty of Science Adarsha Science, J.B. Arts and Birla
Engineering and Computing (SEC) Commerce College
School of Mechanical and Sant Gadge Baba Amravati
Aerospace Engineering University
Kingston University Amravati, Maharashtra, India
Kingston upon Thames, London
Vishal Naranje
Hakan Erkurt Department of Mechanical
Department of Business Engineering
Administration Amity University
Marmara University Dubai International Academic City
Istanbul, Turkey Dubai, United Arab Emirates

N. A. Fountas Elif Yolbulan Okan

Laboratory of Manufacturing Bahçeşehir University
Processes and Machine Tools Istanbul, Turkey
(LMProMaT)
Department of Mechanical Ercan Oztemel
Engineering Educators Department of Industrial
School of Pedagogical and Engineering
Technological Education Marmara University
(ASPETE) Istanbul, Turkey
Athens, Greece
Srinivas Sarkar
Hridayjit Kalita Department of Mechanical
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Engineering Birla Institute of Technology and
Birla Institute of Technology Science Pilani
Mesra, India Dubai International Academic City
Dubai, United Arab Emirates

xiii
xiv Contributors

C. I. Stergiou Özalp Vayvay

Department of Mechanical Department of Production
Engineering Management
University of West Attica (UNIWA) Marmara University
Egaleo, Greece Istanbul, Turkey

N. M. Vaxevanidis Divya Zindani

Laboratory of Manufacturing Department of Mechanical
Processes and Machine Tools Engineering
(LMProMaT) National Institute of Technology
Department of Mechanical Silchar, India
Engineering Educators
School of Pedagogical and
Technological Education (ASPETE)
Athens, Greece
Section I

Overview
1
Intelligent Manufacturing Systems,
Smart Factories and Industry 4.0:
A General Overview

Ercan Oztemel

CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction..................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Artificial Intelligence and Intelligent Manufacturing Systems............... 7
1.2.1 Artificial Intelligence.......................................................................... 8
1.2.2 Intelligent Manufacturing Systems................................................ 17
1.2.2.1 Architecture of Intelligent Manufacturing Systems..... 19
1.3 Smart Factories.............................................................................................. 21
1.4 Industry 4.0 and Its Components............................................................... 24
1.5 Transitioning for Industry 3.0 to Industry 4.0.......................................... 25
1.6 Conclusion..................................................................................................... 27
References................................................................................................................ 28

1.1 Introduction
Manufacturing systems have always faced challenges from the first industrial
revolution up to the current era with recent developments. Whenever a set of
breakthroughs are achieved, that characterizes a new industrial transformation
with certain effects on the social lives of human beings. Recently, the world is
facing the fourth industrial revolution, the so-called industry 4.0. This transfor-
mation has been mainly triggered by artificial intelligence (AI) and intelligent
manufacturing systems together with some new concepts, such as cyber-
physical systems (CPSs), Internet of Things (IoT), digital twin, augmented real-
ity, additive manufacturing, and cloud computing. With these technologies,
manufacturing systems can monitor physical processes and make real-time
smart decisions (Wang et al. 2015). These systems can operate as embedded
systems within manufacturing suites. Industry 4.0 assumes the integration of
all of these together in order to enrich business models and increase production
value chains. Due to great interest, intelligent manufacturing systems, smart
factories, and industry 4.0 are becoming more and more popular nowadays.

3
4 Digital Manufacturing and Assembly Systems in Industry 4.0

Industry 4.0 is mainly characterized as the transformation from machine-

dominant manufacturing systems to digital ones. Industry 4.0 and related
progress along this line will have an enormous effect on social life generating new
sets of manufacturing requirements. This naturally will trigger the manufacturing
society to improve their manufacturing suites to cope with the new requirements
and sustain competitive advantage. It should be noted that this transformation
will be opening the door to implanted technologies to the human body, wearable
internet, cooperating and coordinating machines, self-decision-making systems,
autonomy problem solvers, learning machines, etc. The machines will even start
to play the role of a decision board member having all the rights to make the
decisions. Three-dimensional (3D) printing is going to be progressing a lot more
than expectations leading to printed articles used in daily life. They will also
be used for building artificial organs. While generating intelligent sensors will
lead to smart cities, having intelligent machines will enable establishing smart or
“dark” factories. In sustaining intelligence over time, it will be necessary to collect
the data from various sensors as well as from the communication networks and
analyze those for generating more intelligence coping with the contemporary
changes. This also takes the attention of research along this line on “big data” and
respective analysis methods and methodologies.
Since industrial transformations have important effects on society, some of
which are mentioned above, it is important to understand the basic trends, new
approaches, and new business models for the sake of satisfying societal needs.
Keeping this in mind, the transition from industry 3.0 to industry 4.0 requires
extensive analysis to understand irreversible changes. As reported by Oztemel
and Gursev (2018), there are several driving forces of this change. IoT is one
of those. This technology allows machine-to-machine (M2M) communication
as well as machine-to-human interaction to support generating more human-
free manufacturing environments (smart factories). The second important
motivation of this change is “autonomy” as implied above. Manufacturing
developments and trends clearly indicate that the future systems are going to
be more and more self-behaving. Some sensors and CPS, on the other hand,
also contribute to the fourth industrial transformation. They facilitate easy
communication capability among the machines. When CPS, IoT, and M2M
communication and autonomy come together, they bring about more consistent,
robust, and agile manufacturing systems with self-behaving and intelligent
capabilities. This leads to the motivation for creating smart or dark factories.
Successful applications of AI in manufacturing made it possible to generate
fully integrated and intelligent (smart) manufacturing systems. Individual
intelligent systems were developed earlier. With the introduction and
improvement of business intelligence and data collection, as well as related
sensor technologies, integration of those became possible. Cooperation and
coordination of different intelligent systems had and have been the pri-
mary concern in developing intelligent manufacturing systems, which can
facilitate highly complex manufacturing functionalities with a considerable
degree of intelligence. Having this capability makes them:
Intelligent Manufacturing Systems, Smart Factories and Industry 4.0 5

• Operate in the best possible ways,

• Perform self-behavior,
• Manage manufacturing knowledge and keep those in operation
wherever possible,
• Maintain the execution of operations in order,
• Increase manufacturing speed and reduce manufacturing life cycle,
• Communicate other functions whenever needed,
• Handle the design changes, and
• Adapt themselves to changing market requirements.

To be able to achieve these, the respective systems should work automatically

and perform autonom behavior. However, this is not enough. Distributed
manufacturing systems over a communication network with decentralized
control of manufacturing systems, which can facilitate reusability as well as
synchronization of material and knowledge flows, seem to become more and
more important as well. Communication network, intelligence, integration,
and process flow is going to define the capability and goodness of intelligent
manufacturing systems.
There have been studies on various intelligent manufacturing technolo-
gies, and respective systems were developed and marketed for manufactur-
ing functionalities from design to product shipment. The literature provides
various benefits of generating and implementing intelligent manufacturing
systems. Oztemel (2010) provides an extensive overview as well as potential
gains of intelligent manufacturing systems. Basic transformation of indus-
trial systems is depicted in Figure 1.1.

•Design •CAD
•Process Planning •CAPP
•Production Plan •CIM
•Manufacuring •CAM
•Quality Mmanagement •CAQ
•Storing and Shipment 2. Computer •AR/S
1-Traditional
Aided
Manuf.
Manuf.
Systems
Systems

4. Otonom 3. Intelligent
•Autonomous Design Manuf. Manuf.
•Autonomous Proc. Plan Systems Systems •Int. Design
•Autonomous Prod. Plan
•Int. Process Plan
•Autonomous Manufacuring
•Int. Production Plan
•Autonomous Quality
•Int. Quality Management
•Autonomous AGV
•AGV

FIGURE 1.1
Changes and transformation of manufacturing functions. (From Oztemel, E., Chapter 1:
Intelligent Manufacturing Systems, in Artificial Intelligence Techniques for Networked Manufacturing
Enterprises Management, eds. Benyoucef, L. and Grabot, B., Springer Verlag, London, UK, 2010.)
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6 Digital Manufacturing and Assembly Systems in Industry 4.0

Among various benefits, autonomy is one of the major indicators of the

smartness, digitization, and manufacturing transformation. Self-behaving
machines not only decrease the costs but also produce the products to be
more intelligent and more compliant with customized needs and specifica-
tions of the customers. In the modern world, machines are expected to make
decisions by themselves through performing intelligent behavior. A level of
intelligence to some extent is required in manufacturing methods, manage-
rial activities, and technological infrastructure. In addition to having intelli-
gent manufacturing systems, the products produced are also becoming more
and more intelligent with certain cognitive abilities.
Intelligent manufacturing continues to take the advantage of improved AI
capabilities to achieve better flexible and reconfigurable, as well as smart,
manufacturing processes to experiment self-behaving manufacturing ser-
vices. With these capabilities, intelligent manufacturing requires certain
technologies to enable devices, equipment, and machines to generate respec-
tive behavior in response to changing situations and emerging manufactur-
ing requirements. They may utilize previous experiences and improve their
behavior through learning. Direct communication is inevitable for solving
problems and adapting decisions to new situations.
Note that generating an individual intelligent system working alone in an
enterprise does not satisfy the basic requirements of industrial transforma-
tion. An integrated system over a well-performing communication network
is necessary. As defined by Oztemel and Tekez (2009), intelligent systems
should not only perform intelligent behavior but should also share their
knowledge over a so-called knowledge network (KN) to facilitate better per-
formance of those interrelated.
Having unmanned manufacturing systems and technological opportuni-
ties changes the manufacturing vision to be based upon four basic concepts,
namely, “intelligence,” “products,” “communication,” and “information
network.” The term “industry 4.0” envisages such a vision to become reality
by enforcing several concepts, such as autonomy, M2M interfaces, CPS, and
mobile technologies to be the main agenda of the research community (Bunse
2016). Efforts are being generating for new systems, including manufacturing
robots, whose size is getting smaller, but the functionality is increasing day
by day. Oztemel and Gursev (2018) provides an extensive literature review on
industry 4.0 and respective technologies by reviewing more than 600 papers.
The following is recommended for understanding the new vision and comply-
ing with it:

• Future systems will be part of smart-networked manufacturing

suites with novel business models. New social infrastructures and
real-time-enabled CPS platforms will be heavily utilized.
• A manufacturing strategy will soon be formulated by the effect of a
well-formulated supplier as well as leading market strategy.
Intelligent Manufacturing Systems, Smart Factories and Industry 4.0 7

• Having intelligent suites will not be enough to have competitive

advantage. The products and services produced should also be as
intelligent as possible.
• Customized products will be key to driving sustainable
competitiveness.
• Companies need to be much more aware of their strong and weak
sides in order to converge with the new manufacturing facilities.
• Managing complex systems, delivering infrastructure for industry,
safety and security factors, and regularity framework should be the
main concerns of the manufacturing progress.
• Dedicated communication networks are going to be essential in
not only manufacturing but also in doing business.

Besides industry 4.0 initiatives, the literature also provides new trends emerg-
ing in advanced manufacturing. Esmaeilian et al. (2016) provided a literature
review on the progress of technology and elaborated on future manufacturing
systems. As reported, a holistic view of manufacturing is presented by analyzing
a broad range of publications covering various subareas and topics. Some of the
drivers that are causing the industry to adopt new initiatives in their enterprises,
processes, production systems, and equipment levels are explained. The devel-
opments in manufacturing systems, including the progress along with smart fac-
tories, big data analytics, cloud manufacturing, cybersecurity systems, and social
manufacturing as well as some advanced methodologies, such as nanomanu-
facturing and additive manufacturing, will drive manufacturing operations.
Flexibility, agility, and reconfigurability will also be focused on in improving
the performance of the systems. Due to innovations and technological achieve-
ments, the progress can be remarkable on sensors, devices, unmanned machines,
information networks, optimization, and machine-learning capabilities.
Current research concentrates on emerging advances in cloud computing,
machine learning, big data, open-source software, and industry initiatives
in the IoT, smart cities, smart factories, industrial internet, and industry 4.0.
This chapter provides a general overview of what intelligent manufacturing
systems are all about with a brief analysis of AI. It then highlights their effects
in generating smart factories and supporting the industrial transformation
of society. A clear road map is also reviewed for the sake of completeness.

1.2 Artificial Intelligence and Intelligent

Manufacturing Systems
As stated above, intelligent manufacturing systems are those performing the
manufacturing functions with unmanned capabilities as if human operators are
doing the job (Kusiak 2000). They should be equipped with enough intelligence
8 Digital Manufacturing and Assembly Systems in Industry 4.0

to perform assigned responsibilities through utilizing the domain knowledge

and respective facts. AI technologies can generate required intelligent and
autonom behavior for the manufacturing functionalities in question. This sec-
tion provides a summary of AI with well-known techniques. This follows with
the definition and explanation of intelligent manufacturing systems. Based on
the information provided, smart factories and industry 4.0 will be elaborated.

1.2.1 Artificial Intelligence

AI has long been discussed in literature. Recently, it became more popular
after some real-life application generating various types of multi-functional
and self-behaving systems (both hardware and software) as well as intel-
ligent products. Well-known AI aims to make computers intelligent, and
several applications indicate the possibility of having intelligently behaving
machines. It is a popular branch of computer science dealing with meth-
ods and methodologies developed for processing knowledge and reasoning
about it. Instead of processing data and employing numeric algorithms as
with traditional computing, reasoning is carried out by employing heuristic
approaches over the domain knowledge.
It is also well-known that AI programs are able to handle uncertain and
inexact knowledge, and they understand the words (computing with words)
to perform self-decision-making and some other intelligent capabilities, such
as planning, learning, reasoning, monitoring, and control. Oztemel (2010)
reviewed some examples of AI applications, especially in manufacturing, by
utilizing famous AI approaches, such as

• Expert systems,
• Artificial neural networks,
• Genetic algorithms,
• Fuzzy logic, and
• Intelligent agents.

Note that there are several more of these AI methods. Most of them, such as
emotional intelligence and qualitative reasoning, are still experimented and
are heavily engaged in research labs. However, real-life examples and appli-
cations are possible with those listed above. Although, a brief description of
each of these is provided in this chapter, the reader can easily find enough
literature for detailed information about these and other AI methods and
methodologies.

Experts systems are computer programs solving the problems in the

same way as human experts would when they face the same prob-
lems. The manufacturing activity dealt with should require human
expertise. Like human experts, expert systems can utilize domain
Intelligent Manufacturing Systems, Smart Factories and Industry 4.0 9

FIGURE 1.2
Components of an expert system.

knowledge based on related experience and talents. By running

these systems, computers or other hardware such as robots are
equipped with respective knowledge and skills.
Figure 1.2 indicates basic components and architecture of an expert
system. As depicted, generating an expert system would require at
least one domain expert to be involved in the development process.
A Knowledge engineer acquires the knowledge from the expert and
puts that into a certain format so that the computer can understand
it. That is called knowledge representation. Knowledge acquisition
is the process of locating, collecting, and eliciting the respective
domain knowledge.
The knowledge processed is stored in a so-called knowledge base with
a free format represented in a natural language. An inference engine
is designed to search, scan, and filter out the knowledge base to find
the best suitable responses to user queries. It is like the brain of the
system. It may either try to satisfy a hypothesis or goal (forward
chaining) or try to find the fact of life for supporting a hypothesis/
goal (backward chaining). User interface is established to handle
the communication between the expert system and the users and to
explain the reason behind the decisions.
Detailed descriptions of expert systems can be found in Turban et al.
(2008).
Artificial neural networks are another popular AI technology. Those
are designed to make computers learn events by using examples
(machine learning). A neural network is composed of hierarchically
connected artificial neurons (so-called process elements). Information
processing is being carried out by the processing elements connected
to each other. Each connection between processing elements has a
10 Digital Manufacturing and Assembly Systems in Industry 4.0

weight value indicating the effect of the processing element on the oth-
ers connected. The weight values, which are distributed to the overall
network, are believed to indicate the knowledge of the network.
The main purpose of learning is to find out the right weight values of the
connections so that correct input/output mapping can be performed.
The learning is achieved by presenting the network with the exam-
ples of the domain. The network is provided with examples indicat-
ing the respective outputs. Once trained, the network can perform
input/output mapping for those examples not seen before. There are
various types of neural networks. The most popular one is multi-
layer perceptron (MLP) or back-propagation networks. An example
of an MLP is shown in Figure 1.3. As illustrated in this figure, the
input layer represents the basic characteristic of the example, and the
output layer indicates the results of running that example. The hid-
den layer is defined to improve the learning performance of the
network, preventing local optimum and assuring the learning of
nonlinearity and complexity. The number of processing elements in
each layer (represented as circles in the figure) is defined by the prob-
lem representation. Bias units represent the threshold on hidden and
output units. Increasing the number of hidden layers will make the
network have “deep learning” capability. Each processing elements
perform information processing by using two functions, namely a
summation function (responsible for gathering the information com-
ing to the neuron) and an activation function (defines the output of
the neuron). It is believed that this type of network is able to solve
more than 90% of engineering problems. The learning algorithm is

FIGURE 1.3
An example of a neural network (multi-layer perceptron).
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to those princes and they fought with them, they dared not follow
them. But with you I will cross the Don and crush them. If true
success comes, we will pursue them to places to which our
grandfathers never thought, even in dreams, of advancing. We will
win for ourselves splendid glory.”

With his own men and a detachment of Chernigoff warriors, Igor set
out on his adventure, April 23, 1185, accompanied by his son, now
touching manhood, his brother Vsevolod the “Rushing Bull,” and a
few neighboring princes with their forces. He met the Polovtsi in a
desperate battle, and was vanquished with great slaughter. He and
his fellow princes all went beyond the Don,—but they went as
prisoners. “They were taken from the saddles of princes and put on
the saddles of captives.” Along the whole Luko Morye (Sea of Azoff)
shouts of delight rose from pagans. [132]At the place where the Don
River touches the Sea of Azoff, thousands of Polovtsi were singing
and celebrating, not honor to Russia, but woeful disaster. “Little
Polovtsi boys and beautiful Polovtsi maidens magnified the fame of
their people.”

This crushing defeat of Igor’s forces roused all the Polovtsi to greater
activity, and gave them at once boundless insolence. They sent a
message to Sviatoslav: “Come hither and ransom thy brothers, or
wait at thy own place till we come for our people.” By this they
referred to Kobyk and the other Khans captured on the Erela. And
now the Polovtsi raced over Russia. They burned and plundered,
and seized captives. The gallant Vladimir, son of Glaib, defended
himself at Pereyaslavl on the Alta. “Wounded from head to foot,” he
was borne out of battle dead, as his friends thought. A year later he
died of those wounds, though he had apparently recovered, and had
warred against the Polovtsi a second time. After Vladimir’s death
there was no heir to Pereyaslavl on the Alta, hence the place went to
Vsevolod of Vladimir.
Sviatoslav’s grief was unspeakable when he heard what had
happened to Igor and his comrades. “Striplings!” said he,
overwhelmed with sorrow and bitterly bewailing their rash enterprise.
“Why did they tarnish the glory of victory? Why did they ruin the work
of an old man and his allies? Why did they destroy a God-given
triumph?” He had walled up the road against pagans, and the
“striplings” had thrown this wall down again.

All measures possible were taken by Sviatoslav to ward off the

onrushing Polovtsi, but these measures were inadequate and in no
way proportionate to the strength of the enemy. Igor was humble in
presence of the misfortune which he had caused. He prayed and did
penance, often repeating: “Why have I remained alive; I, who have
destroyed so many people?”

Not soon did those robber raids cease, but they did cease in time,
not so much because the Polovtsi had inflicted great and sufficient
loss on the Russians as because that flush of joy at a victory, which
for them seemed well-nigh incredible, died away; and then the two
camps, one on the Kief-Chernigoff border, and the other on the
Polovtsi steppe, resumed their former attitude. [133]
[Contents]
CHAPTER VI
 DESTRUCTION OF KIEF

Igor lived in captivity among the Polovtsi, but without hardship. His
servants were left with him; he had his own equerry. He was even
allowed to hunt. Men set to guard his tent showed the prince honor.
One of those guards, Lavor, grew to love Igor greatly, and to serve
him in Russia became finally his one thought, hence he planned an
escape, which succeeded. During night hours the guard over Igor
was strict; for whole days, and for weeks even, he was never from
under the eye of some watcher. This was true especially in the first
days of his captivity. He was least under guard after sunset, when,
during supper, the Polovtsi drank their kumys and grew tipsy. On the
night of escape, Lavor was waiting with horses beyond the river.
When darkness came down, Igor rose in his tent, and after making
the sign of the cross on himself with a small holy image, hanging this
image and a cross around his neck, he pulled aside the tent curtain,
stepped out and walked rapidly away to the river. The guards were
drinking kumys, and thought the prince safe in his tent. Igor waded
through the water and found Lavor on the other bank waiting with
two horses.

Great rejoicing spread through Russia when news came of Igor’s

return. He went first to Kief to visit Sviatoslav, and the aged prince,
with tears of delight in his eyes, embraced him.

Igor’s young son, Vladimir, while in captivity with his father, fell in
love with the Khan’s daughter and married her. “The Khans have
entangled him with a beautiful girl,” was the saying, but he was
ransomed and the marriage was celebrated with great solemnity in
Russia. As war with the Polovtsi did not prevent Russian princes
from being friendly and intermarrying, so also their connections did
not prevent them from warring, as the princes [134]who became
related with the Polovtsi through marriage often warred with them
afterward. Hence Igor warred with the Polovtsi after this marriage, as
well as before it.

The raids of the Polovtsi and the campaigns of Russian princes

against them were so many that it would not be possible to describe
them in detail. They were an incurable evil in Russia, and continued
to be so till the Mongol invasion and conquest put an end to them.

While Kief, the mother of Russian cities, was declining, Galitch was
forming a separate principality, and the influence of its western
neighbors rose more and more. Hungarians and Poles, who had
joined Latinized nations, could boast at this time that they formed in
Eastern Europe the foremost advance of Latin influence, the
remotest boundary of the Holy Roman-German Empire, beyond
which was Russia. In the life of Poles and Hungarians, there were
many traits in common. First came subjection of all the people by
nobles, while the sovereign merely focused the splendor of nobles
and magnates. The sovereign held office to preserve supreme
privileges for nobles; beyond that he meant nothing to them, and for
the people he had no meaning whatever. From the nobles came the
laws, the disposition of wealth, the amount of taxation and its
character. The income from lands and towns, and all the government
of the country was in possession of the upper class solely, hence the
amazing concentration of wealth in their hands. The nobles did as
they pleased, while the people endured all that was put on them.
Hungarians and Poles yielded themselves to the West in religion.
Their learning was Western, and, for the greater part also, their
vices. They imparted these vices to their neighbors of Galitch, where
they found a place in the palace and brought about a great riot,
which ended in the burning alive of Anastasia, the mistress of Eight
Minds, whose legal wife had fled to seek an asylum with her brother
Vsevolod, Prince of Vladimir, at that time generally called Big Nest.
Later on riots were frequent, and the power of the boyars grew daily.

In 1187, the famous Yaroslav Eight Minds, feeling that death was
near him, summoned his advisers and the clergy, and commanded
them to open his palace to every one, to rich and poor, great and
small, to all people, and he bade farewell to every person, saying:
“Fathers, brothers, sons, forgive me as I go from this [135]world of
vain effort. I have sinned more than any man. Another like me there
has not been. Fathers and brothers, forgive me.” He wept for three
days. Three days did the people come to see him from all sides. The
dying man ordered his goods to be given to the needy and to
monasteries. “I did what I could,” said he, “to defend those who were
wronged, and to dispose taxes so that they should not be a burden
to some beyond others. I tried not to listen to informers, and to drive
off the evil-minded; some I exposed to the public, others I punished
in private. I had many vices myself, I could not control all of them. I
beg now forgiveness of every one.” Many poor people received gifts,
and much wealth was distributed. “God sees,” continued Eight
Minds, “that I wished for the good, but through weakness I could not
obtain it.”

The intimate boyars and the older clergy surrounded the death-bed
of Eight Minds; others were in remoter chambers, and the people
filled every entrance. He disposed of the principality to his sons in
this fashion: “To Oleg,” said he, “I bequeath Galitch; to Vladimir, I
give Peremysl,” and he commanded the people to take oath to the
princes in that sense. Oleg was the son of Anastasia, his mistress,
and was dear to him.

Soon after Eight Minds’ death came boundless confusion in Galitch.

Among common people intense hatred of Anastasia was general,
and all the boyars detested Oleg, her son. There was such a variety
of factions that an armed outbreak seemed likely. Though some had
kissed the cross to Oleg, they favored Vladimir; others wished
neither son and were ready to call in Roman, son of Mystislav,
Prince of Volynia. A third group would hear nothing of either son, or
of Roman, but declared openly for Hungary.

The bond between Galitch and Hungary was ancient. Many of the
boyars had friends and even relatives in that country. They visited
Hungary, for it was near, and they went thither frequently on
business, and sometimes lived in that domain. They liked the
Hungarian political order because the common people were
submissive and looked on the nobles as masters. The highest class
was exceedingly haughty. It was sovereign, and the king was its
servant. The ties between the boyars of Galitch and Hungary
became so enduring and intimate that the heir to Galitch might find
aid more readily in Hungary than in Kief or Vladimir.

Vladimir, son of Eight Minds, was by his first marriage a [136]son-in-

law of the Kief prince. His wife, dead at this time, was a daughter of
Sviatoslav, “the sister’s son.” But that marriage had been so
unfortunate that the father-in-law did not like even to mention it.
Roman, son of Mystislav of Volynia, was now intriguing against
Vladimir, though he had promised his daughter to Vladimir’s son. In
Smolensk the prince had just given refuge to the natural enemy of
Vladimir, Rostislav, son of Ivan Berladnik.

After the burial of Eight Minds, the intrigues and the efforts of boyars
led to nothing, and Vladimir was raised to the throne by the wish of
the people. Anastasia’s son, the hated Oleg, had to flee from the
country and, dying while young, vanished from record. Vladimir
inherited every vice of his father, but not one of his virtues.
Disorderly from boyhood, and unconnected at all times, he
conducted one year and a half of his reign most disgracefully. All
people complained of him. If any man’s daughter or wife pleased
Vladimir, he took her. Then he married a woman of such sort that the
people of Galitch were indignant. As happened in the case of
Anastasia, his unlegalized stepmother, people never mentioned this
new woman’s name, and would not speak in detail of her. They only
knew that from her the prince had two children. She had been seized
from her husband, a priest, and knowing this, no one cared to speak
further. Among common people she was mentioned as “the
priestess.”

The anger roused by this marriage was so great that it very nearly
caused an uprising. Vladimir’s son by his first wife was married to a
daughter of Roman. She was in Galitch at that time. Roman, the
crafty Prince of Volynia, tempted the boyars of Galitch. To win for
himself the principality, he urged them against the unworthy Vladimir.
Common people were true to Vladimir, but the boyars sent these
words to him: “The people do not oppose thee, but they will not bow
down to a priest’s wife. Take whatever princess seems good to thee;
they will receive any decent woman, but they will put an end to the
priest’s wife.” The boyars knew well that he would not part with the
“priestess,” and that both would leave Galitch if threatened. And thus
it happened.

Vladimir took treasures, and all the gold and silver which he could
carry, and fled to Hungary with his priestess and his children. The
Galitch men made no move to stop him. Roman came promptly and
was made Prince of Galitch. He gave Volynia to [137]Vsevolod, his
brother, and kissed the cross while bestowing it, but, as was shown
somewhat later, he was over hasty in this action.

The King of Hungary, Bela III, gave Vladimir and his priestess a
friendly reception, and promised good aid to the fugitive. They
agreed on all points as to what assistance should be given, and then
kissed the cross to each other. Soon after, at the head of an army,
large and famed for knightly character, Bela III set out to reinstate
Vladimir. Roman, though brave and resolute, on hearing of Bela’s
approach, did not venture an encounter. He saw clearly that though
the men of Galitch were not fond of Vladimir they were true to him,
for he was their “native prince,” and they believed that in a war he
would undoubtedly have God’s justice on his side. They attributed
his flight to the treason of boyars. These same boyars were so
hostile to one another that a bloody conflict seemed impending.
Roman’s adherents were few; they needed protection against other
boyars. A large majority of the boyars throughout the whole country
were opposed now to every prince, no matter who he might be, and
they opposed more than all the stern Roman, whom they dreaded
greatly, not doubting that, were he sure of his strength and position,
he would strive to crush them. Many therefore declared their
adherence to Bela, who was then drawing near, and was already in
the Carpathians.

Roman took Vladimir’s property and all the treasure accessible. He

gathered his adherents of lower degree and his boyars, with their
wives and children, and turned toward Volynia, but Vsevolod would
not vacate his capital, and did not admit his brother. Roman,
deprived of land, was obliged to seek the aid of friends. He had been
married to a daughter of Rurik of Smolensk, and now he sent his
wife to her father; with her went the wives of boyars, and their
children. Rurik gave Roman temporary possession of Torchesk, and
then commanded Vsevolod to yield up Volynia to his brother and go
back to Bailz, his own portion. Vsevolod, fearing Rurik’s anger,
obeyed without murmuring, and Roman recovered the lands which
he had given away too lightly.

Meanwhile, in Galitch, there happened a thing without parallel in

Russia. King Bela was met with such honor that he was astounded.
The boyars went forth to him with a solemn announcement of loyalty.
The chief men among them declared that they [138]knew well his
methods in Hungary, that to them the order there was very pleasing,
and they begged him to bring just such order into Galitch. Because
of this surprising statement, Bela dropped Vladimir and gave the
management of Galitch to the boyars. He installed his own son,
Andrei, as chief of the government. Vladimir he took back to Hungary
as captive, on pretense that he had given a false and deceitful
representation of the troubles in Galitch, and besides had not paid
the sums promised for friendly assistance. The king took all
Vladimir’s property, and put him and his “priestess” under guard in
the tower of a castle. It was made to appear that the people of
Galitch had bowed down to Bela, and had begged from him a
government with his son as a ruler. He had graciously yielded, and
had not only given a son, but his heir to rule Galitch.

To Bela III was now added the title Rex Galiciæ (King of Galicia). But
as Hungary was subject to Rome in religion, and the title of every
dependent State was confirmed by Papal blessing, the Pope of
course reckoned the new kingdom among other bishoprics. The
boyars knew well that when the people of Galitch learned of this
there would be a great outburst, and a war against men of a foreign
religion. Still the adherents of Bela, those who had put the land
under Latins, guaranteed that the people were mild, and that the
subjection of Galitch was a very slight matter, if the Latin faith were
brought in without vaunting, by degrees, and in a way not to be
noted. The great point was to respect ancient customs and
venerated ritual.

After Bela had made his son king in Galitch, he learned very soon
that he had been led into serious error. He had word from Andrei that
the position was torturing, and would soon grow impossible. Bela
was in friendly relations with princes in Central and Northern Russia.
Sviatoslav, the Kief prince, negotiated with him continually. He
sought connections for his children, and for his grandchildren, and
there are absolute proofs that before Bela established his son in
Galitch, negotiations directly concerning that principality were carried
on between him and the Kief prince.

Andrei’s position in Galitch became at last unendurable. The

adherents of Hungary, supported by the capital and by the forces of
Bela, seemed to triumph. The whole land was seething, however.
[139]The people were ready to rise, but knew not to whom they might
turn for aid. Among boyars there were a few who had not betrayed
the people. Even among those who found their support in foreign
regiments, there were some who began to speak of preserving their
country and its customs. Listening to men who called for their own
native princes, a party of boyars withdrew from the traitors, and,
kissing the cross, swore to stand with the people. They then sent
envoys to Smolensk, on behalf of all Galitch, and invited Rostislav,
son of Ivan Berladnik, to come and be their prince. Rostislav
consented, and was received with joy on the boundary, but he soon
found that he would meet scant support in the capital, where those
boyars who favored Hungary still adhered firmly to King Andrei. At
this time Bela sent fresh troops to his son, and the Hungarian
commanders, on hearing of Rostislav’s coming, made all the people
take oath a second time. “Those who were loyal to Galitch kissed the
cross without changing, while traitors adhered still to Hungary.”
Rostislav met the Hungarians advancing against him, and, fearing
betrayal, knew not what to do. The men who had invited him to
Galitch, and who surrounded him with followers, implored him to
retreat for the present, but the son, as ill-fated as his father,
hesitated. “Brothers,” said he at last, “ye have kissed the cross to
me, and now if other men of Galitch wish my head, let God and this
cross be their judge. I will not wander over foreign earth longer, I will
die in the land of my inheritance.” And he rushed to the battle. He
was wounded in the onset and thrown from his horse. His men
rescued him. Swords were sheathed on both sides, and the
wounded prince was taken to the city. The Hungarians, to avoid civil
war, thought it wise, as they said, to be rid of Rostislav, so, as if to
heal his wounds, they placed on them poisonous herbs, from the
effects of which he died soon afterward and was numbered with his
ancestors.

Andrei, who had been assured that no one wished a Russian prince,
came now to see realities. The Hungarians fell to wreaking
vengeance on the people. The Latins ridiculed the Greco-Russian
faith; they turned Russian churches into stables; they contemned the
clergy; they brought their horses into the houses of those boyars
who had fled from Galitch, or did not hide their opposition to
Hungary. An unrestrained orgy began. Violence increased [140]in
every place. Hungarians took wives and daughters from the men of
Galitch with growing frequency. Wails of anguish and despair were
heard throughout the principality and finally they reached all parts of
Russia.

In Kief, the clergy turned to Sviatoslav and Rurik. “Strange men have
taken your inheritance,” exclaimed the metropolitan. “Ye should vie
one with another in freeing Galitch from this misery.” But those
princes cared little for anything in Galitch, or elsewhere, unless it
gave power or profit. Moreover a quarrel broke out between them.

It transpired that Bela, negotiating in secret with Sviatoslav, had

worked out for himself many useful conditions. He now proposed to
go from Galitch, and begged Sviatoslav to send some son of his to
end negotiations. So Glaib was sent. But Rurik stood against this
embassy and reproached Sviatoslav, saying: “Since thou hast sent
thy son to Bela, and said no word to me touching the affair, our treaty
is broken.” A dispute rose which came near ending in bloodshed.
The Kief prince, striving to soften Rurik’s anger, returned this
answer: “My friend and brother, I sent my son, not to rouse Hungary
against thee, but on my own business. If it is thy wish to march
against Galitch, I am ready. I go with thee.”

The princes met in peace and planned an expedition. Rurik marched

with his brothers, and Sviatoslav with his sons, but the Kief prince
had his own plan in mind, hidden carefully. Kief was surrounded with
the possessions of Monomach’s descendants,—Vyshgorod,
Bailgorod, and almost all lands on the Ros belonged to them.
Sviatoslav hoped to add these regions to Kief, and give Galitch in
exchange for them, which he was ready to yield altogether to Rurik.
He did not speak of this to Rurik when they were planning the march
on Galitch, but only while marching. It turned out that Rurik was not
anxious for unreliable possessions in Galitch, and preferred greatly
his own lands within the Kief region. This caused a quarrel. No
matter how much both princes talked upon the subject, they reached
no agreement. When half the journey was finished, they turned and
marched back to Kief. The fate of Galitch was settled by other
adventurers.

Vladimir, confined in the tower with his priestess, grew weary. Bela
had taken all the property brought by Vladimir to Hungary, [141]but
the captive had coin sufficient to bribe the guards watching him.
Among those guards were some so devoted to Vladimir that they
undertook, not merely to let him escape, but to conduct him through
pathless forests to Germany. The first question, however, was to get
out of the tower. In this work the hitherto shiftless Vladimir proved
abler than many a wise man. The tower was high and the prisoners
were kept in the top of it, where there was a small outside platform.
On this platform was a tent, made of canvas, in which a man might
find shelter from heat in the day-time, and gaze at the stars during
night hours. Vladimir tore this tent into strips with which he made a
long rope and slipped to the earth by it. The trusty guards took him to
Barbarossa, the Emperor. The fleeing prince was well received by
Barbarossa, from whom he begged aid. We know not what reward
Vladimir offered Bela, for reinstating him in Galitch, but we know
exactly his agreement with Frederick Barbarossa. He bound himself
to pay two thousand silver grievens yearly for his restoration. There
were other reasons, too, why the Emperor became interested. He
was astonished to see before him the nephew of Andrei Bogolyubski
and of Vsevolod (Big Nest). Hearing that he was a son of a sister of
those two famous princes, he doubted not that he was an important
man. He had grown acquainted with Andrei Bogolyubski through
letters, when that prince was building his cathedral in Vladimir.
Because of those letters, various artists and materials had gone from
Germany. Of Big Nest and his eminence among Russian princes,
reports were frequent. To aid Vladimir would cause the Emperor no
trouble. He had no thought to help with men. He was going then to
Palestine, but Poland was subject to his influence, and he
commissioned Kazimir, King of Poland, to reinstate the exile. The
Poles envied Hungarians Galitch, and were glad to expel them.

Vladimir, leading a Polish army, entered Galitch very easily. When

the return of their native prince was announced, the people rushed to
meet him. Flight was all that was left for Andrei and those Russian
boyars who adhered to him. While the Hungarian was fleeing as best
he was able, and bearing with him the title Rex Galiciæ, which
remains to this day on the shield of his country, Vladimir took the
throne; and he held it as long as there was breath in his nostrils. He
held it, thanks to Big Nest, his uncle, [142]because of this message:
“My lord and father, keep Galitch under me, I pray thee. I belong to
God and to thee with all Galitch.” Big Nest listened to Vladimir’s
entreaty, and kept him firmly in Galitch till his death came.
Sviatoslav, “the sister’s son,” insisted that Kief should have the
boundaries established as in the days of Rostislav’s father, that is he
wanted Kief to have Vyshgorod and Bailgorod, with other towns in
the Ros River region, taken from it by the sons of Rostislav. Disputes
became bitter, and the princes were near deciding the question by
force of arms. Rurik and David sent back their oath papers, and
Sviatoslav declared that he would not yield in any case. In Smolensk
the princes turned to Big Nest, saying: “We have accepted thee as
father; judge this question for us.” Big Nest sided with Smolensk, and
sent to Sviatoslav, saying: “The conditions on which thou wert
confirmed are those to which we adhere. If thou still adhere to the
same conditions, we will be with thee in peace; but seek not to rouse
old disputes, and desert agreements, for we will not permit thee.”
Sviatoslav yielded. Thenceforth he made no mention of lands for
Kief, till he tried to get them by giving Galitch to Roman in exchange
for them. Not succeeding in this, he wished, both for himself and to
please his brethren in Chernigoff, to round out and to defend their
inheritance on the Ryazan side. Their possessions touching the Oká
and Ryazan were subject to ceaseless attacks from Ryazan, whose
princes laid claim to them. All the Chernigoff house assembled at
Karachef, under Sviatoslav’s direction. They declared at that meeting
that war alone could settle boundaries. The princes were ready to
war with Ryazan in a body, but Sviatoslav could not decide to begin,
or let his relatives begin, without the consent of Big Nest, Prince of
Vladimir, so he sent to ask advice of him. From Big Nest came the
answer that he forbade Chernigoff princes to open war on Ryazan,
and all obeyed him.

Before this meeting ended, Sviatoslav fell ill for the last time.
“Something appeared on his leg.” Thus his disease was described.
Unable to sit on his horse, he was borne in a sleigh to the river, for
traveling in a wheeled vehicle over those roads would have caused
him great pain; then he sailed down the Desna and the Dnieper.
Arriving in Kief, he went first of all to pray in the church of Boris and
Glaib, and afterward to bow down and pray at the [143]tomb of his
father, but the priest had gone away and taken the key of the church
with him, hence the prince did not see his father’s grave. He reached
home broken completely.

On the wedding day of Euphemia, his granddaughter, who had been

betrothed to the heir of Byzantium, envoys from the Emperor came,
but Sviatoslav took no part in the matter beyond appointing certain
boyars to receive them. He grew weak, ceased speaking, and fell
into a torpor. Recovering after a time, he commanded a monk’s habit
to be brought, and sent for Rurik, who found him alive, but not in his
senses. So far as is known, no word passed between them.
Afterward, when Rurik had gone, the dying man regained
consciousness and, turning to the princess, asked: “When will the
day of the Maccabees be?” July was ending, and he remembered
August 1, that day of death for his father and his grandfather. “Next
Monday,” answered the princess. He looked into her eyes, as if to be
sure that he saw her, and said: “I shall not live to the day of the
Maccabees.” He died July 27, 1194.

The next Prince of Kief was Rurik, son of Rostislav, but he had to get
the consent of Big Nest, whom he and his brothers had long
recognized as their senior, and esteemed as a father. Big Nest was
not opposed to Rurik, for Rurik’s son, Rostislav, had married
Verhuslava, his favorite daughter; hence he sent his boyars to
confirm the new prince. Soon the relationship was strengthened by
another bond: the Prince of Vladimir found a bride in Smolensk for
his eldest son, Constantine, who married the daughter of Mystislav,
son of Roman the Mild. Later on, this prince became Prince of Kief,
and fell in the battle with Mongols on the Kalka.
So Rurik and David grew nearer to the Prince of Vladimir. Since the
older line of Monomach, descended from Mystislav the Great, and
the younger line, descended from Yuri Dolgoruki, were so united, all
the descendants of Monomach were now in accord and friendship.

The great man of Volynia, Roman, had married Rurik’s daughter.

The other Volynia princes, heirs of Yaroslav of Lutsk, were
insignificant in those days. Roman, who had not shown great respect
for Rurik at any time, ceased to care for him after he reached Kief
dominion. To Roman’s thinking, the oldest throne in Russia should
be held by the strongest of its princes, a man who could [144]govern
wisely, defend the Russian land in all places, and preserve order so
that no prince could offend another, none attack and ravage a
neighboring province. “But,” said he, “we see the very opposite. The
throne of Kief is seized by senseless rulers, who not only are unable
to manage others and stop strife among relatives, but are unable to
defend their own borders; hence they bring in pagan Polovtsi, and
ruin the country. For this, Big Nest is to blame.” Such was Roman’s
opinion of his father-in-law.

Later on, from the enmity of these two men, disputes came among
the southern princes. Rurik lost the throne of Kief repeatedly, while
Roman, without ruling Kief, acquired so much fame among princes
that they saw in him the one southern ruler. Meanwhile both Rurik
and Roman recognized the superiority of Big Nest, who mixed in
their quarrels, as he did in general in all quarrels of princes, only in
so far as those quarrels subserved his own interest; aside from that,
he let them alone, and for this many people blamed him. He
reinstated certain princes against others, thus weakening one
through the other, and finding means to strengthen himself through
their dissensions. Rurik, in the first year of his reign, 1195, felt this
keen policy of Big Nest. When Rurik ascended the Kief throne, and
had been greeted by envoys from Big Nest, he thanked the Vladimir
prince with many expressions of friendship. Delighted over his
confirmation, he invited his brother David to Kief. “Behold,” said he in
a letter, “thou and I are now seniors in Russia. Come hither to Kief to
take counsel. We will think over everything, and settle all questions.”

After such an invitation, David went promptly from Smolensk down

the Dnieper. Rurik met him at Vyshgorod, and invited him to a
banquet. He arranged a great festival for David and his children.
They passed the time in rejoicing and gladness. Then Rostislav, heir
of the Kief prince, with Verhuslava, his princess, had a family festival
in Bailgorod in honor of David, and gave him great gifts. After that
David invited the Kief prince and his children to a dinner. Next he
gave a feast to all monks, and bestowed many gifts on the poor and
on monasteries. Finally he made a feast for the Cherkasi. All drank
their fill, and received rich presents at parting. Then the Kief citizens
wished to give a dinner to David. He accepted their hospitality, and
Kief played [145]the host to him. David then could not fail to give a
dinner and presents to the citizens of Kief, so he invited them to a
feast, and at that feast there was “mighty pleasure for all men.”

While these feasts were in progress the brothers were occupied

seriously. They arranged the whole family and divided up all the
regions and provinces among them. Rurik rewarded his son-in-law
richly. He gave Roman Korchesk, Kaneff, Tripol, Korsun and
Bogulov. In one word, the best towns in the Ros region, and kissed
the cross not to withdraw them at any time.

When news of these festivals came to the city of Vladimir no special

joy was expressed there. Whether Big Nest was offended that
nothing had been given him in the south, or whether he wished to
cause Rurik and Roman to quarrel with each other is unknown, but
he sent envoys to Kief with this message: “Ye have called me the
eldest among the descendants of Monomach, and now, my brother
and friend, thou hast bestowed all the lands on thy younger brothers,
and given me no share whatever. If there be no part for me, let it be
so. Thou art in the Kief region apart; to whom thou wilt, thou mayest
give, and with them care for it,—I am needed no longer. But we shall
see how thou wilt hold Kief without me.”

Confused by a turn so unlooked for, Rurik was ready for any

arrangement, and desired Vsevolod to choose from places that he,
Rurik, still had at his disposal. But the Prince of Vladimir asked for
those very places which Rurik had already given to Roman. Rurik
tried to induce Roman to yield the towns, saying that in return he
might take whatever places pleased him. Roman would not hear of
this. He threatened war. An outcry was raised throughout the whole
Kief region. All inclined now toward Roman. They condemned
Rurik’s yielding proposal, and pointed with wrath at the action of Big
Nest, saying that it recalled the old claims of Yuri Dolgoruki, and his
struggle with the grandfather of Roman. They demanded that the
metropolitan should examine the papers and treaties preserved in
the treasury of Holy Sophia. They pointed out that Rurik’s
predecessor had yielded Novgorod in favor of Vsevolod, and let him
manage that city on condition that he dropped his claim on Kief. “By
the treaties which are still preserved, it is clear,” said they, “that
Vsevolod resigned Kief.” But the more they argued, the more did the
Vladimir prince insist, and the more threateningly did he inform
[146]the Kief men that he was ready to meet them, even with war,
should the need come.

In this difficulty, Rurik turned for advice to Nikifor, the metropolitan.

“We are placed here by God to keep you from bloodshed,” replied
the metropolitan. “As I see that you cannot avoid it, because you
considered the towns not as belonging to the elder, but the younger,
I will remove from you the oath, and take the sin on my own soul. I
permit you to take back the towns from the younger, and give them