Module 1: Environmental Awareness and Ecosystem

1.1 Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Science

Definition: Environmental science is an interdisciplinary field that focuses on understanding the natural
world and the impacts of human activity on the environment.

It combines elements from various fields like biology, chemistry, physics, geography, geology, and social
sciences to solve environmental problems.

● Scope:
○ Natural Sciences: Biology, geology, physics, chemistry to study natural processes.
○ Social Sciences: Economics, sociology, and politics to analyze the human impact on the
environment.
○ Engineering: To design technology that mitigates environmental damage (e.g., pollution
control devices, renewable energy systems).
○ Policy & Law: Establishes guidelines and laws to protect the environment.
● Importance of Environmental Science:
○ Sustainability: Helps in developing practices for the sustainable use of resources.
○ Global Awareness: Addresses global challenges like climate change, biodiversity loss, and
pollution.
○ Human Health: Ensures cleaner air, water, and food for healthy living.
● Need for Public Awareness:
○ Informed Decision-Making: Awareness promotes participation in environmental
conservation.
○ Conservation Efforts: Encourages people to reduce, reuse, recycle, and conserve natural
resources.
○ Legal Advocacy: Citizens can push for environmental regulations and policies.
○ Climate Change Mitigation: Awareness leads to behavior changes, reducing carbon
footprints.

1.2 Concepts of Ecology and Environmental Science

● Ecology: The branch of biology dealing with the relationships and interactions between organisms
and their environment.
● Environmental Science:
○ Integrates various sciences to focus on human impacts on the environment.
○ It addresses problems like pollution, deforestation, and resource depletion.
● Difference between Ecology and Environmental Science:
○ Ecology: More focused on the relationships between organisms and ecosystems.
○ Environmental Science: Encompasses human-environment interactions and solutions to
environmental problems.
3. Ecosystem

An ecosystem is a dynamic complex of plant, animal, and microorganism communities and their nonliving
environment interacting as a functional unit. Ecosystems can be natural, like forests and oceans, or artificial, like
agricultural fields and urban areas.

3.1 Structure of an Ecosystem

1. Biotic Components:
○ Producers (Autotrophs): Organisms that produce their own food through photosynthesis or
chemosynthesis (e.g., plants, algae).
○ Consumers (Heterotrophs): Organisms that consume other organisms for energy.
■ Primary Consumers: Herbivores that feed on producers (e.g., deer).
■ Secondary Consumers: Carnivores that eat herbivores (e.g., wolves).
■ Tertiary Consumers: Top predators that eat secondary consumers (e.g., eagles).
○ Decomposers: Organisms that break down dead organisms and waste, recycling nutrients
(e.g., bacteria, fungi).
2. Abiotic Components:
○ Climate: Temperature, precipitation, and other weather conditions.
○ Soil: Composition, texture, and fertility.
○ Water: Availability and quality of freshwater and marine resources.
○ Sunlight: The primary energy source for photosynthesis.

Table 3: Ecosystem Components

Component Description Examples

Producers Organisms that produce their own food Plants, algae

Consumers Organisms that consume other organisms Herbivores, carnivores

Decomposers Organisms that break down dead matter Bacteria, fungi

Abiotic Factors Non-living environmental factors Climate, soil, water, sunlight

3.2 Functions of an Ecosystem

Function Description Examples

Energy Flow ~ Movement of energy through Photosynthesis,

trophic levels. food chain
~ Energy enters the ecosystem through
producers, and flows through the food chain
to consumers and decomposers.
~ Energy decreases as it moves up the
trophic levels due to energy loss as heat.

Nutrient Cycling ~ Recycling essential nutrients. Carbon, nitrogen,

~ Nutrients are recycled within the ecosystem phosphorus cycles
through biogeochemical cycles,
maintaining ecosystem health and productivity.

Regulation ~ Maintenance of ecosystem processes. Climate regulation,

~ Ecosystems regulate processes such as water purification
climate, water quality, and disease
through the interactions of biotic and
abiotic components.
Ecosystem Services:

○ Provisioning Services: Supply of food, fresh water, timber, and fibers.

○ Regulating Services: Climate regulation, flood control, and waste decomposition.
○ Supporting Services: Soil formation, nutrient cycling, and oxygen production.
○ Cultural Services: Recreation, tourism, spiritual benefits.

Types of Ecosystems

1. Forest Ecosystem: A forest ecosystem consists of a community of trees, shrubs, herbs, and associated organisms
that interact with the abiotic components like soil, air, and water. This ecosystem is highly interdependent, where every
organism relies on others for survival.

Components:

# Abiotic: Minerals, organic debris, and inorganic substances in the soil and atmosphere.
# Biotic: ~ Producers: Trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants.

~ Consumers: Primary (herbivores like deer), secondary (predators like foxes), and tertiary consumers
(top predators like tigers).

~ Decomposers: Organisms like bacteria, fungi, and earthworms that break down dead matter.

2. Aquatic Ecosystem: Aquatic ecosystems cover about 70% of Earth's surface and include both freshwater and
marine environments.

Types:

~Pond Ecosystem: Consists of abiotic components like oxygen and nutrients, and biotic components like producers
(algae), consumers (fish), and decomposers (bacteria).

~ Marine Ecosystem: Includes various zones (littoral, neritic, pelagic, and benthic) with specific organisms adapted to
these environments.

~ Estuarine Ecosystem: A mixture of fresh and saltwater environments, rich in nutrients and highly productive.

3. Grassland Ecosystem: Grasslands are ecosystems dominated by grasses and other non-woody plants, often
supporting a diverse range of herbivores and carnivores.

Components:

# Abiotic: Soil nutrients, air, and water.

# Biotic: ~ Producers: Mainly grasses.

~ Consumers: Primary (herbivores like buffaloes), secondary (carnivores like foxes), and tertiary
consumers (apex predators like lions).

~ Decomposers: Bacteria and fungi that break down organic matter.

4. Desert Ecosystem

Deserts are characterized by low rainfall, extreme temperatures, and sparse vegetation.

Components:

# Abiotic: Nutrients in the soil, air, and minimal organic matter.

# Biotic: ~ Producers: Drought-resistant plants like shrubs and cacti.

~ Consumers: Animals adapted to arid conditions, such as insects, reptiles, and camels.

~ Decomposers: Limited due to low organic matter.

1.4 Biogeochemical Cycles: Natural pathways through which essential elements circulate between living
organisms and the environment. These cycles maintain a balance of nutrients essential for life.

(i) Carbon Cycle

The carbon cycle is a fundamental biogeochemical cycle that describes the movement of carbon through the
Earth's atmosphere, oceans, soil, and living organisms.

Carbon is a key element in all living organisms, and its cycle involves several processes that help regulate Earth's
climate and support life.

1.1 Processes in the Carbon Cycle

1. Photosynthesis: Plants, algae, and some bacteria convert carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the
atmosphere into organic compounds (e.g., glucose) using sunlight.
○ Equation:

2. Respiration: Organisms break down organic compounds to release energy, returning carbon
dioxide to the atmosphere.
○ Equation:

3. Decomposition: Dead organisms and waste products are broken down by decomposers (bacteria
and fungi), releasing carbon back into the soil and atmosphere.

4. Combustion: Burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) and biomass (wood, crop residues)
releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

5. Oceanic Absorption: Oceans absorb a significant amount of atmospheric CO₂. Marine plants also
perform photosynthesis, contributing to the oceanic carbon cycle.

6. Sedimentation and Burial: Carbon compounds, such as calcium carbonate from marine
organisms, can become buried in sediments and transform into fossil fuels over geological
timescales.

Table 1: Carbon Cycle Processes

Carbon Cycle
(ii) Nitrogen Cycle

The nitrogen cycle describes the movement of nitrogen through the Earth's atmosphere, biosphere, and
geosphere. Nitrogen is a crucial element for all living organisms as it is a key component of amino acids and
nucleic acids.

2.1 Processes in the Nitrogen Cycle

1. Nitrogen Fixation: Conversion of atmospheric nitrogen (N₂) into ammonia (NH₃) or related
compounds by nitrogen-fixing bacteria (e.g., Rhizobium in legumes) or by industrial processes.
○ Types:
■ Biological Nitrogen Fixation: Performed by bacteria in soil or in symbiosis with
plant roots.
■ Abiotic Nitrogen Fixation: Includes lightning and industrial processes.
2. Nitrification: Conversion of ammonia to nitrites (NO₂⁻) and then to nitrates (NO₃⁻) by nitrifying
bacteria in the soil.
○ Equation:

3. Assimilation: Plants take up nitrates and ammonium from the soil and incorporate them into
organic compounds like proteins and nucleic acids.

4. Ammonification: Conversion of organic nitrogen from dead organisms and waste products into
ammonia by decomposers.

5. Denitrification:
○ Description: Conversion of nitrates and nitrites back into nitrogen gas (N₂) by denitrifying
bacteria, which is then released back into the atmosphere.
○ Equation:

Table 2: Nitrogen Cycle Processes

(iii) Water Cycle

The water cycle, also known as the hydrological cycle, describes the continuous movement of water on,
above, and below the Earth's surface. This cycle plays a crucial role in maintaining life on Earth by
regulating temperature, providing fresh water, and supporting ecosystems.
1.5 Energy and Nutrient Flow in Ecosystems

● Energy Flow:
○ Energy enters ecosystems through the producers (autotrophs) via photosynthesis.
○ It moves through trophic levels (producers → primary consumers → secondary
consumers → tertiary consumers).
○ Energy flow is unidirectional, and at each trophic level, energy is lost as heat.
○ Energy Flow in Ecosystem (Flowchart):
■ Sun → Producers (Plants) → Primary Consumers (Herbivores) → Secondary
Consumers (Carnivores) → Tertiary Consumers → Decomposers.
● Nutrient Flow:
○ Unlike energy, nutrients are recycled within ecosystems.
○ Decomposers like bacteria and fungi break down dead organisms, returning nutrients to
the soil, which are then absorbed by plants (producers).
○ Carbon Cycle: Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is absorbed by plants, passed to animals
through the food chain, and returned to the atmosphere through respiration and
decomposition.
○ Nitrogen Cycle: Nitrogen fixation by bacteria converts nitrogen gas into forms usable by
plants, while denitrification returns nitrogen to the atmosphere.
○ Water Cycle: Water evaporates from Earth's surface, condenses into clouds, precipitates
back to Earth, and infiltrates or runs off into bodies of water.
○ Sulfur Cycle: Sulfur is released from rocks and volcanoes, absorbed by plants, moves
through the food chain, and is returned to the atmosphere through decomposition and
volcanic activity.

6. Food Chain and Food Web

● Food Chain: A linear sequence showing how energy and nutrients pass from one organism to
another in an ecosystem.
● A feeding hierarchy in which organisms in an ecosystem are grouped into nutritional (trophic)
levels and are shown in a succession to represent the flow of food energy and the feeding
relationship between them
○ Example: Grass → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Hawk.

# Types of Food Chain

(i) Grazing Food Chain: Producers (green plants) get energy from the sun, and herbivores graze on
them, transferring energy to higher trophic levels. Instance: Common in grassland and forest ecosystems.

Grass → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Hawk; energy decreases at each step due to metabolic
processes.
(ii) Detritus Food Chain: Dead organic matter is broken down by decomposers, and energy is transferred to
detritivores and their predators. Instance: Found in estuarine and mangrove ecosystems.

Dead plants → Soil mites → Insects → Lizards; energy flows through decomposers and
scavengers.

● Food Web: A complex network of interconnected food chains showing all possible feeding
relationships between organisms in an ecosystem.
○ Example: Grass may be eaten by both grasshoppers and rabbits, which in turn are
consumed by snakes and hawks.
7. Ecological Pyramid: The ecological pyramid is the graphical
representation of the organism’s position in the food chain.

~ The base of the pyramid consists of the food-producer level and the
successive levels make the tiers with the top carnivore or tertiary
consumers forming the apex.

Types of Ecological Pyramids

(i) Pyramid of Numbers: Shows the number of organisms at each

trophic level. Can be upright, partly upright and inverted depending on the type of ecosystem.

^Aquatic and Grassland Ecosystem^ ^Forest Ecosystem^ ^Parasitic Food-chain^

(ii) Pyramid of Biomass: Illustrates the total mass of living organisms at each trophic level.
~ The dry weight of all the matter contained in the organisms is known as biomass.
~ Each trophic level contains a definite amount of biomass.
~ As we move up trophic levels, biomass decreases drastically.
~ There is 90 to 99 percent loss of biomass at each level.
(iii) Pyramid of Energy: Demonstrates the energy flow through each trophic level, with energy decreasing at
higher levels. Flow of energy in an ecosystem takes place through the food chain.
~ Sunlight (solar energy) → Grass (producer; stores energy as carbohydrates, proteins, fats) → Cow (primary
consumer; herbivore) → Human (secondary consumer); energy lost through cow’s respiration and metabolic
activities.
~ During this transfer, about 90% of the energy is lost as unusable heat to the environment.
~ We have an upright pyramid of energy flow as we move up the trophic levels, and the amount of usable energy
available at each stage declines.
~ The flow of energy through the various components of the ecosystem is unidirectional and continuous. ~
Unlike the nutrients which move in a cyclic manner and are reused by the producers after flowing through the
food chain, energy is not reused in the food chain.

~ Types

(A) Universal Energy-Flow Model: Energy flows through trophic levels with gradual energy loss at each level,
mainly due to respiration and excretion. Instance: Found in most ecosystems where energy is lost at every level.

Grass (producer) → Rabbit (herbivore) → Fox (carnivore); energy lost through rabbit’s respiration and
movement.

(B) Single-Channel Energy-Flow Model: Energy flows in one direction from producers to herbivores to
carnivores, with energy loss at each trophic level. Instance: Occurs in grazing food chains.

Sun → Grass → Cow → Human; energy decreases as it moves up the chain.

(C) Double-Channel (Y-Shaped) Energy-Flow Model: Shows energy flow through both grazing and detritus
food chains in the same ecosystem. Instance: Marine ecosystems (grazing chain dominates) and forest
ecosystems (detritus chain dominates).

In forests: Fallen leaves → Decomposers → Insects (detritus chain) and Sun → Trees → Deer (grazing chain).
8. Ecosystem Management: Ecosystem management is the process of managing natural resources to
promote sustainability, biodiversity, and ecosystem health.

● Principles of Ecosystem Management:

○ Sustainability: Use of resources in a way that meets current needs without compromising
future generations.
○ Biodiversity Conservation: Protecting diverse species to maintain ecological balance.
○ Integrated Management: Taking into account the interconnectedness of ecosystems
when making decisions.
● Examples of Ecosystem Management:
○ Protected Areas: Establishing national parks and wildlife reserves.
○ Sustainable Agriculture: Practices like crop rotation and organic farming.
○ Forest Management: Preventing deforestation and promoting reforestation.
Module 2: Natural Resources and Environmental Pollution

● Definition of Resources:
Resources are materials or substances that occur in nature and can be used for economic gain or
sustenance. These are essential for survival and development but need to be used responsibly.

# Renewable Resources: Resources that can naturally replenish themselves over time. They are usually
available in abundance but need proper management to ensure sustainability.

● Examples:
○ Solar Energy: The sun provides unlimited energy.
○ Wind Energy: Harnessing the wind through turbines to generate electricity.
○ Water: Freshwater sources like rivers and lakes (although water requires sustainable
management).
○ Biomass: Organic material like wood, agricultural waste, etc., used as fuel.
● Importance:
They help in reducing dependence on fossil fuels and decrease greenhouse gas emissions,
contributing to sustainable development.

# Non-Renewable Resources: Resources that are available in limited quantities and do not replenish on a
human timescale. Once they are exhausted, they are gone permanently or take millions of years to form.

● Examples:
○ Fossil Fuels: Coal, petroleum, and natural gas, which take millions of years to form.
○ Minerals: Metals like gold, silver, and copper, which are extracted from the Earth.
○ Nuclear Energy: Produced from uranium, which is mined and is available in finite
amounts.
● Problems with Non-Renewable Resources:
○ They contribute to environmental degradation, like air and water pollution.
○ Their extraction and use lead to habitat destruction and climate change.
2.2 Consequences of Deforestation, Floods, and Droughts

Deforestation: The removal or clearing of forests for agriculture, urban development, or logging.

● Consequences:
○ Biodiversity/ Habitat Loss: Destruction of habitats leading to the extinction of species.
○ Climate Change, Global Warming: Trees absorb CO₂, and deforestation increases
greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere.
○ Soil Erosion: Loss of trees leads to soil being washed away by rain, reducing soil fertility.
○ Droughts, Floods, Disruption of Water Cycle: Forests play a critical role in the water
cycle, and their removal disrupts rainfall patterns.
○ Survival Difficulties and species extinction
Floods: The overflow of water onto land that is usually dry, often caused by heavy rainfall, river overflow, or
dam failures.

● Causes:
○ Deforestation leading to reduced absorption of water by the soil.
○ Urbanization causes reduced drainage due to impermeable surfaces like concrete.

● Consequences:

Droughts: Extended periods of deficient rainfall resulting in water shortages.

● Causes:
○ Climate change leading to irregular weather patterns.
○ Over-extraction of water from rivers and underground sources.

Consequences:
2.3 Segments of the Environment
# Atmosphere: The layer of gasses surrounding the Earth. It is crucial for sustaining life by providing oxygen
and regulating temperature.

● Main Gases:
○ Nitrogen (78%)
○ Oxygen (21%)
○ Trace gasses: Carbon dioxide, methane, etc.
● Role:
○ Protects the Earth from harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
○ Maintains the planet’s temperature by trapping heat (greenhouse effect).

# Hydrosphere: The part of Earth covered by water, including oceans, rivers, lakes, and groundwater.

● Importance:
○ Supports aquatic life.
○ Provides freshwater for drinking, agriculture, and industrial processes.

# Lithosphere: The solid outer layer of the Earth, including the crust and upper mantle.

● Role:
○ Provides minerals and fossil fuels.
○ Supports plant life through soil formation.

# Biosphere: The zone of life on Earth where organisms interact with each other and their environment.

● Importance:
○ All ecosystems and living organisms exist within this sphere.
○ It is essential for the recycling of nutrients through food chains and biogeochemical
cycles.

2.4 Sources, Pathways, and Fate of Environmental Pollutants

# Sources of Pollutants

● Natural Sources:
Volcanic eruptions, wildfires, dust storms, and pollen.
● Anthropogenic (Human-made) Sources:
○ Industrial Activities: Factories releasing toxic gasses and chemicals.
○ Agriculture: Use of pesticides and fertilizers that runoff into water bodies.
○ Vehicle Emissions: Combustion engines release harmful gasses like CO₂, NOx, and
particulates.
○ Waste Disposal: Landfills and untreated sewage pollute air, soil, and water.
# Pathways of Pollutants

● Air: Pollutants are carried by wind and can travel long distances.

Source (e.g., Factory) → Emission into Atmosphere → Transport by Wind → Deposition in

Soil/Water Bodies.

● Water: Pollutants can enter rivers, lakes, and oceans through runoff, industrial discharge, and
waste dumping.

Agricultural Runoff → Water Bodies → Nutrient Pollution (Eutrophication) → Algal Blooms →

Oxygen Depletion → Fish Death.

● Soil: Pollutants accumulate in soil through agricultural chemicals and industrial waste, leading to
land degradation.

Industrial Waste Dumping → Soil Contamination → Leaching into Groundwater → Toxic Metal
Accumulation → Crop Contamination → Human Consumption → Health Issues (e.g., Heavy Metal
Poisoning).

# Fate of Pollutants

● Degradation: Some pollutants are broken down by natural processes like sunlight
(photodegradation) or microorganisms (biodegradation).
● Bioaccumulation: Pollutants like heavy metals and pesticides can accumulate in the tissues of
organisms.
● Biomagnification: The concentration of pollutants increases as they move up the food chain.

2.5 Causes of Environmental Pollution

~ Industrial Activities

● Air Pollution: Emission of harmful gasses (CO₂, NOx, SO₂) from factories and power plants.
● Water Pollution: Discharge of untreated wastewater and chemicals into rivers and oceans.
● Soil Pollution: Dumping of hazardous wastes, chemicals, and heavy metals into the land.

~ Agriculture

● Pesticides and Fertilizers: Chemical runoff from agricultural fields contaminates water bodies.
● Deforestation: Clearing of forests for agriculture leads to habitat loss, soil erosion, and climate
change.

~ Urbanization

● Construction: Dust, noise, and the destruction of green spaces contribute to pollution.
 ● Waste Generation: Urban areas generate large amounts of solid waste, which, if not managed
properly, leads to land and water pollution.

~ Vehicular Emissions

● Air Pollution: Emission of CO₂, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, and particulate matter from
automobiles is a major source of urban air pollution.

2.6 Population Explosion and Its Impact

● Definition: The rapid increase in the world’s population over a relatively short period due to
higher birth rates and lower death rates.
● Impact on Environment:
○ Overconsumption of Resources: Increased demand for water, food, and energy leading to
resource depletion.
○ Deforestation and Habitat Loss: Clearing land for agriculture, housing, and
infrastructure.
○ Increased Waste Generation: Higher population results in more solid, liquid, and
gaseous waste.
○ Air and Water Pollution: Greater industrial and vehicular emissions; untreated sewage
leads to water contamination.
○ Biodiversity Loss: Expansion of human settlements and agriculture reduces natural
habitats for wildlife.
● Impact on Human Health:
○ Waterborne Diseases: Contaminated water sources lead to diseases like cholera,
dysentery, and typhoid.
○ Respiratory Diseases: Air pollution leads to asthma, bronchitis, and lung cancer.
○ Food Scarcity: Increased demand for food can lead to malnutrition and food shortages,
especially in developing regions.
Module 3: Air Pollution

3.1 Structure and Composition of Unpolluted Atmosphere

● Definition:
The atmosphere is a layer of gasses surrounding the Earth, essential for sustaining life by
providing oxygen, protecting against harmful solar radiation, and regulating temperature.
● Composition of Unpolluted Atmosphere:
○ Nitrogen (N₂): 78%
■ Role: Inert gas; essential for the nitrogen cycle.
○ Oxygen (O₂): 21%
■ Role: Essential for respiration in most living organisms.
○ Argon (Ar): ~0.93%
■ Role: Inert gas; used in lighting and industrial processes.
○ Carbon Dioxide (CO₂): ~0.04%
■ Role: Vital for photosynthesis; greenhouse gas.
○ Trace Gases:
■ Neon (Ne), Helium (He), Methane (CH₄), Krypton (Kr), Hydrogen (H₂),
Xenon (Xe).
■ Role: Various industrial and biological functions.
● Layers of the Atmosphere:
○ Troposphere:
■ Altitude: 0-12 km
■ Characteristics: Contains most weather phenomena; temperature decreases with
altitude.
○ Stratosphere:
■ Altitude: 12-50 km
■ Characteristics: Contains the ozone layer; temperature increases with altitude.
○ Mesosphere:
■ Altitude: 50-80 km
■ Characteristics: Meteors burn up; temperature decreases with altitude.
○ Thermosphere:
■ Altitude: 85-450 km
■ Characteristics: Temperature increases sharply; auroras occur here.
○ Exosphere:
■ Altitude: 450 km and above
■ Characteristics: Outermost layer; particles can escape into space.
3.2 Classification of Air Pollution Sources

3.3 Types of Air Pollutants

 ● Primary Pollutants: Pollutants directly emitted from a source into the atmosphere.
● Secondary Pollutants: Pollutants formed in the atmosphere through chemical reactions of
primary pollutants.

Aspect Primary Pollutants Secondary Pollutants

Definition Directly emitted from sources Formed through chemical reactions in the atmosphere.

Examples CO, SO₂, NOₓ, PM, VOCs, NH3 O₃, SO₃, HNO₃, smog,
secondary organic aerosols (SOA).

Sources Vehicles, industries, natural events Photochemical reactions involving

primary pollutants.

Impact Immediate health and Contribute to phenomena like smog and acid rain.
environmental effects

Control Source-specific controls Reducing precursor emissions (VOCs and NOₓ).

Measures (e.g., catalytic converters)
3.4 Effects of Air Pollution
3.5 Monitoring of Air Pollution

● Air Quality Index (AQI): A numerical scale used to communicate how polluted the air currently
is or how polluted it is forecast to become.
● Instruments: Gas analyzers, particulate matter sensors, meteorological stations.

3.6 Control Methods and Equipment for Air Pollution Control

● Filters: Particulate filters, HEPA filters for industrial and household use.
● Scrubbers: Devices to remove harmful gasses from industrial emissions.
● Electrostatic Precipitators: Used to capture airborne particles in power plants.

3.7 Vehicular Emissions and Control

● Emissions: Carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons.

● Control: Catalytic converters, use of cleaner fuels like CNG, electric vehicles.

3.8 Indoor Air Pollution

● Sources: Tobacco smoke, household chemicals, building materials.

● Effects: Asthma, lung infections, eye irritation.

Best Practices for Pollution Control:

○ Energy Efficiency: Reducing energy consumption lowers emissions from power

generation.
○ Switching to Cleaner Fuels: Using natural gas, renewable energy sources instead of coal
and oil.
○ Process Optimization: Improving industrial processes to minimize waste and emissions.
○ Maintenance of Equipment: Regular maintenance of vehicles and industrial machinery
to ensure optimal performance and minimal emissions.

3.9 Air Pollution Episodes and Case Studies

● Bhopal Gas Tragedy (1984):

○ Overview: Industrial disaster in Bhopal, India, caused by a gas leak from a pesticide plant
owned by Union Carbide.
○ Cause:
■ Chemical Leak: Release of methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas due to inadequate
maintenance and safety protocols.
○ Effects:
■ Human Impact: Approximately 15,000 deaths and over half a million injuries due
to exposure to toxic gas.
 ■ Environmental Impact: Long-term contamination of soil and water sources;
persistent health issues in the population.

● Delhi Air Pollution Crisis (2019):

○ Overview: One of the most polluted cities in the world, with severe air quality issues
exacerbated in winter months.
○ Causes:
■ Vehicular Emissions: High number of vehicles contributing to NOₓ and
particulate matter.
■ Industrial Emissions: Factories and power plants releasing pollutants.
■ Crop Residue Burning: Farmers burning crop stubble in neighboring states,
contributing to PM2.5 levels.
■ Weather Conditions: Fog and temperature inversions trapping pollutants.
○ Effects:
■ Health Impact: Increased cases of respiratory illnesses, eye irritation, and
cardiovascular problems.
■ Economic Impact: Reduced workforce productivity; increased healthcare costs.
○ Control Measures:
■ Odd-Even Scheme: Alternating vehicle usage based on license plate numbers to
reduce traffic.
■ Industrial Shutdowns: Temporary closure of polluting industries during peak
pollution periods.
■ Promotion of Public Transport: Encouraging use of buses, metros, and
non-motorized transport.
■ Crop Residue Management: Implementing alternatives to burning, such as
mulching and using machinery.

Flowchart: Formation of Smog

● Primary Pollutants (CO, NOₓ, VOCs)

↓
● Sunlight and Chemical Reactions
↓
● Secondary Pollutants (O₃, SOA)
↓
● Formation of Smog
↓
● Effects on Health and Environment
Table: Common Air Pollutants and Their Sources

Pollutant Sources Health Effects Environmental Effects

Carbon Incomplete combustion Headaches, dizziness, Contributes to formation of

Monoxide (CO) in vehicles, industries impaired oxygen transport ground-level ozone

Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂) Burning of fossil Respiratory issues, Causes acid rain, respiratory
fuels (coal, oil), aggravates asthma problems in wildlife
industries

Nitrogen Oxides (NOₓ) Vehicle emissions, Respiratory problems, Contributes to smog

power plants, industries eye irritation and acid rain

Ozone (O₃) Photochemical reactions Chest pain, coughing, Damages crops,

of NOₓ and VOCs throat irritation reduces visibility

Particulate Matter Construction, Respiratory and Reduces visibility,

(PM2.5, PM10) vehicles, cardiovascular diseases affects climate by
industrial processes absorbing sunlight

Volatile Organic Solvents, paints, Headaches, dizziness, Formation of ground-level

Compounds (VOCs) vehicle emissions damage to the liver ozone and secondary
and kidneys organic aerosols

Ammonia (NH₃) Agricultural activities, Irritation of eyes, nose, Contributes to particulate

cleaning products and throat matter formation
Steps in Air Pollution Control

1. Identify Pollutant Sources

↓
2. Measure Pollutant Levels
↓
3. Analyze Data and Determine Impact
↓
4. Develop Control Strategies
↓
5. Implement Control Measures
↓
6. Monitor and Evaluate Effectiveness
↓
7. Adjust Policies and Practices as Needed
Module-4: Water Resources, Management and Pollution

4.1 Water Resources

Def.: Water resources are sources of water that are useful or potentially useful to humans.
~ Water is a prerequisite for the existence of life. Plants, animals, and human beings cannot survive without
water.
~ Used in agricultural, household, industrial, recreational and environmental activities.
~ Essential for economic growth, environmental stability, biodiversity conservation, food security and health
care.
~ Helpful in maintaining the relatively constant body temperature through the homeostasis process.
~ Helps in the digestion process.
~ Oxygen gas is also dissolved in water to some extent. This Dissolved Oxygen (DO) helps in the respiration
process of many organisms who live in water and spend most of their time underwater.

4.1.1 Types of Water Sources

a. Surface Water (rivers, lakes,

swamps, oceans, seas, etc.)
b. Ground Water (aquifers, and
springs)
c. Rain Water
d. Ice Caps and Glaciers
4.1.2 Challenges faced by Water Resources
(i) Growing population and with better lifestyles, per capita use of freshwater is increasing, causing shortage of
water.
(ii) Spatial and temporal variations, that are changes across space and time, in available water are also
responsible for the water crisis.
(iii) Freshwater resources are reduced by pollution. Industrial wastes, chemicals, human waste and agricultural
wastes (fertilizers, pesticides and pesticide residues) are disposed of within water.
(iv) Increase in extreme weather conditions like floods, droughts, typhoons, cyclones, etc., are also responsible
for worsening of water quality and availability.
(v) Climate change will account for about 20% of the increase in global water scarcity.

4.2 Water Pollution

Def.: Water pollution is defined as presence of any foreign substance or energy in water in such
concentration and for such duration that tends to degrade the quality of water so that humans, animals or
any other organism cannot enjoy the beneficial qualities of water but the use constitutes a hazard.

4.2.1 Sources of Water Pollution

(i) Point Sources: When the cause and place of pollution is easily identifiable, it is known as a point source of
water pollution.
For e.g.: Municipal and industrial discharge pipes.
(ii) Nonpoint Sources: When the cause and place of pollution cannot be readily identified, it is known as a
nonpoint source of water pollution.
For e.g.: Mining runoff and acid rain.

4.2.2 Water Pollutants

(i) Organic Pollutants
include oil, synthetic
organic compounds, sewage
and agricultural run-off,
disease-causing wastes and
oxygen-demanding wastes.
(ii) Inorganic Pollutants
include metals, metal
compounds, organometallic
compounds, mineral acids,
inorganic salts, etc.
(iii) Suspended Solids and
Sediments comprise of
sand, silt and minerals
eroded from the land.
(iv) Radioactive Materials
include radioactive isotopes
from nuclear reactors,
nuclear power plants, research, industrial applications, agriculture and therapeutic as well as diagnostic medical
applications.
(v) Thermal Pollution includes discharge of waste heat to water bodies by thermal and nuclear power plants.

4.2.3 Effects of Water Pollution

4.3 Water Quality Monitoring

Def.: Water quality monitoring is the process of collecting and analyzing water samples to assess the condition
of water bodies.
~ This information is used to determine current water conditions, establish trends, and create early warning
systems for water pollution.

~ Key Parameters Monitored:

Physical: Temperature, turbidity, and color.
Chemical: pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), nitrates, and phosphates.
Biological: Presence of pathogens and coliform bacteria.
4.4 Water Quality Indices
Def.: A mathematical method used to provide a single score representing the quality of water.
4.5 WasteWater Treatment

Def.: Process to remove contaminants from wastewater before it is released back into the environment or is
reused.
~ Essential for: Protecting public health; safeguarding ecosystems; ensuring sustainable use of water resources.

1. Primary Treatment: To remove large particles and suspended solids.

Involves:
~ Screening: Removes debris like sticks and plastics.
~ Sedimentation: Suspended solids settle at the bottom to form sludge.

2. Secondary Treatment: To remove dissolved and biological contaminants.

Includes:
~ Activated Sludge Process: Microbes break down organic matter.
~ Trickling Filters: Wastewater flows over a bed of rocks, promoting microbial growth.
~ In this stage, organic matter in sewage is decomposed, reducing biochemical oxygen demand (BOD).
~ Wastewater → Aeration Tank → Settling Tank → Secondary Treated Water

3. Tertiary Treatment: To remove remaining pollutants such as nitrates, phosphates, and pathogens.

Includes:
~ Chemical Coagulation: Removes fine particles using chemicals.
~ Disinfection: Kills pathogens using chlorine, ozone, or UV light.
~ Advanced Filtration: Use of sand filters or membranes.

4.6 Advanced Treatments: Nitrate and Phosphate Removal

1. Nitrate Removal
~ Excess nitrates in water cause eutrophication.
~ Denitrification: Bacteria convert nitrates to nitrogen gas.
~ Ion Exchange: Resins remove nitrate ions.

2. Phosphate Removal:
~ Phosphates also contribute to algae blooms.
~ Chemical Precipitation: Uses chemicals like alum to precipitate phosphates.
~ Biological Treatment: Microorganisms uptake phosphates for their growth.
4.7 Sludge Treatment
Def.: The treatment of
solid waste generated
during water and
wastewater treatment.

4.8 Sludge Disposal

1. Land Application: Sludge is used as fertilizer.

2. Landfilling: Safe disposal of non-hazardous sludge.
3. Incineration: Burning sludge to reduce volume.
4. Composting: Converting sludge into compost for agricultural use.