13.

Torsion of a curve
Tangential and Normal
Components of Acceleration
Recall:
b
Length of a curve   | r '(t ) | dt
a
t

 r  u  du
ds
Arc length function s (t )   | r '(t ) |
a dt
Arc length parametrization r ( s) with |r '( s ) | 1
r '(t )
Unit tangent vector T   r '(s)
| r '(t ) |
dT T  t  r  t   r  t 
Curvature:    r  s   
ds r  t  r  t 
3
 t
Arc length function s (t )   r  u  du s measures distance traveled starting at t  a
a
r  s   r t  s 
ds
 | r '(t ) | measures speed of motion "arc length parametrization "
dt
dr dr
dr dr dt r '(t )
if s is arc length parameter, then = = dt hence |r'( s ) | dt   1 "you travel with speed 1"
ds dt ds ds |r '(t ) | |r '(t ) |
dt
If s is arc length parameter, then |r '( s ) | 1
Assume that t is a parameter with | r '(t ) | 1 :
t t
If your basepoint is t  0, then s(t )   r  u  du  1du  t
0 0
So s  t , which means t is already the arclength parameter.
t t

If I assume your basepoint is t  a, then s (t )   r  u  du   1du  t  a

a a

t is still an arc length parameter, it just measures distance starting at a

in either case, distance traveled from s   to s   is simply   

Examples:
a) arc length parametrization of a straight line: r (s)  r0  sv with | v |= 1

s s
b) arc length parametrization of a circle x 2 +y 2 =r 2 : r (s)   r cos( ), r sin( ) 0  s  2 r
r r
 Q

curvature at P > curvature at Q

P

r '(t )
Unit tangent vector T   r '( s )
| r '(t ) |

dT
  T  s    r  s 
ds

curvature measure how quickly we turn if we travel at speed 1

Frenet Frame:
r '(t ) dT dT
T  is also called the curvature vector
| r '(t ) | ds ds
dT dT
dT dT dt
Principal unit normal : N  ds  dt since  
dT dT ds dt ds
(N is only defined when   0 !) dt
ds dt and  0 is a scalar
ds
since T  T  1, we have T  T '  0 or T  N  0 N is orthogonal to T

a third vector is the binormal B  T  N


B is orthogonal to T and N and of unit length: | B | | T | | N | sin( )  1
2
Altogether, we have Frenet frame (or TNB frame) T, N, B
They are all of unit length and orthogonal to each other (like i, j,k )

they form a moving frame: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet_frame

 Torsion:
dT
dT N  ds
1 dT dT
  or  N
ds dT  ds ds
ds
B  TN
dB
Claim : is parallel to N :
ds
dB
B B 1  2 B  0
ds
dB dT dB dB
B T  0  0 = T B   T  B  N = T
ds ds ds ds
dB dB dB
Since  B  0 and  T  0 we see is a multiple of N
ds ds ds
This multiple (up to sign) is called torsion:
dB dB
  N or   N
ds ds
 B is the normal vector to the plane spanned by T and N
dB dB dB
measure the "tilt'' of this plane since   N we also have 
ds ds ds

 (up to sign) measures the magnitude of the tilt

Example: a circle of radius r : r (t )   r cos(t ), r sin(t ), 0
s s
arc length parametrization: r ( s )   r cos( ), r sin( ), 0
r r

s s dT 1 s 1 s
T  r '( s )   sin( ), cos( ), 0   cos( ),  sin( ), 0
r r ds r r r r
dT dT 1
s s  
N  ds   cos( ),  sin( ), 0 ds r
dT r r
ds

i j k
s s  2 s 2 s 
𝐵 =𝑇×𝑁   sin( ) cos( ) 0 
 sin ( )  cos ( )k = k
r
s
r
s
 r r 
 cos( )  sin( ) 0
r r dB
  N  0
ds

for every plane curve B  T  N  k and torsion   0 !

Example: Compute T, N, B of the circular helix: r (t )   a cos(t ), a sin(t), bt 

a sin(t ), a cos(t ), b

r '(t )   a sin(t ), a cos(t ), b hence T 
a 2  b2

dT a cos(t ), a sin(t ), 0

 a 2 cos2 (t )  a 2 sin 2 (t )  
dT 1 a
 
dt a 2  b2 a 2  b2
dt a 2  b2

dT T  t  a 1 a
    curvature  
r  t 
ds a 2  b2 a 2  b2 a 2  b2
dT
principle unit normal N  dt   cos(t ),  sin(t ), 0
dT
dt
i j k
1
binormal B  T  N 
1
a sin(t ) a cos(t ) b   b sin(t )i  b cos(t) j  ak 
a b
2 2
 cos(t )  sin(t ) 0
a b
2 2
What is the torsion of the circular helix?

circular helix: r (t )   a cos(t ), a sin(t), bt 

a sin(t ), a cos(t ), b
T N   cos(t ),  sin(t ), 0
a b2 2

a
B
1
b sin(t ), b cos(t ), a 
a b
2 2 a 2  b2
dB
   N but t is not arc length parameter s !
ds
we need a formula for the torsion in a general parameter t
a computation shows
where r (t )   x(t ), y (t), z (t )
that for the helix we have:
and v  r ', a  r ''
b
r  t    r  t   r  t   
 a 2  b2
r  t   r  t 
2

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet_frame
Decompose the acceleration vector a  r ''(t )
use v  r ' and a  r '' a  aTT  aN N
ds
v  r T  T ds r '(t )
dt Recall: r  T
| r '(t ) |
dt
d 2s ds T T
v  2 T  T N t   
dt dt T r
d 2s ds
a  2 T   ds
hence T  T N   r N   N
dt dt dt
d 2s ds  ds 
a  2 T   N 
dt dt  dt  2
d s 2
 ds 
d s 2
 ds 
a  2 T    N
2
aT  2 aN    
dt  dt  dt  dt 
aT 
d
dt
 r  aN   r
2
a  aT T  aN N
d 2s d
tangential acceleration: aT  2 = ( r )
dt dt
2
 ds 
normal acceleration: aN       r
2

 dt 
d 2s
if a car travels along a curve, it feels an internal acceleration of
dt 2
and a force of magnitude maN  m r
2
(centrifugal force)
large curvature (tight curve) and large speed 2 = problems !
if you travel at unit speed, then aT  0, and force  m
other formulas:
a  v r ' r '' va r ' r ''
aT  a  T   aN  a  N   (try to show this....)
v r' v r'
also useful: a  a  aT2  aN2 aN  | a |2 aT2

Example: A car travels along a track of radius r with velocity a

d 1
aT  ( r )  0 aN   r  a 2
2

dt r
 13.6

Acceleration in Polar Coordinates

Newton’s law of gravitation (1687):
r is the vector from the center of the sun to the planet
M is the mass of the sun
GmM r
F m is the mass of the planet
| r |2 | r | G is the gravitational constant
G = 6.674 1011 N m 2 kg 2 (from 1798)
Inverse square law
GM r
F = ma  a  r '' = 
| r |2 | r |
d
 r  r '  r ' r ' r  r ''  r  r ''  0
dt
since r'' is parallel to r by Newton's law

hence r  r ' is a constant vector C

in particular r  C  0

 the planet moves in a plane orthogonal to C !