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THE ART OF LIVING
The Stoics on the Nature
and Function of
Philosophy

John Sellars

LON DON • N E W DE L H I • N E W YOR K • SY DN EY

 Bloomsbury Academic
An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc

50 Bedford Square 1385 Broadway

London New York
WC1B 3DP NY 10018
UK USA

www.bloomsbury.com

First published in 2003 by Bristol Classical Press an imprint of

Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd.
This Edition 2009

© John Sellers 2003

John Sellers has asserted his right under the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as Author of this work.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or

transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or
retrieval system, without prior permission in writing
from the publishers.

No responsibility for loss caused to any individual or organization acting on

or refraining from action as a result of the material in this publication
can be accepted by Bloomsbury or the author.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

IISBN: PB: 978-1-8539-9724-2

Epub: 978-1-4725-2112-5
Epdf: 978-1-4725-2111-8

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

Typeset by John Sellers

 Contents

Preface to the Second Edition vii

Abbreviations xiii

Introduction 1
1 The Topic 1
2 The Structure 7

PART I:  and 

1 Philosophy and Biography 15

1 The Philosopher’s Beard 15
2  and  20
3 The Philosopher’s  21
4 Summary 32

2 The Socratic Origins of the Art of Living 33

1 Philosophy and  33
2 Care of Oneself in the Apology and Alcibiades I 36
3 The Analysis of  in the Gorgias 39
4 Different Types of  42
5 The Role of  47
6 Aristotle’s Interpretation of Socrates 50
7 Summary 53

3 The Stoic Conception of the Art of Living 55

1 The Phrase ‘Art of Living’ 55
2 The Ideal of the Sage 59
3 An Art Concerned with the Soul 64
4 Stoic Definitions of  68
5 The Relationship between  and  75
6 The Stoic Division of Philosophy 78
7 Towards a Definition of Philosophy 81
8 Summary 84

4 Sceptical Objections 86
1 The Sceptical Method 87
2 Sextus Empiricus’ Objections to an Art of Living 88
3 Philosophy and Biography in Scepticism 101
4 Summary 103
vi Contents

PART II:  and 

5 Philosophical Exercises 107

1 The Relationship between  and  107
2 The Concept of a Spiritual Exercise 110
3 The Function of Spiritual Exercises 118
4 The Mechanism of Spiritual Exercises 123
5 The Form of Spiritual Exercises 126

6 Exercises in the Handbook of Epictetus 129

1 Introduction to the Handbook 129
2 Three Types of Spiritual Exercise 133
3 Summary 145

7 Exercises in the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius 147

1 The Literary Form of the Meditations 147
2 The Point of View of the Cosmos 150
3 Summary 165

Conclusion 167
1 Towards a Technical Conception of Philosophy 167
2 Two Conceptions of Philosophical Knowledge 171
3 Philosophy and Biography 171
4 Three Different Types of Philosophical Text 172
5 The Persistence of the Technical Conception of Philosophy 173

Additional Notes 176

Glossary of Greek Words and Phrases 181
Guide to Ancient Philosophers and Authors 184
Bibliography 188
Index Locorum 210
General Index 226
 Preface to the Second Edition

I am delighted that Duckworth is publishing this paperback edition of The Art of

Living, first published in hardback by Ashgate in 2003. I am especially pleased that it
will take its place alongside the many respected volumes already published in the
Bristol Classical Paperbacks series. My hope, of course, is that it will now reach a
much wider audience than it has thus far.
The first edition received a number of careful and thorough reviews that brought
to light both issues about which I might have said more and places where I might
have been clearer. This new preface gives me the welcome opportunity to address
some of the comments that have been made.
As a number of reviewers have noted, this book can be taken on two levels. 1 On
the one hand it is simply an attempt to explicate how the ancient Stoics conceived
philosophy. I argue that they conceived it as an art or craft and the principal
consequence of this is that, like other arts and crafts, mastery of philosophy will
require not only a grasp of theoretical principles but also an element of practical
training designed to digest those principles. As such it may be read as a contribution
to the scholarly history of ancient philosophy. On the other hand it hopes to show how
thinking about ancient conceptions of philosophy might contribute to much wider
debates about the nature and function of philosophy. The remarks in the Introduction
and Conclusion hopefully indicate how this might be so, where I draw a contrast
between a purely theoretical understanding of philosophy and philosophy conceived
as an art or craft, which I call the technical conception of philosophy. There are many
dangers with trying to do two things at once in a single piece of work. There is the
risk that one might fail to reach either target audience or, if one does reach them, to
alienate them both. I certainly hope that this has not been the case. One reviewer did
seem uncomfortable with this two-fold agenda.2 He suggested that my foray into
metaphilosophy ‘seems to depend more closely on the lingering tensions between
continental and analytical traditions in contemporary philosophy than it does on the
evidence from the ancient philosophical tradition which has been so sadly drafted into
a foreign war’. This is indeed an unfortunate impression as I had deliberately tried to
undercut just this sort of reading. In the Introduction I draw a contrast between the
conceptions of philosophy held by Hegel and Nietzsche (both ‘continental’
philosophers) and try to illustrate the same contrast in a debate between Richard
Sorabji and Bernard Williams (both trained in the analytic tradition). These pairings
were chosen precisely to show that the distinction between the two conceptions of
philosophy outlined in the Introduction does not correspond to a distinction between
1
See e.g. Trevor Curnow in Practical Philosophy 8/1 (2006), 61-2; Michael FitzGerald in
Colloquy 11 (2006), 268-70.
2
See Brad Inwood, writing for the online journal Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews
(http://ndpr.nd.edu/).
viii Preface

continental and analytic philosophy and, moreover, that both conceptions of

philosophy can be found within both of these two supposed traditions.3
This attempt to undercut the assumption that the distinction I draw maps onto the
analytic-continental division not only failed in its task for one reviewer but also
created a problem for another. This reviewer accused me of setting up Bernard
Williams as a straw man.4 This criticism is not without grounds. In the Introduction I
focus on two short occasional pieces by Williams and do not seriously engage with
his more substantial work, such as Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy, despite having
read it. Indeed, in many ways Williams is much more of a philosophical ally than my
passing remarks on him imply and I am happy to acknowledge this here. I would
particularly like to note his essay ‘Philosophy as a Humanistic Discipline’, in which
he rejects the attempt to assimilate philosophy to science and situates philosophy
within a wider humanistic enterprise of trying to make sense of our lives, an
enterprise concerned with reflecting on our ideas and acting on the basis of those
ideas.5 The occasional remarks by Williams that I cite in the Introduction certainly do
not do justice to the full range of his reflections on the nature and role of philosophy.
Another philosopher who turned away from the scientistic image of philosophy
towards a humanistic one was Isaiah Berlin.6 A central theme in Berlin’s work that
echoes one of the guiding metaphilosophical ideas in this book is a concern with what
Berlin called the power of ideas. Philosophical ideas are not merely objects of abstract
and idle amusement but rather vital forces that can transform an individual’s life and,
in some cases, impact upon the lives of millions. Berlin’s principal concern was with
the impact of ideas at the social and political level, but the same point may be made at
the level of the individual. I would want to argue, although I do not have the space to
do it here, that this concern with the practical impact of philosophical ideas stands

3
This is not the place to venture into the murky waters of the analytic-continental divide but I
will note two recent books written from very different perspectives which in their own ways
highlight the limitations of both labels: Simon Glendinning, The Idea of Continental
Philosophy (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2006) and Hans-Johann Glock, What is
Analytic Philosophy? (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008). I should add that when
claiming that both conceptions of philosophy may be found within the analytic tradition, I
understand the term ‘analytic’ broadly, so as to include figures such as Bernard Williams and
Isaiah Berlin, both of whom explicitly rejected the label conceived in a much narrower sense as
an exclusive focus on linguistic analysis.
4
See A. A. Long in Classical Review 56/1 (2006), 81-82.
5
See Bernard Williams, ‘Philosophy as a Humanistic Discipline’, Philosophy 75 (2000),
477-96, and repr. in his Philosophy as a Humanistic Discipline (Princeton: Princeton
University Press, 2006), 180-99. I am not suggesting that Williams holds onto any notion of
philosophical exercise though.
6
See in particular Berlin’s essay ‘The Purpose of Philosophy’, in The Power of Ideas (London:
Chatto & Windus, 2000), 24-35, and ‘Two Concepts of Liberty’, in The Proper Study of
Mankind (London: Chatto & Windus, 1997), 191-242, at 192: ‘the German poet Heine warned
the French not to underestimate the power of ideas: philosophical concepts nurtured in the
stillness of a professor’s study could destroy a civilisation’.
 Preface ix

within the same broad tradition containing the Stoics (and others), the origins of
which may be traced back to Socrates.7
It has been suggested that although I claim to remain impartial with regard to the
two different conceptions of philosophy I outline (see p. 175 below) this may be
slightly disingenuous, given my clear focus on philosophy conceived as an art of
living.8 While I am clearly attracted to the idea that philosophy be conceived as an art
of living, I would like to restate that I do not hold that this is the correct, proper, true,
or only way in which philosophy might be conceived. I do not hold that other
conceptions of philosophy are inevitably misguided, confused, or false. Instead I
should like to propose what I shall call metaphilosophical pluralism. Drawing an
analogy with Isaiah Berlin’s value pluralism, which holds that there exist a number of
equally objective but ultimately incommensurable values, I advocate a
metaphilosophical pluralism in which there may exist a number of equally justifiable
but incompatible conceptions of what philosophy is, and there are no definitive
grounds for ruling that any one of these conceptions deserves to be given priority. My
account of philosophy as an art of living is offered as a contribution to this
metaphilosophical pluralism rather than an attempt to legislate dogmatically on what
philosophy is or should be.
I should also like to stress that the idea that philosophy is concerned with one’s
way of life should not be assumed to imply that practical concerns outweigh a
commitment to truth. Instead it combines a commitment to truth with the claim that
that commitment is not merely theoretical but will also have real-world consequences.
A contrast is sometimes drawn between analytic philosophy committed to ‘truth and
knowledge’ and populist forms of philosophy serving up ‘moral or spiritual
improvement’ or ‘chicken soup for the soul’.9 Yet, as Glock rightly notes, ‘the case of
ancient philosophers like Socrates demonstrates that one can seek moral or spiritual
improvement, yet do so through the reasoned pursuit of truth and knowledge’.10 This
is clearly related to the famous Socratic thesis that virtue is knowledge, though it is

7
By claiming this, I am not suggesting any wider affinity between Berlin and either Socrates or
ancient Stoicism. On the contrary, Berlin seems to me to be one of the most incisive
philosophical critics of Stoicism, even though his explicit references to the Stoa are few. I note
in particular his comments in ‘Two Concepts of Liberty’ (n. 6 above), 210-11, and his essay
‘The Pursuit of the Ideal’, also in The Proper Study of Mankind (London: Chatto & Windus,
1997), 1-16, and ‘The Birth of Greek Individualism’, in Liberty (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2002), 287-321, esp. 306-10. Berlin may share something at the metaphilosophical level
regarding the power of philosophical ideas while at the same time rejecting any notion of moral
perfectionism.
8
See Curnow (n. 1 above), 62.
9
The first two phrases come from Scott Soames, Philosophical Analysis in the Twentieth
Century: Volume 1. The Dawn of Analysis (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003), xiv,
and cited in Glock (n. 3 above), 200. The phrase ‘chicken soup for the soul’ is borrowed from
Simon Blackburn, Being Good (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 38. Soames goes on to
note that ‘there is very little in the way of practical or inspirational guides in the art of living to
be found’ in twentieth century analytic philosophy.
10
Glock (n. 3 above), 200.
x Preface

not identical to it. One might reject that thesis while remaining committed to the view
that a philosophical pursuit of truth and knowledge will have an impact upon and
express itself in one’s way of life.
Having dealt with some of the issues arising out of the metaphilosophical side of
the book it is now time to turn to its historical side. This is the more substantial side
and I suspect that the majority of readers will be more interested in ancient Stoicism
than abstract metaphilosophy. Yet it is worth stressing the metaphilosophy in order to
keep in focus the nature of the claims I make about Stoicism. One reviewer has
greeted the volume as a contribution to the literature on Stoic practical ethics, while
another has lamented that it fails as a contribution to the literature on Stoic moral
theory.11 The book claims to do neither. It is explicitly not about that narrow part of
philosophy commonly called practical ethics but rather about a wider conception of
philosophy as such, embracing logic, physics, and ethics, both practical and
theoretical. I argue that for the Stoics the traditional view of a tripartite conception of
philosophy (‘logic, physics, ethics’) may need to be complicated. In particular I
suggest we think of six elements within Stoic philosophy: logical, physical, and
ethical discourse, along with corresponding logical, physical, and ethical exercises. 12
This book does not attempt to add to the ever-expanding body of work on Stoic moral
theory either, which is just one of these six parts, but rather to reconstruct the
metaphilosophical architecture within which such moral theory finds its home.
One of the central figures in my account of the nature of Stoic philosophy is
Epictetus. It has been suggested that my account of Epictetus’ understanding of
philosophy does not do full justice to some passages in which he seems to hold an
intellectualist conception of virtue.13 In these passages, Epictetus seems to suggest
that knowledge (of, say, virtue) is on its own enough to impact on a person’s life,
making any sort of philosophical exercise superfluous. Although Epictetus does
elsewhere emphasize the need for exercises, the presence of these intellectualist
passages makes it seem as if Epictetus’ position is more complex than I acknowledge.
Beyond the textual details of the Discourses, one might argue more generally that if
the Stoics truly are follows of Socratic intellectualism then surely philosophical
exercises will serve little purpose. This objection clearly goes right to the heart of the
issues that I discuss in this book (it was first raised by Aristo; see below pp. 76-8).
Yet it also presupposes a conception of knowledge that is precisely what I attempt to
challenge with my central claim that, for the Stoics, knowledge should be conceived
as knowledge of an art or craft. The objection that, as Socratic intellectualists, the
Stoics should have no need for exercises because knowledge should be sufficient on
11
See Christopher Gill in Phronesis 50/2 (2005), 173, and Inwood (n. 2 above), respectively.
12
See pp. 78-81 below. I have elaborated on this point in an article that draws upon material
from this book: ‘Stoic Practical Philosophy in the Imperial Period’, in Richard Sorabji and
Robert W. Sharples, eds, Greek and Roman Philosophy 100 BC – 200 AD: Volume 1, Bulletin
of the Institute of Classical Studies Suppl. 94 (2007), 115-40, esp. at 126.
13
See John Mouracade in Ancient Philosophy 26 (2006), 216-20. Mouracade cites as examples
Epictetus Diss. 3.9.2, 4.6.23, 4.11.8. On this question I have also benefitted from discussions
with M. M. McCabe. I have attempted to respond to this issue elsewhere, in John Sellars,
Stoicism (Chesham: Acumen & Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006), esp. 47-9.
 Preface xi

its own assumes that the theoretical principles underpinning an art or craft will on
their own constitute knowledge. In other words, it assumes that philosophical
knowledge should be identified with mastery of philosophical doctrines. But in what I
take to be a key passage (Diss. 1.15.2; key because it is the only explicit definition of
philosophy he offers us) Epictetus does not conceive philosophical knowledge in this
way. Because he conceives philosophy as an art or craft, philosophical knowledge
will require both mastery of philosophical doctrines and a subsequent period of
training or exercise designed to digest those doctrines, just as mastery of other arts
and crafts do. However, Epictetus can remain a Socratic intellectualist while holding
this conception of philosophical knowledge for – like Socrates – he can then argue
that once one does have philosophical knowledge (conceived in this way as
knowledge of a craft) then it will necessarily transform one’s behaviour. In those
passages where Epictetus suggests that correct beliefs or judgements ()
are enough, I would argue that we understand these as instances of craft-type
knowledge.
In order to bring the central issues into focus my analysis may at times appear too
blunt, especially with regard to the division between theoretical arguments and
practical exercises.14 This, I think, is more a matter of presentation than
conceptualization. I do not intend to present these as ‘distinct and competing’ forces;
on the contrary, the whole thrust of the argument throughout the book is that these are
complementary and both necessary components of a technical conception of
philosophy such as the one articulated by the Stoics. Analysis, by its very nature,
involves breaking a thing down into its constituent parts, sometimes at the cost of
artificially isolating those parts. This process of analysis also inevitably involves
neglect of the rhetorical aspects of the texts under discussion. 15 Although I explicitly
hope that the account in this book will have implications for the literary study of
ancient philosophical texts (see e.g. pp. 126-8 below), I do not pretend to engage in a
literary study here. While the rhetorical force of philosophical texts may well be
significant for their potential impact upon readers or listeners, and so their
transformative effect,16 that rhetoric is of far less relevance to the conceptual analysis
of the nature of philosophy of the sort that I am engaged in here.
Another reviewer locates a central issue in the book as the attempt to respond to
the competing characterizations of ancient philosophy by Pierre Hadot and Michel
Foucault (see esp. pp. 115-18).17 While Hadot presents ancient philosophy as a
‘spiritual exercise’, Foucault characterizes it as a ‘technique’, and I suggest that the
latter is closer to the mark, if we understand ‘technique’ etymologically, deriving
from . Hadot’s identification of philosophy with exercise is based upon two
brief doxographical texts, which I suggest are of limited significance and, in any case,
don’t quite say what Hadot implies they do (see p. 116, n. 43). This reviewer

14
See Inwood (n. 2 above).
15
This is a concern raised by Long (n. 4 above).
16
See Long (n. 4 above), 82.
17
Jean-Baptiste Gourinat in Philosophie antique 6 (2006), 223-26.
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xii Preface

suggests that I dismiss these texts too quickly.18 I remain sceptical about their
significance, but even if one were to accept them as important sources, it would still
leave open the question of what they actually say, for they also connect philosophy
with the notion of an art or craft, and not just with exercise. The same reviewer
suggests that elsewhere Hadot fully acknowledges the significance of philosophical
discourse alongside spiritual exercises, the implication being that Hadot’s considered
position is closer to mine than my account suggests.19 If this is the case then I am
happy to acknowledge it.

***

Beyond this new Preface, the rest of the book remains unchanged (though the original
Preface has been omitted). One reviewer found the proliferation of both words in
Greek and footnotes distracting.20 I certainly hope they are not too distracting, though
the reviewer is no doubt correct to note that both could be reduced in quantity without
affecting the central argument to any great extent. Yet on balance it seems more
helpful to readers to avoid such changes and so preserve the identity of pagination
between the two editions. A couple of reviewers speculated whether my choice of title
is a deliberate reference to Alexander Nehamas’ book of the same name (cited in the
Bibliography).21 It is not. Given that my aim is to articulate a conception of
philosophy conceived as an art concerned with transforming one’s way of life, The
Art of Living seemed the most natural title and it was chosen before I encountered
Nehamas’ book (which is wonderful, but not about the art of living in the very
specific sense that I use the phrase in this book). My discussion of the philosopher’s
beard (pp. 15-19) is intended as a light-hearted and ‘entertaining’ (p. 20) opening into
proceedings and should not be taken too seriously.22
Finally, I must express my thanks to Deborah Blake at Duckworth for welcoming
the book into Duckworth’s rich and important list of works on ancient philosophy.
The cover image for this new edition, showing Marcus Aurelius writing his
Meditations, reproduces the frontispiece of an early edition of the Meditations in my
possession.23

18
See Gourinat (n. 15 above), 225.
19
See Gourinat (n. 15 above), 226.
20
See Curnow (n. 1 above), 62.
21
See FitzGerald (n. 1 above), 268, and Anna Ntinti in Rhizai 2/1 (2005), 123-9, at 125.
22
With apologies to Inwood (n. 2 above) and Ntinti (n. 21 above) for not making this more
explicit.
23
Marci Antonini Imperatoris Eorum quae ad seipsum Libri XII (Oxoniae, E Theatro
Sheldoniano. MDCCIV).
 Abbreviations

All references to works by ancient authors are by the standard Latin titles (or
abbreviated versions) and details of the editions used are included in the Index
Locorum. References to modern authors are by name and (occasionally shortened)
title only, full details being reserved for the Bibliography. Note also the following
abbreviations:

ANRW Aufstieg und Niedergang der Römischen Welt/Rise and Decline of the
Roman World, Herausgegeban von/Edited by Wolfgang Haase und/and
Hildegard Temporini (Berlin & New York: De Gruyter, 1972-)
BT Bibliotheca Scriptorum Graecorum et Romanorum Teubneriana (Leipzig &
Stuttgart: Teubner)
CAG Commentaria in Aristotelem Graeca, edita consilio et auctoritate
Academiae Litterarum Regiae Borussicae, 23 vols; ‘Supplementum
Aristotelicum’, 3 vols (Berlin: Reimer, 1882-1909)
CHHP The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy, Edited by Keimpe
Algra, Jonathan Barnes, Jaap Mansfeld, Malcolm Schofield (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1999)
CPF Corpus dei Papiri Filosofici Greci e Latini, Testi e lessico nei papiri di
cultura greca e latina (Florence: Olschki, 1989-)
CR Classical Review
CUF Collection des Universités de France, publiée sous le patronage de
l’Association de Guillaume Budé (Paris: Les Belles Lettres); also
Collection Byzantine publiée sous le patronage de l’Association de
Guillaume Budé (Paris: Les Belles Lettres)
DC Antisthenis Fragmenta, collegit Fernanda Decleva Caizzi (Milan: Istituto
Editoriale Cisalpino, 1966)
DG Doxographi Graeci, collegit recensuit prolegomenis indicibusque instruxit
Hermannus Diels (Berlin: De Gruyter, 1879; repr. 1965)
DK Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, Griechisch und Deutsch von Hermann
Diels, Elfte Auflage Herausgegeben von Walther Kranz, 3 vols (Zürich &
Berlin: Weidmann, 1964)
EK Posidonius, The Fragments, Edited by L. Edelstein and I. G. Kidd,
Cambridge Classical Texts and Commentaries 13 (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1972; 2nd edn 1989)
KGW Nietzsche Werke: Kritische Gesamtausgabe, Herausgegeben von Giorgio
Colli und Mazzino Montinari (Berlin: De Gruyter, 1967-)
LCL The Loeb Classical Library (London: Heinemann & Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press)
xiv Abbreviations

LS The Hellenistic Philosophers, by A. A. Long & D. N. Sedley; Volume 1

Translations of the principal sources with philosophical commentary;
Volume 2 Greek and Latin texts with notes and bibliography (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1987)
LSJ A Greek-English Lexicon, Compiled by Henry George Liddell and Robert
Scott, A New Edition Revised and Augmented throughout by Henry Stuart
Jones (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940)
OCT Oxford Classical Texts – Scriptorum Classicorum Bibliotheca Oxoniensis
(Oxford: Clarendon Press)
OLD Oxford Latin Dictionary, Edited by P. G. W. Glare (Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1982)
PBerol Papyrus from the collection in Berlin
PG Patrologiae Cursus Completus … Series Graeca, accurante J.-P. Migne,
162 vols (Paris, 1857-66)
PHerc Papyrus from Herculaneum
PL Patrologiae Cursus Completus … Series Latina, accurante J.-P. Migne, 221
vols (Paris, 1844-55)
POxy Papyrus from Oxyrhynchus
PPF Poetarum Philosophorum Fragmenta, edidit Hermannus Diels, Poetarum
Graecorum Fragmenta 3.1 (Berlin: Weidmann, 1901)
SSR Socratis et Socraticorum Reliquiae, collegit, disposuit, apparatibus
notisque instruxit Gabriele Giannantoni, 4 vols (Naples: Bibliopolis, 1990)
SVF Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta, collegit Ioannes ab Arnim; Volumen I
Zeno et Zenonis discipuli; Volumen II Chrysippi fragmenta logica et
physica; Volumen III Chrysippi fragmenta moralia, Fragmenta
successorum Chrysippi; Volumen IV Quo indices Continentur, conscripsit
Maximillianus Adler (Stuttgart: Teubner, 1903-24; repr. 1978-79)
WH Ioannis Stobaei Anthologium, recensuerunt Curtius Wachsmuth et Otto
Hense, 5 vols (Berlin: Weidmann, 1884-1912)
 Introduction

1. The Topic

In his series of lectures on the history of philosophy Hegel found himself confronted
with a peculiar difficulty when he came to discuss Socrates.1 His problem was that, in
the case of Socrates, Hegel found it difficult to disentangle what he considered to be
merely biographical from what he held to be truly philosophical. He noted, quite
rightly, that with Socrates philosophy and biography are intimately interrelated.2 For
Hegel this devalued Socrates’ philosophy insofar as he thought that philosophy proper
must be removed from the here and now of an individual’s life and developed into an
abstract system.3 In the case of the Cynics, whose philosophy is preserved almost
exclusively in biographical anecdotes and aphorisms, Hegel was even more
dismissive.4 These judgements reflect Hegel’s own conception of the nature and
function of philosophy as it is outlined in his introduction to the lectures; namely as a
matter of universal thought directed towards truth.5 Hegel’s difficulties with Socrates
and the Cynics derive from the inability of this conception of philosophy to consider
the philosophical significance of biographical material.6 Philosophy, as conceived by

1
Hegel, Lectures on the History of Philosophy (Vorlesungen über die Geschichte der
Philosophie), reconstructed by Michelet from lecture notes and first published 1833-36.
Michelet also produced a shortened second edition in 1840-44 upon which Haldane & Simson’s
English translation is based. For discussion of Hegel’s portrait of Socrates see Montuori, De
Socrate Iuste Damnato, pp. 11-15; Socrates: Physiology of a Myth, p. 32; Kierkegaard, The
Concept of Irony, pp. 219-37; Kofman, Socrates: Fictions of a Philosopher, pp. 39-124.
2
See Hegel, Lectures, vol. 1, p. 389: ‘Socrates’ life […] is, however, closely intertwined with
his interest in Philosophy, and the events of his life are bound up with his principles’.
3
See Hegel, Lectures, vol. 1, p. 396: ‘Because the philosophy of Socrates is no withdrawal
from existence now and here into the free, pure regions of thought, but is in a piece with his
life, it does not proceed to a system’.
4
See Hegel, Lectures, vol. 1, p. 479: ‘There is nothing particular to say of the Cynics, for they
possess but little Philosophy, and they did not bring what they had into a scientific system’;
vol. 1, p. 484: ‘Diogenes is only famed for his manner of life; with him, as with the moderns,
Cynicism came to signify more a mode of living than a philosophy’. For discussion see
Niehues-Pröbsting, ‘The Modern Reception of Cynicism’, pp. 330-31.
5
See e.g. Hegel, Lectures, vol. 1, pp. 7-8, 11, 27, 90.
6
By ‘biography’ here and throughout this study I do not mean just the literary genre of written
biography but rather the course and manner of an individual’s life (i.e. what is recorded in a
written biography). This reflects the range of the Greek word
 which primarily means
‘manner of life’ but which also came to be used to signify the literary genre of biography.
While my remarks will hopefully apply to the relationship between philosophy and written
biography, their primary concern is with the relationship between an individual’s philosophy
and the way in which he or she lives.
2 The Art of Living

Hegel, cannot deal adequately with the idea that an individual’s philosophy may be
expressed in his or her way of life.
This difficulty is by no means confined to Hegel. Around a century later C. D.
Broad could not conceive of the possibility that the study of philosophy could impact
upon an individual’s way of life. In particular he claimed that the study of ethical
theory would make as little impact upon someone’s conduct as the study of dynamics
would upon someone’s golf performance.7 He went on to conclude his own study of
ethics with the dismissive remark that ethical theory is ‘quite good fun for those
people who like that sort of thing’.8 More recently, Bernard Williams has dismissed
the claim that the study of philosophical accounts of the emotions could have any
therapeutic value for the individual concerned.9 In particular he has doubted that
philosophy, conceived as rigorous argument and intellectual analysis, could impact
upon how someone leads their life. He says that he cannot himself conceive how the
study of the logical theory of the Stoic Chrysippus, for instance, could make any
difference to an individual’s behaviour.10
At first glance this might suggest some form of ancient–modern dichotomy in
which ancients such as Socrates and Chrysippus thought philosophy was in some way
connected to one’s way of life, while moderns such as Hegel and Williams do not.
However, an attitude similar to that of Hegel and Williams can already be found in
Aristotle. In a series of remarks concerning the philosophy of Socrates, Aristotle
doubted the Socratic claim that the possession of knowledge (
) – a
definition (  ) or rational account (  ) – concerning some particular thing
could have any direct impact upon one’s behaviour ( ) in relation to that thing.11
12
Insofar as Aristotle defines philosophy as a matter of  , this criticism of

7
See Broad, Five Types of Ethical Theory, p. 285 (and cited by Sandbach, The Stoics, p. 11):
‘We can no more learn to act rightly by appealing to the ethical theory of right action than we
can play golf well by appealing to the mathematical theory of the flight of the golf-ball. The
interest of ethics is thus almost wholly theoretical, as is the interest of the mathematical theory
of golf or of billiards’.
8
Broad, Five Types of Ethical Theory, p. 285.
9
See Williams, ‘Do Not Disturb’ (a review of Nussbaum’s The Therapy of Desire) and ‘Stoic
Philosophy and the Emotions’. Williams’ position has been challenged by Richard Sorabji in
‘Is Stoic Philosophy Helpful as Psychotherapy?’ and Emotion and Peace of Mind, pp. 159-68.
10
See Williams, ‘Do Not Disturb’, p. 26.
11
The key passages are Aristotle Eth. Nic. 1144b28-30 (= SSR I B 30), Eth. Eud. 1216b2-10
(= SSR I B 28), 1246b32-35 (= SSR I B 29), Mag. Mor. 1198a10-13 (= SSR I B 33). These will
be discussed in Chapter 2 § 6.
12
Aristotle defines philosophy in terms of  in Metaph. 981b5-6. He refines his
understanding of  in Int. 16b26-17a7 to    , ‘a statement that shows or
proves something’. The highest form of philosophy for Aristotle will be a matter of such
statements () concerning first principles and causes (     ; see Metaph.
982a1-3, with Alexander of Aphrodisias In Metaph. 6.1-5). These statements are clearly
separable from the behaviour of the individuals who make them. Indeed, Aristotle explicitly
characterizes such knowledge as unconcerned with action (see Metaph. 982b20-21, with
 Introduction 3

Socrates’ thesis may be seen as the foundation for a more general claim that
philosophy – conceived as a matter of  ,13 an activity primarily concerned with
giving a rational account of the world – will not have any direct impact upon an
individual’s actions ( ). Williams, in his remarks concerning Chrysippus, can also
be seen to define philosophy in terms of  when he characterizes it as a subject
primarily understood as ‘rigorous argument’. 14
Moreover, the idea of an ancient–modern dichotomy is further challenged by the
fact that there have been a number of modern philosophers who have affirmed the
idea that philosophy might be primarily expressed in an individual’s behaviour.15 This
is a recurrent theme in the works of Nietzsche and is particularly prominent in his
essay Schopenhauer as Educator:

I attach importance to a philosopher only to the extent that he is capable of setting an

example. […] The philosopher must supply this example in his visible life, and not merely
in his books; that is, it must be presented in the way the philosophers of Greece taught,
through facial expressions, demeanor, clothing, food, and custom more than through what
they said, let alone what they wrote.16

For Nietzsche, the true philosopher must offer an image of a complete way of life
rather than focus upon the abstract notion of attaining ‘pure knowledge’ (reine
Wissenschaft).17 The philosopher is an artist and his life is his work of art. 18 As is well
known, Nietzsche was intimately familiar with ancient philosophy and in particular

Alexander of Aphrodisias In Metaph. 5.16-20, 15.22-30). For further discussion of Aristotle’s

conception of philosophy see Chapter 2 § 1.
13
By  in this context I mean a rational account, explanation, or definition expressed in
discourse (see the substantial entry in LSJ). By using this word I want to capture the twin ideas
of rational explanation and verbal expression ( is a verbal noun of  and literally
means ‘something said’). I shall use ‘philosophy conceived as ’ as shorthand for
philosophy conceived as an activity concerned with developing a rational understanding of the
world that is expressed in discourse or argument (as opposed to a philosophy expressed in
actions ( ) or way of life (
)).
14
Williams, ‘Do Not Disturb’, p. 26.
15
For a preliminary discussion of the significance of the idea of the philosophical life in
modern philosophy see Miller, ‘From Socrates to Foucault’.
16
Nietzsche, Schopenhauer as Educator § 3 (KGW III 1, 346; Complete Works 2, 183-84).
Note also § 8 (KGW III 1, 413; Complete Works 2, 246): ‘The only possible criticism of any
philosophy, and the only one that proves anything, is trying to see if one can live by this
philosophy’.
17
See Nietzsche, Schopenhauer as Educator § 3 (KGW III 1, 347; Complete Works 2, 184).
18
See in particular the following from Nietzsche’s Nachlaß: ‘The philosopher’s product is his
life (first, before his works). It is his work of art [Kunstwerk]’ (KGW III 4, 29 [205]; Complete
Works 11, 274-75); ‘One should have a philosophy only to the extent that one is capable of
living according to this philosophy’ (KGW III 4, 30 [17]; Complete Works 11, 299); ‘As long
as philosophers do not muster the courage to advocate a lifestyle [Lebensordnung] structured in
an entirely different way and demonstrate it by their own example, they will come to nothing’
(KGW III 4, 31 [10]; Complete Works 11, 311).
4 The Art of Living

with the anecdotal history of the lives of the philosophers by Diogenes Laertius.19
More recently, two philosophers greatly influenced by Nietzsche, and also each drawn
to the ancient image of the philosopher, have considered the relationship between
philosophy and biography. The first of these, Michel Foucault, has suggested that
philosophy might be conceived as an activity directed towards turning one’s life into a
work of art:

What strikes me is the fact that, in our society, art has become something which is related
only to objects and not to individuals or to life. […] But couldn’t everyone’s life become a
work of art? Why should the lamp or the house be an art object but not our life?20

The second, Gilles Deleuze, in a reading of Spinoza influenced by his own work on
Nietzsche, has developed the concept of ‘practical philosophy’ conceived as a mode
of living or way of life in which philosophy and life are united.21 Elsewhere, in a
discussion concerning the image of the philosopher drawing upon Diogenes Laertius,
Deleuze has suggested that,

we should not be satisfied with either biography or bibliography; we must reach a secret
point where the anecdote of life and the aphorism of thought amount to one and the same
thing.22

There is, then, an ongoing debate concerning the relationship between philosophy and
biography. In this study my concern is to consider the nature of this relationship and
to examine the conceptions of philosophy involved in the various assessments of this
relationship. Hegel, for example, is quite open concerning the nature of his own
conception of philosophy and it is relatively straightforward to see how this has
shaped his assessment of Socrates. In other cases, the presuppositions concerning the
nature and function of philosophy remain implicit. The aim of this study is to outline
a conception of philosophy that is able to deal adequately with the idea that
philosophy is something that is primarily expressed in one’s way of life. Of course
one may say that none of the major figures in the history of philosophy – Aristotle
and Hegel included – would deny that the study of philosophy would have some

19
Nietzsche’s early philological work focused on Diogenes Laertius: ‘De Laertii Diogenis
fontibus’ (1868-69), ‘Analecta Laertiana’ (1870), and Beiträge zur Quellenkunde und Kritik des
Laertius Diogenes (1870), all in KGW II 1. For a detailed analysis of their philological merit
see Barnes, ‘Nietzsche and Diogenes Laertius’.
20
Foucault, ‘On the Genealogy of Ethics’, in Dits et écrits, vol. 4, pp. 392, 617; Essential
Works, vol. 1, p. 261 (for this and other references to shorter works by Foucault I supply
references to these two collections rather than their original places of publication; note that
some of these shorter works were first published in English). When in this interview Foucault
was questioned about this idea, he explicitly acknowledged Nietzsche’s influence. Foucault’s
account will be discussed further in Chapter 5 § 2.
21
See Deleuze, Spinoza: Practical Philosophy, pp. 3, 122, 130 (Spinoza: Philosophie pratique,
pp. 9-10, 164-65, 175).
22
Deleuze, The Logic of Sense, p. 128 (Logique du sens, p. 153).
 Introduction 5

impact upon the behaviour of the individual concerned. However, in many cases this
is merely an incidental consequence of what is conceived to be primarily a matter of
developing theoretical understanding. The aim here, then, is to explore the possibility
of a conception of philosophy in which philosophical ideas are primarily expressed in
behaviour, a conception in which understanding is developed not for its own sake but
rather in order to transform one’s way of life, a conception of philosophy that would
make biography not merely incidentally relevant but rather of central importance to
philosophy. 23
Those modern philosophers who have been sympathetic to this idea have often
turned to antiquity for inspiration. It is of course a commonplace to proclaim that in
antiquity philosophy was conceived as a way of life. To be a philosopher in antiquity
– a Platonist, a Stoic, an Epicurean, a Cynic, a Neoplatonist, even an Aristotelian –
meant that one would live in a specifically philosophical manner.24 However, on its
own, this claim tells us little concerning how one might understand the relationship
between an individual’s philosophy and his or her way of life. Of those who have
attempted to explore this question, Foucault has been the most explicit, suggesting
that in antiquity philosophy was often conceived as an art of living, a ‘technē tou
biou’.25 As a matter of fact this phrase does not appear in this precise form in the
ancient literature.26 However there are references to a     , an art
concerned with one’s way of life. Almost all of the ancient occurrences of this phrase
derive from sources with Stoic connections and it is with the Stoics that this
conception of philosophy as the art of living came to be developed.27 Insofar as they

23
Thus my concern here is with the idea that biography may be of philosophical relevance
insofar as it expresses philosophical ideas (i.e. the impact of philosophy on one’s biography); I
am not concerned with the idea that certain biographical information may contribute to
understanding the formation of a philosophical position (i.e. not the impact of biography on
one’s philosophy).
24
For general studies of different conceptions of philosophy in antiquity see Hadot, Qu’est-ce
que la philosophie antique?; Jordan, Ancient Concepts of Philosophy; Domański, La
philosophie, théorie ou manière de vivre?; Gauss, Plato’s Conception of Philosophy; Chroust,
‘Late Hellenistic “Textbook Definitions” of Philosophy’.
25
See e.g. Foucault, The Care of the Self, pp. 43-45 (Le souci de soi, pp. 60-63). Note also
Nehamas, The Art of Living, p. 96, who also uses this phrase.
26
This and all of the following data concerning the frequency of phrases derive from the
Thesaurus Linguae Graecae database and the Packard Humanities Institute Latin database.
27
The formulation    
 occurs 4 times, all in Sextus Empiricus (Pyrr.
Hyp. 3.272, 273, Adv. Math. 11.180, 209). Variations on this occur a total of 41 times, of
which 34 occur in Sextus (many in his preferred form   
  ) during his series
of arguments against the idea of an art of living (which will be discussed in Chapter 4 § 2). The
remaining seven occurrences are: Epictetus Diss. 1.15.2, Chrysippus apud Galen Plac. Hipp.
Plat. 3.8.16 (5.352 Kühn = 226.25-29 De Lacy = SVF 2.909, 911), Arius Didymus 2.7.5b10
(2.66.14-67.4 WH = SVF 3.560), Strabo 1.1.1 (= Posidonius test. 75 EK), Philo Leg. Alleg. 1.57
(= SVF 3.202), Plutarch Quaest. Conv. 613b, and Clement of Alexandria Paed. 2.2
(PG 8.420a), the most important of which will be discussed in Chapter 3 § 1. Latin equivalents
would be ars vitae and ars vivendi; these occur in Cicero Fin. 1.42, 1.72, 3.4, 4.19, 5.16, 5.18,
6 The Art of Living

appear to have been the principal ancient philosophical school to explore the nature of
this relationship between philosophy and biography in any detail, it is with them that
this study will be primarily concerned. The Stoic Epictetus describes philosophy thus:

Philosophy does not promise to secure anything external for man, otherwise it would be
admitting something that lies beyond its proper subject matter (). For just as wood is
the material () of the carpenter, bronze that of the statuary, so each individual’s own life
(
   !" #) is the material () of the art of living ( $ 
  ).28

Here Epictetus presents his philosophy conceived as an art of living as an activity

directed towards the transformation of one’s way of life ( ). In contrast to the
conception of philosophy as  , this conception is explicitly concerned with the
way in which one lives. The function of philosophy, for Epictetus, is to transform
one’s behaviour, and any development in genuine philosophical understanding will,
for him, always be expressed in one’s actions ( ). This idea of an art ()
concerned with transforming one’s behaviour clearly shares something with the
Socrates of the Apology and the early Platonic dialogues where knowledge of human
excellence ( ) is repeatedly compared to knowledge of an art or craft ( ).29
A provisional generalization would be to say that for philosophers such as
Aristotle, Hegel, and Williams, philosophy is conceived as primarily a matter of
 ; for Socrates, the Stoics, Nietzsche, and Foucault, philosophy is conceived as a
30
, and in particular a  primarily concerned with transforming one’s  .
Insofar as philosophers who conceive philosophy in terms of  appear to be
unable to deal adequately with the philosophical significance of biography and the
more general relationship between philosophy and biography, the aim of this study is
to draw upon primarily Stoic ancient philosophical resources in order to outline a
conception of philosophy that can deal with this relationship.
A common objection to the characterization of philosophy as an art of living is the
claim that, insofar as it downplays the role of  , it makes a philosophical way of
life indistinguishable from other, say, religious ways of life also common in
antiquity. 31 Yet what distinguishes a philosophical way of life from these religious

Tusc. Disp. 2.12, Acad. 2.23, Seneca Epist. 95.7, 95.8, 95.9. Note also Seneca fr. 17 Haase
apud Lactantius Div. Inst. 3.15.1 (PL 6.390-91).
28
Epictetus Diss. 1.15.2.
29
In general I translate   as ‘art’ but occasionally use ‘craft’, ‘skill’, or a combination of
these. Another alternative sometimes used is ‘expertise’ (e.g. Annas & Barnes, Sextus
Empiricus, Outlines of Scepticism). I often use ‘expert’ for    rather than ‘artist’ or
‘craftsman’. Socrates’ apparent use of an analogy between   and  % will be discussed
in Chapter 2 § 4.
30
Of course this is merely a generalization in order to contrast two general conceptions of
philosophy. I do not mean to make any substantive claims concerning any of these philosophers
at this stage.
31
See e.g. Nussbaum, The Therapy of Desire, pp. 353-54, who criticizes Foucault and
‘affiliated writers’ (by which she appears to mean Pierre Hadot). She suggests that their
accounts place too much emphasis upon ‘habits and techniques du soi’ (i.e. &"") and do
 Introduction 7

ways of life is the fact that it is grounded upon, and expresses a desire for, rational
understanding as opposed to, say, mystical insight or unquestioned faith in a system
of beliefs. What makes the concept of an art of living specifically philosophical is the
essential role that rational understanding, analysis, or argument (  ) plays within
it. What distinguishes this conception of philosophy from that held by Aristotle,
Hegel, or Williams is that this rational understanding is not constitutive but rather
simply a necessary condition. It is the philosopher’s distinctively rational way of life
( ) that is constitutive, his actions and behaviour, which are of course an
expression of his rational understanding.
The central task of this study will be to outline a conception of philosophy in
which  is a necessary component but is not the only constitutive element. In
order to accomplish this task I shall draw upon those ancient philosophers who
explicitly conceived philosophy in these terms, namely the Stoics, but also Socrates
insofar as he can be seen to lay the foundations for their conception of an art of living,
a     . Central to this conception of philosophy will be the
significance of philosophical exercise or training ( ) and the role that this
plays alongside rational discourse (  ) in the concept of an art ().32 The
reconstruction of this conception of philosophy will allow two things. Firstly, it will
make it possible to approach those ancient philosophers who conceived philosophy in
these terms with a proper understanding of their implicit presuppositions concerning
what it was that they thought they were engaged in. This is essential in order to avoid
anachronistic judgements.33 Closely related to this is the re-assessment of certain
authors who have often been dismissed as non-philosophical without pausing to
consider the assumptions implicit within such a judgement. Secondly, reconstructing
this conception of philosophy will, it is hoped, form a contribution to the more
general debate concerning the nature of the relationship between philosophy and
biography and the nature and function of philosophy as such.

2. The Structure

The first chapter of this study is devoted to developing an understanding of the

relationship between philosophy and biography as conceived in antiquity. Beginning
with a series of anecdotal stories concerning the status of ‘the philosopher’s beard’ in
the Graeco-Roman world, it will move on to consider the way in which philosophy

not acknowledge the importance of rational argument (i.e. ). I shall discuss this further in
Chapter 5 § 2.
32
It should be noted that this concern with the constitutive elements of   is quite different
to the debate between the rationalist and empiricist medical schools concerning the foundation
of the art of medicine. That debate – concerning the relationship between reason and experience
– was primarily concerned with the acquisition of technical expertise in medicine and, in
particular, how one might come to know the  underpinning a  . For further
discussion see Walzer & Frede, Galen, Three Treatises on the Nature of Science, pp. ix-xxxiv.
33
See Frede in Brunschwig & Lloyd, eds, Greek Thought, p. 4.
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8 The Art of Living

was often presented as a matter of actions rather than words (    ). Central
here will be the philosophical significance attached to biographical and anecdotal
literature concerning the lives of ancient philosophers. This first chapter will set the
scene for the subsequent discussion.
In the second chapter I shall begin to develop an understanding of the concept of
an art of living by turning to Socrates as he is portrayed by Plato in the Apology. In
this text Socrates can be seen to outline an embryonic conception of an art ()
concerned with one’s way of life ( ). I shall also consider a number of the early
Platonic dialogues in which this idea is developed, in particular Alcibiades I and the
Gorgias. However my focus will be upon the historical Socrates rather than the
character in Plato’s dialogues.34 Consequently I am less concerned with what these
dialogues may tell us about Plato’s own philosophical position and I shall also draw
upon other Socratic sources, in particular Xenophon.35 I shall also consider what I
take to be a problem with one aspect of Aristotle’s portrait of Socrates insofar as this
will help to bring into focus the issues at hand.36 The main reason for this focus upon
the historical rather than the Platonic Socrates is the fact that the Stoics (and before
them the Cynics) claimed to be followers of Socrates,37 yet, at the same time, clearly
distanced themselves from Plato.38 The Socrates with which I am concerned, then, is

34
For my approach to the ‘problem of Socrates’ see Additional Note 1.
35
As with the Platonic dialogues, I shall make use of Xenophon’s works (primarily the
Memorabilia) only to the extent that they present or elaborate ideas that can be found in Plato’s
Apology (see Additional Note 1). For further discussion of Xenophon as a source for Socrates
see Chroust, Socrates Man and Myth; Cooper, ‘Notes on Xenophon’s Socrates’.
36
Beyond Plato, Xenophon, and Aristotle, there are also the portrayal of Socrates by
Aristophanes in the Clouds (for which see Dover, ‘Socrates in the Clouds’; Vander Waerdt,
‘Socrates in the Clouds’; Montuori, ‘Socrates Between the First and Second Clouds’, in
Socrates: An Approach, pp. 85-145) and numerous later testimonia now collected in
Giannantoni’s Socratis et Socraticorum Reliquiae (many of which are translated in Ferguson,
Socrates: A Source Book). An exemplary example of the sort of work that still needs to be done
can be found in Glucker, ‘Socrates in the Academic Books and Other Ciceronian Works’. For
further discussion see the works referred to in Additional Note 1.
37
See e.g. the judgement of Grote, Plato, and the Other Companions of Sokrates, vol. 3, p. 505:
‘Antisthenes, and his disciple Diogenes, were in many respects closer approximations to
Sokrates than either Plato or any other of the Sokratic companions’; also Hicks, Stoic and
Epicurean, p. 4. For the Cynic appropriation of Socrates see Long, ‘The Socratic Tradition:
Diogenes, Crates, and Hellenistic Ethics’, pp. 28-46. For the Stoic appropriation see Long,
‘Socrates in Hellenistic Philosophy’; Striker, ‘Plato’s Socrates and the Stoics’. This Cynic-Stoic
appropriation of Socrates is particularly clear in the Arabic tradition where he becomes
‘Socrates of the Barrel’; see Alon, Socrates in Mediaeval Arabic Literature, pp. 30-31, 49.
38
On a range of philosophical topics the Stoics can be seen to respond to Platonic positions and
to oppose them. For ancient awareness of this opposition see Numenius apud Eusebius 14.6.11
(732d = SVF 1.12). For their disagreement over ontology see Brunschwig, ‘The Stoic Theory of
the Supreme Genus and Platonic Ontology’, p. 125. For politics see Plutarch Stoic. Rep. 1034e
(= SVF 1.260). For ethics see Striker, ‘Plato’s Socrates and the Stoics’, p. 242. For psychology
see Sedley, ‘Chrysippus on Psychophysical Causality’, p. 313. In the last two cases these
 Introduction 9

the Socrates who inspired Zeno to study philosophy and eventually to begin his
teaching in the Painted Stoa (  ),39 and the Socrates who appears
throughout the works of later Stoics such as Epictetus as the ultimate role model for
the Stoic sage.40 It is clearly beyond the scope of this study (or perhaps any) to
reconstruct fully either the Stoic image of Socrates or the historical Socrates. My
remarks concerning the Socratic conception of an art () concerned with one’s
way of life ( ) are thus to a certain extent provisional and are intended simply to
function as a foundation for an understanding of the Stoic conception of an art of
living.
In the third chapter I shall turn to the Stoics themselves and examine how they
took up Socrates’ scattered remarks concerning the nature of philosophy and used
them to construct a fully-fledged concept of an art of living. Of particular importance
will be the way in which the Stoics developed the Socratic idea of an art ()
concerned with the health of the soul (!"), their more formal attempts to define an
art (), and their discussion of the relationship between philosophical theory
(  ) and exercise ( ). In order to do this I shall draw upon a wide range of
Stoic sources and shall use the term ‘Stoic’ in a fairly broad way.41 However
throughout this study I shall often return to the works of Epictetus. There are a
number of reasons for this. The first is that the texts that have come down to us under
the name of Epictetus constitute the largest collection of documents relating to
Stoicism written in Greek.42 Secondly, these texts derive from a Stoic philosopher
rather than an intellectual with an interest in Stoicism (such as Cicero) or a hostile
member of a different philosophical tradition (such as Plutarch or Philodemus).

responses have been characterized as explicit attempts to rescue Socratic positions from
Platonic criticisms.
39
See Diogenes Laertius 7.2 (= SVF 1.1) who reports that Zeno was inspired to study
philosophy after reading Book 2 of Xenophon’s Memorabilia. For discussion of the
Xenophonic character of the Stoic image of Socrates see Long, ‘Socrates in Hellenistic
Philosophy’, pp. 152-54, 160-64.
40
The sources for Socrates used by Epictetus are difficult to determine. He clearly knew the
works of Plato and often cites him (for which see Jagu, Épictète et Platon). A passage at
Diss. 2.17.35-36 implies that Epictetus also knew the works of Xenophon and Antisthenes, and
at Diss. 4.6.20 he quotes from Antisthenes (although probably from his Cyrus rather than one of
his Socratic works; see fr. 20a DC = SSR V A 86). However, Antisthenes’ Socratic dialogues
appear to have been readily available to Dio Chrysostom – Epictetus’ fellow pupil under
Musonius Rufus – and thus were still in circulation in the late first century AD (on which see
Brancacci, ‘Dio, Socrates, and Cynicism’, pp. 241-54). In the light of this, it would perhaps be
premature to reject certain features of Epictetus’ portrait of Socrates as ‘idealizations’ or
‘distortions’ simply because they do not agree with the other sources that survive. Antisthenes
was older than both Plato and Xenophon and may well have been considerably closer to
Socrates than either of them. If Epictetus drew upon Antisthenes’ now lost portraits then his
presentation of Socrates may well be based, in part, on one of the most important ancient
sources for Socrates.
41
See Additional Note 2.
42
For the authorship and transmission of these texts see Additional Note 3.
10 The Art of Living

Thirdly, in antiquity Epictetus gained a considerable reputation as an important Stoic

philosopher and as a faithful follower of the early Stoa.43 Fourthly, the material in
Epictetus is directly relevant to my concerns here, namely the relationship between
philosophical discourse and one’s way of life. Another important source, especially
for the Stoic concept of an art of living, is Sextus Empiricus, to whom Chapter Four is
devoted. While Epictetus (c. 55-135) was probably at his most active c. 100 (his
Discourses have been dated to c. 108),44 Sextus has been given a floruit of c. 150-
170.45 It is likely that the ‘Stoics’ to whom his polemic is addressed would have been
those influenced by Epictetus and active during a period in which Epictetus’ fame was
at its greatest.46 Thus, if any qualification should be placed on my use of the term
‘Stoic’ it should perhaps be to note this focus upon the Stoicism of the second century
AD. Indeed, a number of the other authors that I shall draw upon – Marcus Aurelius
(121-180), Plutarch (c. 50-120), Galen (c. 129-210), and Aulus Gellius (c. 130-180) –
all belong to this period.
In Chapter 4 I shall consider a series of objections to the idea of an art of living
raised by Sextus Empiricus. By considering each of these objections in turn I shall
attempt to clarify and perhaps refine the Stoic concept. I shall also consider to what
extent Sextus’ scepticism, despite these objections, nevertheless still maintains the
idea that philosophy is something primarily expressed in one’s way of life ( ).
These four chapters constitute Part I, all focusing on the relationship between 
and , and the concept of a  concerned with one’s  . In these chapters I
shall suggest that philosophy conceived as  is able to impact upon one’s 
because it involves not just  but also  .
43
For ancient testimonies see Aulus Gellius 1.2.6 (= test. 8 Schenkl), who calls Epictetus the
greatest of the Stoics (Stoicorum maximus), Celsus apud Origen Cont. Cels. 6.2 (PG 11.1289 =
test. 26 Schenkl) who comments upon his popularity, Fronto Epist. (2.52 Haines) who calls him
a sage (sapiens), Galen Lib. Prop. 11 (19.44 Kühn = test. 20 Schenkl) who devoted a work to
him, and Augustine Civ. Dei 9.4.2 (PL 41.259, following Aulus Gellius 19.1.14 = fr. 9
Schenkl), who says that the doctrines of Epictetus were in harmony with those of Zeno and
Chrysippus. For modern assessments of his orthodoxy see Bonhöffer, Die Ethik des Stoikers
Epictet, pp. iii-iv (= The Ethics of the Stoic Epictetus, pp. 3-4); Bréhier, The Hellenistic and
Roman Age, p. 154; Hadot, The Inner Citadel, p. 82.
44
See Millar, ‘Epictetus and the Imperial Court’, p. 142, and Additional Note 3.
45
See Bett, Sextus Empiricus, Against the Ethicists, p. ix n. 3.
46
Bett, Sextus Empiricus, Against the Ethicists, p. ix, suggests that Sextus’ polemic was
directed towards philosophers who ‘lived centuries before his own time’. However it has been
argued (with regard to Plotinus’ polemic against the Gnostics in Enn. 2.9 and Simplicius’
polemic against the Manichaeans in In Ench. 35) that such polemics were usually a response to
direct contact with adherents of the position under attack (see Tardieu, ‘Sabiens coraniques et
“Sabiens” de Harran’, pp. 24-25 n. 105; Hadot, ‘The Life and Work of Simplicius’, p. 287). It
makes more sense to suppose that Sextus’ polemic was inspired by direct contact with
contemporary followers of Epictetus (who no doubt would have laid great stress on the idea of
an art of living) than with written texts that would have been centuries old. As Hadot notes
(Philosophy as a Way of Life, p. 191), it is likely that in the second century Epictetus would
have been the greatest authority for questions concerning Stoic philosophy. Thus, pace Bett, I
suggest that Sextus’ target was probably Epictetus rather than the early Stoa.
 Introduction 11

In Part II I shall move on to explore the relationship between these two

components of  further. Chapter 5 will focus upon the notion of a philosophical
or spiritual exercise ( ), considering its function, mechanism, and form.
Particular attention will be paid to the way in which ancient philosophical exercises
were often expressed in very specific forms of literature. Just as philosophical theory
may be seen to have its own literary genre in the form of the treatise, so philosophical
exercises may be seen to have their own genre; a form of writing that, to a modern
audience, may often appear to be of limited philosophical significance.
Chapters 6 and 7 will explore the relationship between  and  further
by examining two examples of literary genres specific to philosophical  .
These are the Handbook of Epictetus and the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius. Central
here will be the way in which such philosophical exercises are closely connected to
certain literary forms and the significance this may have for an assessment of a text as
‘philosophical’. In particular I shall attempt to show in these chapters that, when
placed within the context of philosophy conceived as a  involving both 
and  , texts such as the Handbook and the Meditations can be seen to be
profoundly philosophical.
In the Conclusion I shall draw upon the ancient philosophical positions I have
discussed in order to sketch the outline of a conception of philosophy that can deal
adequately with the idea that philosophy might be primarily expressed in an
individual’s way of life ( ). In particular I shall draw attention to a number of later
thinkers who can be seen to develop the idea that philosophy is a  concerned
with one’s  in order to emphasize again that the two competing conceptions of
philosophy that I have outlined so far do not form an ancient–modern dichotomy.
This is important in order to show that the Socratic and Stoic conception of
philosophy is not merely an interesting episode in the history of ideas but rather the
foundation of a tradition concerning how one might conceive the nature and function
of philosophy which has existed throughout the history of Western philosophy. What
I am about to present, then, is not only a historical excursion but hopefully also a
contribution to the contemporary debate concerning the nature and function of
philosophy as such.
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William, W. O.
Lower Prospect, Halifax N S Samuel F.
W. O. Blackburn
Lower York N B James W.
Queensbury, Brown
W. O.
Lower River Richmond N S Jos. McCarthy
Inhabitants,
W. O.
Lower Selmah, Hants N S William
W. O. Creelman
Lower Victoria N S Finlay McRae
Settlement,
Middle River,
W. O.
Lower Antigonishe N S Donald
Settlement, McKenzie
South River,
W. O.
Lower Ship Halifax N S Mrs. Mary
Harbor, W. O. O’Brien
Lower York N B George
Southampton, Grosvenor
W. O.
Lower Stewiacke Colchester N S F. H.
Holesworth
Lower Turtle Albert N B G. A. Fillmore
Creek, W. O.
Lower Carleton N B Stephen Brittain
Wakefield, W. O.
Lower West Yarmouth N S Mark
Pubnico, W. O. D’Entremont
Lower Wood Shelburne N S S. K. Mood
Harbor, W. O.
Lower Carleton N B John Riordon
Woodstock,
W. O.
Low Point, W. O. Inverness N S Angus McMaster
Lowville Nelson Halton O Wm. J. Hawkins
* Lucan Biddulph Middlesex, N. R. O William Porte
Lucerne Wakefield Ottawa Q Robert
Blackburn
* Lucknow Kinloss Bruce, S. R. O M. Campbell
Ludlow, W. O. Northumberland N B John Nelson
Lumley Usborne Huron, S. R. O William Dinnin
Lunenburg Osnabruck Stormont O F. Kirkpatrick
Lunenburg Lunenburg N S Mrs. A. M.
Rudolph
Lurgan Huron Bruce, S. R. O James
McCrindle
Lutes Mountain, Westmoreland N B Alfred M.
W. O. Bunnell
Luther Luther Wellington, N. R. O William Dawson
Luton Malahide Elgin, E. R. O L. R. Tyrell
* Lyn Elizabethtown Brockville O Joshua Lillie
Lynden Beverley Wentworth, O James E. Orr
N. R.
Lyndhurst Lansdowne Leeds, S. R. O John Roddick
Lynedock Charlotteville Norfolk, S. R. O Wm. A.
Charlton
Lynnfield, W. O. Charlotte N B John J. Getchell
Lynnville Windham Norfolk, N. R. O E. B. Myers
Lyons Dorchester, South Elgin, E. R. O
Lyster Nelson Megantic Q John King
Lyster Station Nelson Megantic Q François Leclerc
Lyttleton, W. O. Northumberland N B David Somers
Lytton Yale B C John Boyd

McAdam York N B James Haddock

Junction, W. O.
McAdam’s Lake, Cape Breton N S Daniel McIsaac
W. O.
[14]McAlpine, Queen’s N B Nevine
W. O. McAlpine
McAulay’s, W. O. Victoria N S N. McAulay
McDonald’s Queen’s N B Hiram
Corner, W. O. Humphries
McDonald’s Dalhousie Lanark, N. R. O Wm. Lock
Corners
McDonald’s Queen’s N B D. N. Smith
Point, W. O.
McDougall Westmoreland N B Col. McDougall
Settlement,
W. O.
McGillivray McGillivray Middlesex, N. R. O D. Shoff
McIntyre Osprey Grey, E. R. O Edward Potts
McKay’s Point, Victoria N S Michael McLean
W. O.
McKellar McKellar Muskoka O Samuel
Armstrong
McKenzie’s Carleton N B John Y. Hoyt
Corner, W. O.
McLaughlin Kent N B Ira Hicks
Road, W. O.
McLellan’s Pictou N S Donald Fraser
Mountain, W. O.
McLellan’s Pictou N S Alexander
Brook, W. O. Fraser
McLeod’s Mills, Kent N B George McLeod
W. O.
McPherson’s Richmond N S James Smith
Ferry, W. O.
Maberly Sherbrooke, South Lanark, S. R. O Richard
Mayberry
Mabou Inverness N S William Grant
Mabou Coal Inverness N S Donald Beaton
Mines, W. O.
Mabou Harbor, Inverness N S Donald
W. O. McDonald
Macbeth Hawkesbury, East Prescott O Archibald
McBean
Maccan, W. O. Cumberland N S Robert Roach
Maccan Cumberland N S W. B. Lodge
Mountain, W. O.
Mace’s Bay Charlotte N B Robert V.
Hanson
Macnider L’Assomption Rimouski Q F. Saucier
Mactaquack, York N B James Mitchell
W. O.
Macton Peel Wellington, C. R. O J. M. McCormick
Macville Albion Cardwell O Seth Wilson
Maddington Maddington Arthabaska Q F. H. St.
Germain
Madisco, W. O. Gloucester N B Mrs. Des Brisay
* Madoc Madoc Hastings, N. R. O Wm. H. O’Flynn
Magaguadavic, York N B Solomon Vail
W. O.
Magdalen Gaspé Q John D. Tuzo
Islands
Magenta Ange Gardien Rouville Q Jacques
Fournier
Magnetawan Chapman Muskoka O James Miller
Magog Magog Stanstead Q George O.
Somers
Magoon’s Point Stanstead Stanstead Q Aaron Magoon
Magpie Saguenay Q Philippe Bisson
Magundy, W. O. York N B James Henry
Mahone Bay Lunenburg N S Lewis Knaut
Maidstone Sandwich Essex O
Mainadieu, W. O. Cape Breton N S Clara Rigby
Maitland Augusta Grenville, S. R. O George C.
Longley
Maitland Hants N S Alexander Roy
Maitland, W. O. Annapolis N S W. H. Dukeshire
Maitland, W. O. Yarmouth N S Charles Steele
Malagash, W. O. Cumberland N S Robert
McDonald
Malagawatch, Inverness N S L. McDonald
W. O.
Malakoff Marlborough Carleton O W. J. Pierce
Malcolm Brant Bruce, S. R. O Daniel Sullivan
Malignant Cove, Antigonishe N S Donald McLean
W. O.
Mallorytown Yonge Leeds, S. R. O Frederick F. Lee
Malmaison Stanbridge Missisquoi Q
Malone Marmora Hastings, N. R. O George
Richardson
Malton Toronto Peel O J. B. Allen
Malvern Scarborough York, E. R. O Smith Thomson
* Manchester Reach Ontario, N. R. O John Taylor
Manchester, Guysborough N S James M.
W. O. Whitman
Mandamin Plympton Lambton O R. S. Dunlop
Manilla Mariposa Victoria, S. R. O Mary Douglas
Manitewaning Assiginack Algoma O Alexander
McGregor
Ironside
Manners Sutton, York NB
W. O.
Mannheim Wilmot Waterloo, S. R. O Charles
Lederman
Manotic North Gower Carleton O G. L. Dickinson
Mansfield Mulmur Simcoe, S. R. O William Gilbert
Mansonville- Potton Brome Q David A.
Potton Manson
Maple Vaughan York, W. R. O J. P. Rupert
Maple Bay Vancouver B C William
Beaumont
Maple Green, Restigouche N B James Fraser
W. O.
Maple Grove Ireland Megantic Q Henry Cross,
jun.
Maple Hill Brant Bruce, S. R. O George Inglis,
jun.
Maple Leaf Newport Compton Q William G.
Planch
Mapleton Yarmouth Elgin, E. R. O William
Appleford
Mapleton St. Peter’s Lisgar M John Peers
Mapleton, W. O. Albert N B W. A. Colpits
Maple Valley Nottawasaga Simcoe, N. R. O James Dick
Maplewood West Zorra Oxford, N. R. O Christopher G.
Bean
Maquapit Lake, Queen’s N B John Stone
W. O.
Mar Albermarle Bruce, N. R. O Thomas H. Lee
Marathon Fitzroy Carleton O
Marble Inverness N S Nicholas J.
Mountain, W. O. Brown
Marble Rock Leeds Leeds, S. R. O George Emery
Marbleton Dudswell Wolfe Q J. B. Bishop
March March Carleton O W. H. Berry
Marchmont Orillia, North Simcoe, O Charles Powley
N. R.
Marden Guelph Wellington, S. R. O C. Mc D. Blyth
Margaree, W. O. Margaree Inverness N S Collin Gillies
Margaree Margaree Inverness N S Donald
(Forks) Campbell
Margaretsville, Annapolis N S T. A. Margeson
W. O.
Margate No. 19 Prince P E I Reuben Tuplin
Maria Maria Bonaventure Q François S. Cyr
Marie Bridge No. 40 King’s P E I William Bowley
Marie Joseph, Guysboro’ N S Elisha Hawbolt
W. O.
Marion Bridge, Cape Breton N S Hector McNeil
W. O.
Maritana Franklin Huntingdon Q William Edwards
Markdale Glenelg Grey, S. R. O W. J. McFarland
* Markham Markham York, E. R. O James J. Barker
Markhamville, King’s N B Alfred Markham
W. O.
Marlbank Hungerford Hastings, E. R. O Alex. D. Allan
Marlow Linière Beauce Q Joseph
Thompson
Marmion Sullivan Grey, N. R. O John Hislop
Marmora Marmora Hastings, N. R. O D. Bentley
Marnoch Wawanosh Huron, N. R. O P. Poterfield
Marriott’s Cove, Lunenburg N S Benj. Millet
W. O.
Marshall’s Cove, Annapolis N S James P. Foster
W. O.
Marshall’s Town, Digby N S E. J. Haines
W. O.
Marsh Hill Reach Ontario, N. R. O William
Tomlinson
Marshville Wainfleet Monck O Edward Lee
Marshy Hope, Antigonishe N S James
W. O. McDougall
Marston Walsingham Norfolk, S. R. O Edwin Cridland
Marsville Garafraxa Wellington, C. R. O William
McCormack
Martin’s River, Lunenburg N S Joseph Strum
W. O.
Martintown Charlottenburg Glengarry O Robert
Blackwood
Martinville Clifton Compton Q
Marydale, W. O. Antigonishe N S Colin Chisholm
Marysville Tyendinaga Hastings, E. R. O Daniel Black
Marysville, W. O. York N B Benjamin
Dennison
Maryvale, W. O. Antigonishe N S James C. Ross
Mascouche Mascouche L’Assomption Q M. Delfause
Rapids
Mascouche Mascouche L’Assomption Q J. O. Lamarche
Masham Mills Masham Ottawa Q William Bennett
Maskinongé Maskinongé Maskinongé Q J. O. Bélanger
Masonville London Middlesex, E. R. O Robert Mason
Massawippi Hatley, West Stanstead Q Luther Abbot
Massie Hollond Grey, N. R. O Joshua Milligan
Mast Town, Colchester N S Geo. C.
W. O. Stephens
Matane Matane Rimouski Q
Matapédia Restigouche Bonaventure Q D. Fraser
Matawatchan Matawatchan Renfrew, S. R. O John McGregor
Matlock Plympton Lambton O John P. Jarmain
Mattawa Mattawa District of O John Bangs
Nipissing
Maugerville Sunbury NB
Mawcook Granby Shefford Q L. N.
Hungerford
Maxwell Osprey Grey, E. R. O Wesley Long
Mayfair Ekfrid Middlesex, W. R. O John Dalton
Mayfield Chingacousy Peel O William Spiers
Maynard Augusta Grenville, S. R. O
Maynooth Monteagle Hastings, N. R. O William
Fitzgerald
Mayo Lochaber Ottawa Q
Meadowvale Toronto Peel O C. H.
Gooderham
* Meaford St. Vincent Grey, E. R. O D. L. Layton
Meagher’s Grant, Halifax N S Daniel Dillman
W. O.
Mechanics’ King’s N B Alexander
Settlement, Moore
W. O.
Medford, W. O. King’s N S William West
Medina Nissouri, E. Oxford, N. R. O J. H. Beck
Medonte Medonte Simcoe, N. R. O Robert J. Moon
Melancthon Melancthon Grey, E. R. O James Brown
* Melbourne Melbourne Richmond Q William Beattie
Melbourne Ridge Melbourne Richmond Q Richard
Woodard
Melissa Chaffey Muskoka O W. H. Buker
Melocheville Beauharnois Beauharnois Q George Ellis
Melrose Tyendinaga Hastings, E. R. O George Duncan
Melrose St. Mary’s Guysborough N S James Stewart
Melvern Square Annapolis N S B. Spinney
Melville Hillier Prince Edward O Caleb Johnson
Memramcook Westmoreland N B S. C. Charters
Menie Seymour Northumberland, O James Mather
E. R.
Merigonish, Pictou N S Edward
W. O. Finlayson
Merivale Nepean Carleton O E. B. Hopper
Merlin Raleigh Kent O Patrick Sullivan
* Merrickville Wolford Grenville, N. R. O Samuel Jakes
Merritton Grantham Lincoln O Wm. Parnall
Mermaid Farm No. 48 Queen’s P E I J. Farquharson
Metabechouan Metabechouan Chicoutimi Q Jacques
Bergeron
Metaghan Digby N S George Gorman
Metaghan River, Digby N S Justinian
W. O. Comeau
Méthot’s Mills St. Flavien Lotbinière Q Joseph Fournier
Métis Métis Rimouski Q W. E. Page
Metz Garafraxa Wellington, C. R. O John Mitchell
Meyersburg Seymour Northumberland, O Cornelius
E. R. O’Sullivan
Michael’s Bay Tekermagh Algoma O R. A. Lyon
Michipiceton Algoma O P. W. Bell
River
Middleboro, Cumberland N S Cyprian Ballard
W. O.
Middle Church St. Paul’s Lisgar M James Clouston
Middle Clyde Shelburne N S G. D. McKay
River, W. O.
Middle Albert N B Sandford S.
Coverdale, W. O. Ryan
Middlefield, Queen’s N S E. Morton
W. O.
Middle La Have Lunenburg N S C. R. Pernette
Ferry, W. O.
Middle Halifax N S R. A. Kaulbeck
Musquodoboit
Middle Ohio, Shelburne N S James McKay
W. O.
Middle Pereaux, King’s N S Elijah C. West
W. O.
Middle River, Pictou N S George McLeod
W. O.
Middle River, Victoria N S Charles L.
W. O. McLeod
Middle St. Victoria N B Andrew Douglas
Francis, W. O.
Middle Section Margaree Inverness N S J. G. Crowdis
of N. E.
Margaree, W. O.
Middle Inverness N S Donald
Settlement— McDonald
River
Inhabitants,
W. O.
Middle Antigonishe N S James
Settlement of McDonnell
South River,
W. O.
Middle Carleton N B David N.
Simmonds, Raymond
W. O.
Middle York N B George W.
Southampton, McKay
W. O.
Middle Colchester N S John Dickie
Stewiacke, W. O.
Middleton Annapolis N S Albert Beals
Middleton No. 27 Prince P E I William Roberts
Middleville Lanark Lanark, N. R. O William Croft
Midgic, W. O. Westmoreland N B Mariner Hicks
Midhurst Vespra Simcoe, N. R. O George Smeath
Midland Tay Simcoe, N. R. O Thomas B.
Gladstone
Midland, W. O. King’s N B W. M. Case
Milby Ascott Sherbrooke Q Allan Cole
Mildmay Carrick Bruce, S. R. O Malcolm
Campbell
Mile End Hochelaga Q Jos. Robin
Lapointe
Milford Marysburg Prince Edward O James Cooke
Milford, W. O. Annapolis N S S. Charlton
Milford Haven Guysborough N S Thomas
Bridge, W. O. McDonald
Millbank Mornington Perth, N. R. O William
Rutherford
Mill Bridge Tudor Hastings, N. R. O R. M. Norman
* Mill Brook Cavan Durham, E. R. O William Vance
Mill Brook, W. O. Pictou N S M. G. Ross
Mill Brook, W. O. Queen’s N B David Hughes
Mill Cove, W. O. Lunenburg N S J. W. Jollymore
Mill Cove, W. O. Queen’s N B Mrs. Nancy
Sparks
Mill Creek, W. O. Kent N B N. Beckwith
Milledgeville St. John N B John G. Tobin
Mille Isles Mille Isles Argenteuil Q Solomon Pollock
* Mille Roches Cornwall Cornwall O Wm. N. Tait
Miller’s Creek, Hants N S Hiram Miller
W. O.
Mille Vaches Saguenay Q J. A. Piuze
Millfield Inverness Megantic Q Thomas
McKenzie
Mill Grove Flamborough, Wentworth, O W. H. Berney
West N. R.
Mill Haven Ernestown Lennox O Anderson
Venton
Milliken Markham York, E. R. O W. Gorvett
Mill Point Tyendinaga Hastings, E. R. O James Bowen
Millstream, King’s N B J. A. Fenwick
W. O.
Millsville, W. O. Pictou N S John McKay
Milltown Charlotte N B Patrick Curran
Mill Village Queen’s N S J. N. Mack
[15]Millville, King’s N S Emerson Gates
W. O.
Millville, W. O. York NB
Milnesville Markham York, E. R. O H. H. Read
Milton Queen’s N S E. Kempton
Milton, East Milton Shefford Q Charles Gillespie
* Milton, West Trafalgar Halton O W. D. Lyon
Milverton Mornington Perth, N. R. O John Pierson
Mimico Etobicoke York, W. R. O George Scott
Miminegash Number 3 Prince P E I Richard Costain
Mimosa Erin Wellington, S. R. O Nathaniel Read
Minden Snowdon Peterboro’, E. R. O S. S. Peck
Minesing Vespra Simcoe, N. R. O Mrs. Mary
Ronald
Mingan Saguenay Q Benjamin Scott
Minudie, W. O. Cumberland N S Gilbert Seaman
Mira Gut, W. O. Cape Breton N S Susannah
Martell
Miranda St. Thomas Missisquoi Q S. B. Derick
Miscouche No. 17 Prince P E I H. V. Desroches
Mispec, W. O. St. John NB
* Mitchell Logan Perth, S. R. O William H. Hicks
Mitchell’s Bay Dover East Kent O Chas. W.
Raymond
Moe’s River Compton Compton Q David F. Brown
Moffat Nassagiweya Halton O Peter Little
Mohawk Brantford, West Brant, S. R. O Thomas Racey
Mohr’s Corner Fitzroy Carleton O Charles Mohr
Moira Huntingdon Hastings, N. R. O Henry Ostrom
Moisic Saguenay Q Samuel Strong
Molesworth Wallace Perth, N. R. O Samuel
Longheed
Monaghan No. 36 Queen’s P E I James Wisner
Monck Luther Wellington, N. R. O William
Segsworth
Monckland Roxborough Stormont O John Brown
Moncton Westmoreland N B Jos. Crandall
Moncton Road, Westmoreland N B William G.
W. O. Bateman
Moneymore Hungerford Hastings, E. R. O John Thompson
Mongenais Newton Vandreuil Q J. Sicart
Mongolia Markham York, E. R. O Robert Curtis
Monkton Elma Perth, N. R. O Edward
Greensides
Mono Centre Mono Cardwell O John Wilson
Mono Mills Albion Cardwell O John Allen
Mono Road Chinguacousy Peel O John Judge
Station
Montague Montague Lanark, S. R. O Peter Clark
Montague Bridge No. 52 King’s P E I William Annear
Montague Cross No. 57 Queen’s P E I W. Callaghan
Montague Gold Halifax N S Mrs. Vasey
Mines, W. O. Barker
Montcalm Rawdon Montcalm Q E. Copping
Monteagle Valley Monteagle Hastings, N. R. O Robert T.
Bartlett
Monte Bello Petite Nation Ottawa Q Charles Major
Mont Elie Caxton St. Maurice Q Otis Chamberlin
Mont Louis Mont Louis Gaspé Q Joseph Lemieux
* Montmagny St. Thomas Montmagny Q J. S. Vallée
Montmorency Beauport Quebec Q Joseph Cazeau
Falls
Montmorin Morin Terrebonne Q Joseph Belisle
* Montreal Montreal Montreal Q Guillaume La
Mothe
Montrose Stamford Welland O Archd.
Thompson
Montrose No. 3 Prince PEI
Mont St. Hilaire St. Hilaire Rouville Q Alexis
Brouillette
Monument Carleton N B James Kennedy
Settlement,
W. O.
Moodyville New B C D. S. Milligan
Westminster
Moore Moore Lambton O John Morrison
Moorefield Maryborough Wellington, N. R. O Henry Maudsley
Moore’s Mills, Charlotte N B Joseph Cormick
W. O.
Moore’s Station St. Armand Missisquoi Q P. C. Moore
Moose Brook, Hants N S Thomas M. Reid
W. O.
Moose Creek Roxborough Stormont O William
McKillican
Moray McGillivray Middlesex, N. R. O H. Hagerman
Morden, W. O. King’s N S Thomas
Farnsworth
Morell Number 39 King’s P E I W. Sterns
Morell Rear do 39 King’s P E I James Phelan
Morewood Winchester Dundas O A. McKay
Morganston Cramahe Northumberland, O Wm. J.
E. R. Newman
Morley St. Vincent Grey, E. R. O James Lemon
Morningdale Mornington Perth, N. R. O J. Nicklin
Mills
* Morpeth Howard Bothwell O J. C. Nation
Morrisbank Morris Huron, N. R. O James Orr
* Morrisburg Williamsburg Dundas O Patrick Gormely
Morriston Puslinch Wellington, S. R. O R. B. Morrison
[16]Morristown, Antigonishe N S A. McGillivray
W. O.
Morristown, King’s N S John Palmer
W. O.
Morton Crosby, South Leeds, S. R. O James R. Leake
Morton’s Corner, Lunenburg N S James Morton
W. O.
Mortonville, Hants N S Josiah Smith
W. O.
Morven Ernestown Lennox O J. L. P.
Gordanier
Moscow Camden, East Addington O Zara Vanluven
Moser’s River, Halifax N S J. H. Dimmock
W. O.
Mosherville, Hants N S Joseph Mosher
W. O.
Mossley Dorchester, N. Middlesex, E. R. O Reuben Lane
Mossman’s Lunenburg N S James Mossman
Grant, W. O.
Motherwell Fullarton Perth, S. R. O James Brown,
sen.
Moulies River, Kent N B Arch.
W. O. McEacheren
Mountain Grove Olden Addington O E. L. Godfrey
Mountain View Ameliasburg Prince Edward O W. H. Way
Mount Albert Gwillimbury, East York, N. R. O Andrew Clifford
Mount Albion Saltfleet Wentworth, O James R. Cook
S. R.
* Mount Brydges Caradoc Middlesex, W. R. O Edward Handy