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 Campbell
Northcott
Novak
Eighth Edition

Aging and Society

Aging and Society

Canadian Perspectives

Canadian Perspectives
Aging and Society
Canadian Perspectives
Eighth Edition

Edition
Eighth

nelson.com
ISBN-13: 978-0-17-670001-0
ISBN-10: 0-17-670001-3

9 780176 700010

M a r k N o v a k He r b e r t C . N o r t h c o t t L o r i C am p b ell
Brief Contents
Preface xiii
About the Authors xx

PART 1 Gerontology Today 1

Chapter 1 Aging Today 1
Chapter 2 Theories and Methods 20

PART 2 Social Change 45

Chapter 3 Aging in Canada and the World Today 45
Chapter 4 Aging and Ethnicity 75

PART 3 Maturational Change 94

Chapter 5 Personal Health and Illness 94
Chapter 6 The Psychology of Aging 131

PART 4 Institutional Change 164

Chapter 7 Healthcare 164
Chapter 8 Finances and Economics 195
Chapter 9 Retirement and Work 223
Chapter 10 Leisure, Recreation, and Service 244
Chapter 11 Housing and ­Transportation 265

PART 5 The Experience of Aging 291

Chapter 12 Family Life 291
Chapter 13 Social Support 317
Chapter 14 Dying, Death, and Bereavement 342

Glossary 363
References 370
Index 422

NEL vii
Contents
Preface xiii PART 2 Social Change 45
About the Authors xx Chapter 3 Aging in Canada and
the World Today 45
PART 1 Gerontology Today 1 Learning Objectives 45
Chapter 1 Aging Today 1 Introduction 46
Learning Objectives 1 Aging in the World Today 46
Introduction 2 Aging in the Least Developed Nations 47
Myths and Realities of Aging 2 Aging in the Less Developed Nations 50
Attitudes Toward Old Age 6 Summary of Aging in Least and Less Developed
Ageism and Discrimination in the Workplace 10 Regions 52
A New View of Old Age 11 Aging in the Developed Nations 53
Ageism and the Third Age 12 Summary of Aging in the World Today 53
Aging as a Disease—Another Form of Ageism 12 Canada Comes of Age 54
Education as an Antidote to Ageism 15 Immigration 55
Ageism and Social Policy 16 Death Rates 57
Conclusion 18 Birth Rates 57
Baby Boom and Baby Bust 59
Chapter 2 Theories and Methods 20 Prospective Aging: A New Way to Think About
Learning Objectives 20 Population Aging 60
Introduction 21 Summary of Population Aging in Canada 62
Theory in the Study of Aging 22 Aging in Canada Today 63
Two Levels of Theory 22 The Aging of the Older Population 63
Three Theoretical Perspectives 23 Ethnicity 64
The Life Course and Social Context 29 Geographic Mobility 66
Non-Normative Events 29 Increased Numbers and Proportions of Older
History-Graded Events 29 Women 67
Normative Age-Graded Events 30 The Impact of Population Aging 69
Research Issues and Methods 34 The Dependency Ratio and the Cost of an Aging
Research Issues 34 Population 69
Types of Research Methods 38 Conclusion 72
Ethical Issues in Research 39
Policy and Programs as the Outcome Chapter 4 Aging and Ethnicity 75
of Research 40 Learning Objectives 75
Large-Scale Gerontology Research in Canada 41 Introduction 76
The Future of Gerontological Theory Concept of Ethnicity 76
and Methods 42 Ethnic and Cultural Diversity 77
Conclusion 42 Theoretical Perspectives on ­Ethnicity and Aging 78

viii NEL
 Contents ix

Ethnocultural Diversity of Seniors in Canada 79 New Approaches to the Study of Mental

Visible Minority Seniors 79 Function 135
Ethnocultural Diversity in Experiences of Aging 80 Plasticity and Cognitive Reserve 136
Ethnic Identity and Cultural Practices 80 The Limits of Laboratory Research
Intergenerational Relationships 82 on Memory 137
Living Arrangements and Family Life 84 The Contextual Approach 137
Community Life 85 Training the Mind for Improved
Economic Security 86 Performance 140
Health and Healthcare 87 Physical Exercise and the Brain 142
Caregiving 90 Summary of Findings on Aging and Mental
Conclusion 91 Potential 142
Intelligence 143
Intelligence as Multidimensional 143
PART 3 Maturational Change 94
New Models of Mental Ability:
Chapter 5 Personal Health and Illness 94 Wisdom in Later Life 144
Learning Objectives 94 Creativity 145
Introduction 95 Creativity as Measured by Great Works 145
Seniors’ Health Status 96 Creativity as Personal Expression 147
New Patterns of Health and Illness 96 Psychological Disorders: Abnormal Aging 148
Limits on Activity Due to Physical Decline 98 Organic Brain Disorders 148
Coping with Physical Change 102 The Causes of Dementia 151
Changes in the Environment 104 Concern about an Increase in Dementia 151
Improvements in Technology 105 Functional Disorders 155
Changes in Lifestyle 109 The Stigma of Mental Disorder 158
Falls: An Example of Successful Healthcare Conclusion 160
­Management 116
The Compression of Morbidity Hypothesis 122 PART 4 Institutional Change 164
Successful Aging 124 Chapter 7 Healthcare 164
The Rowe and Kahn Model
Learning Objectives 164
of Successful Aging 124
Introduction 165
The SOC Model of Successful Aging 125
Three Models of Healthcare 165
The Impact of Income and Health
The Medical Model 165
on Quality of Life 125
The Social Model 166
Healthy Aging: A Canadian Perspective 128
The Health Promotion Model 166
Final Thoughts 129
The Origins of the ­C anadian Healthcare
Conclusion 129
System 167
Challenges to the ­Healthcare System Today 168
Chapter 6 The Psychology of Aging 131 Wait Times: An Ongoing ­C ontroversy and
Learning Objectives 131 ­Challenge to the System 170
Introduction 132 The Cost of Healthcare Today 171
Normal Changes in ­Psychological Population Aging and Healthcare Costs 173
Functioning 132 The Healthcare System and Older People’s
Memory and Intelligence 132 ­Healthcare Needs 175
Laboratory Studies 133 Hospital Care 175
Physical Change as the Source of Mental Long-Term Institutional Care 177
Decline 134 Models of Quality Institutional Care 178

NEL
x Contents

The Need for Change 179 Chapter 9 Retirement and Work 223
Long-Term Care: New Approaches to Learning Objectives 223
Community Care 180 Introduction 224
Typical Community Care Programs 181 Retirement as a Social Institution 224
Geriatric Day Hospitals 182 The Origins of Retirement 224
Adult Daycare 183 Why Do People Retire? 225
Assisted Living and Home Care 183 Mandatory Retirement 226
Summary of the Social Model 186 Will an End to Mandatory ­Retirement Lead
Health Promotion 187 Older Workers to Stay on the Job? 227
The Future of Health Promotion 188 Forced Retirement: Age ­D iscrimination in the
Issues for the Future 189 Workplace 228
Availability 189 Early Retirement 230
Accessibility 190 Changing Patterns of Retirement: The Trend
Coordination 191 toward Later Retirement 231
Conclusion 192 Alternatives to a Fixed Retirement Age 234
Flexible Retirement 234
Part-Time Work 236
Chapter 8 Finances and Economics 195
Second Careers 237
Learning Objectives 195
Involuntary Retirement 238
Introduction 196
Women and Retirement 239
Historical Developments in Canada’s Pension
Personal Experience of Retirement 241
System 198
Conclusion 242
The Canadian Retirement Income
System Today 201
Chapter 10  eisure, Recreation,
L
Tier One: Government Transfers 201
and Service 244
Tier Two: The Canada Pension Plan and the
Quebec Pension Plan 204 Learning Objectives 244
The Challenge to the CPP in the Introduction 245
Future 206 What Do Older People Do? 245
Tier Three: Private Pensions, Savings, A Variety of Activity Patterns 247
and Work 207 Sport Participation 248
Defined Benefit and Defined Contribution Expanding Leisure Activity 249
Pension Plans 207 New Activities in Old Age 250
Registered Retirement Savings Plans 210 Fitness and Health 250
Private Pensions—Registered Pension Seniors’ Centres 252
Plans (RPPs) 211 Spirituality and Religion: The Search for Meaning
Summary of Income Security and Replacement in Later Life 253
in Retirement 212 Education 254
Inequality in Later Life 213 Educational Alternatives 256
Immigrants and Pensions 214 The Use of Technology by Older People 258
Women and Pensions 214 Community Service Through Volunteer Work 260
Widows 217 Conclusion 263
Women and Pensions in the Future 218
Pension Reform 218 Chapter 11 Housing And ­Transportation 265
The Future Cost of Reform 219 Learning Objectives 265
Conclusion 221 Introduction 266

NEL
 Contents xi

An Ecological Model of Housing 267 Emotional Support and Being a Role

Living Arrangements 269 Model 309
The Decision to Live Alone 270 Grandparenting 310
Types of Housing 271 Grandparenting and New Family Structures 313
Single-Family Houses 271 Future Research on Family Life 313
Tax and Home Maintenance Programs 272 Conclusion 314
Home Adaptation 272
Reverse Mortgages 273 Chapter 13 Social Support 317
Apartment Living 274 Learning Objectives 317
Supportive and Enriched Housing 275 Introduction 318
Housing in Rural Communities 276 Informal Supports for Older People 318
Alternative Ideas in Housing 277 Children as a Source of Informal Support 323
Garden Suites 277 Sources of Informal Support for Childless Older
Naturally Occurring Retirement People 324
Communities 278 Other Sources of Informal Support: Friends,
Planned Retirement Communities 278 ­Siblings, and Technology 325
Homelessness 279 Technology 327
The Future of Housing for Seniors 281 Dementia and Caregiver Burden 328
Transportation 281 Gender and Spousal Caregiving 332
Public Transportation 281 Caregiving to Parents and Grandparents 333
Private Transportation 283 Care for the Caregiver 334
New Transportation Needs and Programs 285 The Future of Informal Support 335
The Future of Housing and Transportation 286 Elder Abuse and Mistreatment 336
Conclusion 288 Canadian Research Findings 336
Policy Issues 338
PART 5 The Experience of Aging 291 Future Issues in the Mistreatment of Older
Chapter 12 Family Life 291 ­Persons 339
Learning Objectives 291 Future Research on Social Support 340
Introduction 292
Marital Status in Later Life 293 Chapter 14  ying, Death,
D
Marriage 293 and Bereavement 342
Common-Law Unions 296 Learning Objectives 342
Divorce 297 Introduction 343
Remarriage 298 Defining Dying and Death 343
Lifelong Singlehood 298 Experiencing Dying and Death in Old Age 344
Widowhood 299 Death in Old Age 344
Gender and Widowhood 299 Seniors’ Views of Dying and Death 345
Dating in Later Life 301 The Good Death 346
Sexuality and Aging 301 Existential, Spiritual, and Religious Issues 347
Adaptations in Sexuality Due to Aging 303 Stages of Dying 349
HIV/AIDS and Sex in Later Life 304 Bereavement, Grief, and Mourning
Sexuality in Long-Term Care Settings 305 in Old Age 350
Gay and Lesbian Older Adults 306 Loss of a Spouse in Old Age 350
Older People as ­C ontributors to Family Life 308 Ethical Issues in the Treatment of the Dying
Daily Help Given by Older People 308 Person 352
Financial Support 309 Informed Consent 352

NEL
xii Contents

Allowing a Patient to Die 352 Cultural Diversity in End-of-Life Care 359

Advance Directives 353 Cultural Diversity in Funerary Rituals 360
Changes in the Treatment of Dying: Hospice and Conclusion 361
Palliative Care 355
Dying at Home 356 Glossary 363
Medical Assistance in Dying: Assisted Suicide References 370
and Active Euthanasia 357 Index 422

NEL
PREFACE
Many changes have taken place in Canadian gerontology phrase defines a time of life between adulthood (the
since the seventh edition of this textbook was published. second age) and old age (the fourth age). It refers to the
New researchers have entered the field of aging. The healthy active years after retirement, before old age sets
government has released many reports that summarize in. This stage may begin in the 50s and go on to age 80
studies of health, housing, and pension policies. And or more.
consortia of researchers and research centres have pub- Two phenomena led to the emergence of the Third
lished the results of their studies. This body of knowledge Age today. First, demography. More people than ever
will shape social policy in the future. We have used these before live in the Third Age. And as the Baby Boom
sources and many others, including academic journals, generation ages, it will swell the older population. Baby
books, and online reports, to update this text. Boomers will look and act more like people in middle
As the 21st century unfolds, the study of aging will age than like the stereotypical older person. Second,
increase in importance. Canada’s population will have longevity. People on average live longer today than ever
more older people than ever before. These seniors will before. And they will live these added years, sometimes
make new demands on Canada’s healthcare, retirement called the “longevity bonus,” in better health than past
income, and housing resources. They will also bring new generations. Add to this changes in technology that allow
interests, skills, and approaches to later life. People young people to stay productive longer, opportunities to stay
and old will need to understand the realities of aging in engaged through volunteer work, and the practice of life-
this new age. long learning, and all of these changes mean that Third-
This text presents a full picture of aging—problems Agers will remain active and engaged in second careers,
and all. But it also emphasizes the opportunities and leisure, and social service. They will redefine the concept
advantages of later life to illustrate its underlying theme: of retirement and of later life.
successful aging. This theme makes more sense today The old model of aging no longer fits the complexity
than ever before. Longer life and more years of activity of the Third Age. Technological change, a globalized
and good health have changed the landscape of old age. economy, unstable work careers, demographic change,
Late old age still brings physical decline. But better health convergence of male and female career opportunities—
and nutrition at every stage of life, along with advances all call for new models of aging to fit new patterns of
in medicine, extend the active years of middle age. The social experience.
sayings “60 is the new 40” and “70 is the new 50” may The existence of the Third Age as a large-scale
have begun as clever remarks, but they describe the reality phenomenon causes some rethinking of assumptions
of aging today for more and more people. Relatively few about aging. In the past, older people who took part
older people today (age 65 and over) fit the stereotypical in athletic events seemed like odd specimens. Today,
image of the poor and decrepit senior. large numbers of people in their 50s and older run
Better pension plans, better health, and more marathons, take up surfing, and enjoy extreme sports.
opportunities for personal expression and social A 101-year-old great-great-grandmother quite recently
engagement—all have transformed later life. This text set a paragliding tandem record that won her a place
documents that transformation. in the Guinness World Records. She did this in order to
French gerontologists use the term le troisième âge keep up with her 75-year-old son who pursued the sport.
(the third age) to describe this new stage of life. This Erdman Palmore, a renowned gerontologist, celebrated

NEL xiii
xiv PREFAC E

his birthday every year by bicycling the number of miles others may shift the cost of programs and services to
that equalled his age. These Third-Agers shatter the ste- the individual. This marks a change from the way that
reotype of old age. programs and services developed during the 20th cen-
Social institutions, such as business and industry, will tury. During the past century, government and corporate
adapt to this new population of older people. As Baby programs increased benefits to older people. The 21st
Boomers retire from the workplace, they will leave behind century will ask people to take more responsibility for
a labour shortage. The smaller age groups behind them their own pension planning and healthcare costs. This
will provide fewer workers to the labour force. This will text reports on these changes in social policy and their
change the way that business views retirement and the impact on older people.
retiree. Some companies will rehire retirees, others will The eighth edition of this book has the same goals as
give people incentives to delay retirement. the first seven editions. First, we want a readable book—
On the campus of one of the authors, an interim one that students can read without stumbling over social
president came out of retirement for two years to manage science jargon and dense academic prose.
the campus while the university searched for a new leader. Second, we want a text that presents aging in the
The campus then hired the administrative vice-president, context of Canada’s history and social life. In the past,
who delayed retirement, to serve as the new president. He gerontology instructors had to use U.S. texts in their aging
then brought back a retired senior administrator to serve courses. But Canada has its own geographic regions,
as vice-president to manage a troublesome unit. These social policies, and mix of cultures and ethnic groups.
administrators all had many years of successful experi- Canadian students should first learn about aging in their
ence. They quickly assumed their new roles and brought own country.
stability to the campus. This pattern of older workers, Third, we want a text that describes Canada’s social
who delay retirement or re-enter the workforce, will occur institutions—its healthcare, income, and housing sys-
more and more often in varied industries and institutions tems, as well as its family and community life. Canadian
in the years ahead. students should know, for example, that their health-
Third-Agers will engage in activities that express care system provides free healthcare benefits to all older
their interests and passions. In some cases, they will create people and that the retirement income system provides a
institutions to meet these needs. These will include life- basic income to older Canadians. These systems create a
long learning institutes and new volunteer opportunities. social safety net for older people and provide the basis for
This edition of this text links the generations a decent old age today.
through the life course perspective. The emergence of Canadian students should also know that older
the Third Age demands this approach, as it blurs the adults face problems in their society. Many Canadians
meaning of retirement and old age. It asks for a view hold negative stereotypes about older people (look at
of aging that looks at the whole of adult life—the dis- the number of lotions designed to smooth wrinkled
continuities (e.g., retirement) and the continuities (e.g., skin); the fast pace of modern society often pushes
lifelong learning). A life course perspective shows where older people to the sidelines (imagine trying to cross
and how a person’s life has continuity. It also shows how a six-lane street if you have arthritis in your legs); and
the generations depend on one another. Many Baby some groups of older people (many of them very old
Boomers will play the role of caregiver to their aging women) still live in poverty. Canadian society needs
parents and will give support to their adult children and improvement.
grandchildren. At the same time, they will deal with Students need to know what parts of the social system
their own retirement and health issues. Older people work for older people and what parts work against them.
will affect the younger generations through their use of Aging and Society: Canadian Perspectives gives students
services, their social contributions, and their ability to the facts about aging and helps them sort through and
improve society as they age. understand the issues surrounding aging today.
Finally, as Baby Boomers enter the Third Age, they This new edition has a fourth goal: to improve on
will put pressure on existing programs and services. The the seventh edition. Many instructors and students
Canadian pension system, workplace pension programs, across the country have used the seventh edition. We,
and the healthcare system will have to adapt to this large too, have used it in our classes with hundreds of students.
number of older people. In general, these systems and Our students and our colleagues have commented on

NEL
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 P REFAC E xv

what they liked and did not like about the text. We have most of their lives. This chapter expands on the topics of
used their comments to improve the text and create this collectivism, familism, and individualism as they affect
new edition. older people. It also looks closely at ethnic seniors’ family
As in earlier editions, this book refers to classic and community life.
Canadian studies as well as the most up-to-date facts Chapter 5 looks at how physical activity, health pro-
and figures on aging in Canada. Research findings and motion, and self-care can improve health and well-being
other information in each chapter are clearly referenced in later life. It contains expanded sections on the influ-
to make it easy for students to locate the original aca- ence of early health conditions on health in later life. The
demic sources. The text also contains exhibits that present chapter includes many new charts and exhibits that look
examples of older people today and discuss current issues at specific topics such as disability in later life, exercise,
in the field. This edition also has some new sections that diabetes, and activity guidelines for seniors. This chapter
reflect new research in the field of aging. For example, also describes the effects of culture and poverty on health
this edition makes reference to the growing impact of in old age.
technology on seniors’ lives. The chapter on healthcare, Chapter 6 contains new information on the psy-
for example, describes the use of digital technology to chology of aging. This includes recent research on
diagnose and treat illness. Computers now allow seniors developmental and intellectual disability. This chapter
to keep in touch with family members and to join online now includes a discussion of the 3Ds that cause psycho-
communities. logical distress—delirium, depression, and dementia.
The chapter explores the concepts of cognitive reserve
and neuroplasticity in later life. This chapter also looks
FEATURES IN THIS EDITION at recent research on mental improvement through
Throughout this eighth edition of Aging and Society: training and the link between physical activity and mental
­Canadian Perspectives, we further examine the gendered performance.
experience of growing old in Canada and, in particular, Chapter 7 discusses the healthcare system, its ­history,
assess when gender tends to matter and when it doesn’t and the need for healthcare reform. It documents the
for older men and older women in Canada. ­continuing increase in home care and the growing need
Chapter 1 contains new material on ageism and the for long-term care. This chapter also discusses the chal-
Third Age. This chapter also shows the different effects lenge of wait times for healthcare treatment—one of
of aging on men and women. It includes new material the long-standing criticisms of the Canadian healthcare
on older men. The theme of gender difference appears system. It also includes a section on models of long-term
throughout the book. care, new institutional settings, and community-based
Chapter 2 includes information on current research approaches to long-term care. The chapter introduces the
activity in Canada. It provides new material on the life concept of age-friendly cities.
course and life events. It includes new information on Chapter 8 contains material on the history of the
cumulative advantage and disadvantage theory. This Canadian pension system as well as the latest information
topic examines the effects of inequality throughout the on pensions in Canada. It continues to show that financial
life course. The chapter also discusses the relationship of inequality exists between single women (many of them
research to social policy and the emergence of evidence- widows) and men in later life. It also documents the shift
based practice. in responsibility for pension savings from companies to
Chapter 3 contains up-to-date demographic facts individuals.
and new material on aging in other societies. It also Chapter 9 describes the ongoing redefinition of
contains thoroughly updated information and statistics retirement. Many people now delay retirement. Others
based on the latest Canadian data. This chapter puts move in and out of the workforce after retirement from
aging in Canada into the context of aging around the their midlife careers. This has blurred the lines between
world. work and the traditional meaning of retirement as an end
Chapter 4 focuses on aging and ethnicity in Canada. to work. A growing percentage of seniors say they plan to
Canada has an ethnically diverse population. Some older never retire. But many seniors, who want to work, face
ethnic group members arrived in Canada in old age. discrimination in the workplace. Programs now exist to
Others (such as Indigenous elders) have lived here all or help older workers stay engaged.

NEL
xvi PREFAC E

Chapter 10 updates information on how older people This edition continues that tradition. But the pro-
spend their time. It documents the many leisure activities jected issues of the past exist as real challenges today.
that now occupy seniors’ time. In particular, this chapter Canada has become an older society. Income inequality,
shows the growth of interest in active living. It presents early retirement, community-based healthcare, the
information on volunteer opportunities for seniors and importance of active living, and caregiver burden affect
also raises questions about volunteering among seniors in more people than ever before. The first Baby Boomers
the future. Will Baby Boomers take up community service have begun to enter old age. This generation as it ages will
in retirement? Or will they choose to spend their time on make new demands on society and this will call for new
personal leisure pursuits? responses. The eighth edition of Aging and Society: Cana-
Chapter 11 contains many new charts and exhibits dian Perspectives points to some of the emerging issues in
to provide examples of housing for seniors. This chapter aging and to the challenges that lie ahead.
presents information on homeless seniors, a discussion
of supportive and enriched housing, and more material
on housing for rural seniors. The chapter expands on
ORGANIZATION
the topic of age-friendly communities and age-friendly This book begins by describing large-scale (macroscopic)
cities. The chapter also looks at issues related to gender changes in society. It then shows how these changes affect
and driving a car in later life. It discusses the challenges people and social institutions. It concludes by showing
older people face when they must stop driving. how individuals respond to these changes and how indi-
Chapter 12 contains new information on family life. viduals’ actions give new direction to society. The struc-
It includes discussions of the unique option of polyamory ture of the book reflects a dialectical model of social
in later life (having more than one partner at the same change.
time). The chapter also looks at remarriage and challenges Part 1, Gerontology Today (Chapters 1 and 2),
that older couples face in late-life marriage. The chapter ­introduces students to the field of aging. It shatters many
contains discussions of life as a single senior, aging as a of the myths people have about aging and shows the
gay or lesbian senior, HIV/AIDS, and sexuality in long- range of topics that gerontologists study. It also describes
term care settings. the theories and methods gerontologists use when they
Chapter 13 discusses social supports in later life. It study aging.
contains detailed information on gender and caregiving Part 2, Social Change (Chapters 3 and 4), looks
by spouses and adult children. It also presents informa- at the changes in Canada’s history and demographic
tion on social support for childless older people. The structure that led to population aging (the increased
chapter contains added material on elder mistreatment proportion of older people in the population). It also
and abuse. places aging in Canada into a world context. This sec-
The final chapter, Chapter 14, discusses the experi- tion looks in depth at the effect of ethnicity on aging.
ence of dying and death in old age. Canada’s ethnic diver- Canada’s multicultural population makes this an impor-
sity leads to many different religious and cultural views tant topic.
of death and dying. This chapter expands the discussion Part 3, Maturational Change (Chapters 5 and 6),
of attitudes toward death held by various religions. It also looks at individual aging—the physical, psychological,
expands the discussion of palliative care and recent devel- and developmental changes that come with age.
opments in medical assistance in dying. Part 4, Institutional Change (Chapters 7 through 11),
This edition, like those before it, documents the aging examines Canada’s institutions—the healthcare, social
of Canadian society. It shows the issues that occupy our security, retirement, leisure, and housing and transporta-
thinking and it shows the ways that society and individ- tion systems.
uals have adapted to aging. The first edition of this book, Part 5, The Experience of Aging (Chapters 12
published more than 30 years ago, laid down many of the through 14), looks at the older person in relation to
issues discussed here. That edition looked to the future family and friends. The study of death and dying (the last
and saw a growing number of older people. It saw that chapter) explores how older people think about and expe-
Canada would have to reshape its policies and programs rience dying. It also explores the intimate experiences of
to meet their needs. Later editions tracked the changes widowhood/widowerhood, bereavement, and loss that
that took place as Canadian society aged. accompany old age.

NEL
 Robert Kneschke/Shut
PREFACE xvii

PEDAGOGICAL FEATURES R U N N I N G G L O S S AR Y
The text contains valuable pedagogical features that The text includes a running glossary of key
terms that students can use to review and
enhance learning: test their knowledge.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you will LO5 Understand how age, period, and cohort (APC)
LO1 Know the three main areas of gerontological effects influence research findings and how
study. researchers try to disentangle these effects.
LO6 Be able to discuss the difference between
LO2 Be able to name and describe the three major
cross-sectional and longitudinal research and
theoretical perspectives used in the study of
understand the usefulness and limitations of
aging.
each type of study.
LO3 Understand the strengths and limitations LO7 Know the importance of ethical practices in
of interpretive, functionalist, and positivist the conduct of research.
perspectives and theories.
L EAR N I N G O B J E C T I V E S
LO8 Appreciate the growth of large-scale research on
LO4 Appreciate the importance of the life course
aging in Canada and its potential for improving
Each chapter
approach to the studybegins
of aging andwith
be able toa set social policies and programs for older people. A G I N G I N G L O B A L PER S PE C T I V E
explain the details of this perspective.
of learning objectives to set the This text includes “Aging in a Global
20
stage for what follows.
NEL

Perspective” boxes that will challenge students

to think about aging as it is experienced and
02_Ch02.indd 20
C ha p te r 10
7/17/17 1:04 PM
viewed from a global perspective. Each box
Leisure, Recreation, and Service 251
also includes questions for discussion.

eXhIBIt 10.3 agIng In a gloBal perspeCtIve

What a Senior Moment. Canuck Marathon Man, 74, Smokes His Rival, 71

More than 50 minutes after Jimmy Muindi sweeps smoothly it. Obviously I have a competitive streak, but I’d have been very
to victory in the rotterdam Marathon, in an impressive time of upset if I felt people had any reason to think I hadn’t run well.
2:07:50, the cold and rain of an april day by the North Sea have as for the future, there’s the anticipated rematch with
scattered his welcoming party. The city’s smiling mayor, Burge- ruter at September’s Toronto Waterfront Marathon. Shrugging
meester Ivo Opstelten, last seen presenting flowers to the top off age and possible injury, Whitlock’s sure it will take place.
three finishers—Kenyans to a man—is nowhere to be seen. Nor are “Joop said he’d come, and so did I. Besides, I said I’d take him
the jostling photographers who fought to capture the final sprint. to Niagara Falls.”
Now the halt, the lame, the crumpled over with dry heaves or Whitlock also competes on the track, where he currently
diarrhea, and the just plain also-ran, stagger across the finish line. (2012) holds 15 world age group records ranging in distance from
Then, as the clock ticks ominously closer to three hours—the cut- 1500 m to 10,000 m and age groups 651, 701, 751 and 801, as
off point for serious marathoners—Ed Whitlock hoves into view. well as the 3 age group marathon records 701, 751 and 801.
at 2:58:40, Canada’s unlikeliest star athlete—all five feet,
Postscript: Ed Whitlock, at age 82, set another single-age world
seven inches and 112 lb. of him—crosses the line, sporting his
record in 2013 at the Toronto Waterfront Marathon with a time
ancient running shoes, shock of white hair and a huge grin.
of 3:41.
Whitlock, 74, from the Toronto suburb of Milton, is the only man T I M E T O RE V I E W
over 70 ever to have broken the three-hour mark. Now he’s done
it again, for the third time, in the most prestigious race he’s Each chapter includes “Time to
ever run. What’s more, he’s crushed his only serious rival for the
over-70 crown, rotterdam hometown hero Joop ruter, 71, who
Review” questions within the
arrives 14 minutes later. Back comes Burgemeester Opstelten, text to help students assess their
with a fresh bunch of flowers, along with an entire Dutch TV learning as they go along.
crew and several photographers.
Whitlock is a star entry in one of the world’s Top 10
marathons—in another first for over-70 runners, organizers paid
his way to rotterdam and reserved an elite starting position
EXHIBITS for him ahead of the 11,000 ordinary racers. When he finishes,

We present examples, charts, and graphs to

the Pa system goes back into operation, trumpeting Whitlock’s
age and time. “I’m still recovering—it was a tough last k,” a dis-
illustrate points in the text. These exhibits
concertingly relaxed Whitlock tells the media. “I left Joop after
engage students in questions that probe their
about four kilometres. Then I spent much of the race in a large

understanding. Many exhibits ask students to

crowd, trying to hide from the wind; I’m a bit of a parasite that
way. I was aiming for 2:57, so I lost a minute somewhere,” he con-
reflect on their personal views on a topic.
cludes, a flicker of displeasure momentarily dimming his smile.
“But a good result anyway.”
Whitlock takes no supplements or vitamins, refuses to
stretch before races, trains by running in circles around a local
cemetery after a breakfast of tea and bread, and hasn’t had a
regular physical in 30 years. So that late start in marathon life—
which presumably has limited the wear and tear on his body—is S T U DY Q U E S T I O N S
observers’ best explanation for his success. Whitlock’s having
none of it, though. “I’ve been a serious runner my whole life.” He
Each chapter concludes with a list
will allow for the luck of good genes—his mother died at 91, and an of study questions to help students
uncle recently passed away at 108. The real answer likely has more assess their knowledge of the main
to do with his mind. Hours after the marathon, Whitlock declares,
“It would have been a disgrace if I had lost to Joop. I’m the one
concepts covered in the text.
with the record time, he’s the one who should be intimidated by THE CaNaDIaN PrESS/Nathan Denette

Source: Brian Bethune. “What a senior moment. Canuck marathon man, 74, smokes his rival, 71,” Maclean’s, Apr 22, 2005. Reprinted with permission.

S U M MAn AR active
Y leisure lifestyle does at least two things: incidence of diabetes, lowers cholesterol, and increases
it directly benefits health and helps to buffer the influ- bone density. These benefits in turn lead to better func-
Eachence
chapter concludes
of life events and illness.with a series
Aldwin, ofPark
Spiro, and main tioning in daily life for older people. Kramer, Fabiani,
points thatreported
(2006) summarize the text.
that physical activity reduces the and Colcombe (2006) reported that aerobic exercise
improves memory, intelligence, and cognitive speed.
active leisure lifestyle a type of lifestyle that directly benefits
Edwards and Mawani (2006) said that engaging in phys-
health and helps to buffer the influence of life events and illness ical activity with others creates social connections and
by regular participation in physical activities builds social networks.
NEL
NEL
xviii PREFAC E

GENERAL I never imagined, when I started this text more than

30 years ago, that I’d write the grandparent section of
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS this text based, in part, on my own experience. I hope
Leanna MacLean, publisher, guided us through the early this book will guide my children and grandchildren as
stages of this project. Lisa Peterson, the Content ­Manager they age and will help them give exceptional care to their
on this project, contacted instructors t­hroughout the aging parents and grandparents.
country for comments on the seventh edition and
HERBERT C. NORTHCOTT
worked diligently to get this edition out on time. Jennifer
Hare served as production project manager, and Natalie I am grateful to Mark Novak for the opportunity to con-
Barrington coordinated the book’s text and photo per- tribute to the eighth edition of Aging and Society: Canadi-
missions. June Trusty capably handled copyediting. We an Perspectives. This book has been Mark’s “baby” for over
thank all of these people for their support. 30 years now. During that time I have given students in my
The librarians at the Martin Luther King Memorial Sociology of Aging course the opportunity to read each of
Library at San Jose State University helped with database the previous editions. Students have rated this book highly,
searches. We thank them all for their support. and I am pleased to be associated with this eighth edition.
Canadian colleagues in the field of gerontology con- I am also grateful to the University of Alberta. The
tributed to the core knowledge assembled in this text. We ­university has given me something meaningful to do and
cannot thank them all here, but we want to acknowledge a place to do it in for over 40 years. I could not have asked
that they helped make this a better text. for more.
We would like to thank the reviewers for their valu-
LORI CAMPBELL
able feedback:
I wish to thank Mark Novak for all his kindness,
Michele Green, Seneca ­generosity, and support. It has been a privilege to work
Michael Corman, Mount Royal with him over the many years I have been involved
Pria Nippak, Ryerson with this book. And my thanks to Herb Northcott.
Silvia Bartolic, University of British Columbia His ­contributions as co-author bring added depth and
Parin Dossa, Simon Fraser University ­richness to the text.
Alice Barron, St. Clair College My love and gratitude to my family—my siblings,
Christina Nielsen, Northern my dearest “2Ps,” Payton and Paris, and my truly won-
derful husband, Michael Carroll. And in loving memory
AUTHORS’ of my parents, Leon and Dorothy Campbell, who taught
me by example what it means to live and age with com-
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS passion, humour, and strength of spirit.
MARK NOVAK
It has been a pleasure working with Lori Campbell and Instructor Resources
Herb Northcott, my co-authors. I enjoyed sharing ideas
with them as we went along. They are both careful ­scholars
and hard workers. They brought many new insights and
resources to the text. Students will benefit from their
­
knowledge and their sensitivity as scholars and teachers.
I owe special thanks to my mentor and close friend,
Hans Mohr. His intellectual integrity inspires all of my The Nelson Education Teaching Advantage (NETA)
work. I can never repay him, only thank him for his sup- program delivers research-based instructor resources that
port and friendship. promote student engagement and higher-order thinking
I want to thank my family for their support—my wife, to enable the success of Canadian students and educators.
Mona, and my sons, Christopher, Jonathan, Sean, and Visit Nelson Education’s Inspired Instruction website at
Daniel. I have some new family members who deserve www.nelson.com/inspired to find out more about NETA.
mention—my daughters-in-law, Shona, Judy, and Elsa, and The following instructor resources have been created
my grandchildren, Tobin, Shea, Scarlett, Charles, Lena, and for this eighth edition of Aging and Society. Access these
Lucas (in birth order). All of them deserve credit for light- ultimate tools for customizing lectures and presentations
ening my spirits with their good humour and love. at nelson.com/instructor.

NEL
 P REFACE xix

NETA Test Bank or create their own PowerPoint presentations. An Image

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Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Beautiful
shells
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

Title: Beautiful shells

Their nature, structure, and uses familiarly explained;
with directions for collecting, cleaning, and arranging
them in the cabinet; descriptions of the most
remarkable species, and of the creatures which inhabit
them; and explanations of the meanings of their
scientific names, and of the terms used in conchology

Author: H. G. Adams

Release date: August 7, 2024 [eBook #74207]

Language: English

Original publication: London: Groombridge and Sons, 1856

Credits: WebRover, Tim Lindell, Turgut Dincer and the Online

Distributed Proofreading Team at
https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from
images generously made available by The Internet
Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BEAUTIFUL

SHELLS ***
 BEAUTIFUL SHELLS:
THEIR NATURE, STRUCTURE, AND USES
FAMILIARLY EXPLAINED;

WITH DIRECTIONS FOR

COLLECTING, CLEANING, AND ARRANGING THEM

IN THE CABINET;

DESCRIPTIONS OF

THE MOST REMARKABLE SPECIES,

AND OF THE CREATURES WHICH INHABIT THEM;

AND EXPLANATIONS OF

THE MEANINGS OF THEIR SCIENTIFIC NAMES,

AND OF

THE TERMS USED IN CONCHOLOGY.

BY H. G. ADAMS,
Author of “Nests and Eggs of Familiar British Birds,” “Beautiful Butterflies,”
“Favourite Song Birds,” “A Story of the Seasons,” &c. &c.

ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS & COLOURED PLATES.

 LONDON:
GROOMBRIDGE AND SONS, 5, PATERNOSTER ROW.
M DCCC LVI.
 INTRODUCTION.
WHAT ARE SHELLS?
Dr. Johnson gives us no less than eight different meanings for the
word Shell. First, he calls it ‘The hard covering of anything; the
external crust.’ Second, ‘The covering of a testaceous or crustaceous
animal.’ And here we may stop, for this is just the signification which
has to do with our subject; so let us turn the sentence inside out,
and see what we can make of it. We all know what a covering is—an
outer coat, a case, a protection from injury, a husk, a crust, a—in
short, a shell,—scyll or scell, as our Saxon forefathers called it;
schale, as the Germans now term it. No Latin nor Greek here, but
the good old Saxon tongue, somewhat rough and rugged, perhaps,
but stout and sturdy, and honest and serviceable; a kind of language
to stand wear and tear, like a pair of hob-nailed shoes, with little
polish, but useful, yes, very useful! Well, we have got so far, now
comes a hard word—Tes-ta-ce-ous, what can it mean? It is
pronounced tes-ta-shus, comes from the Latin testaceus—having a
Shell, and means consisting of, or composed of shells; so we find
that a testacean is a shell-fish, and testaceology is the science of
shells. Johnson’s second meaning of the word testaceous is ‘Having
continuous, not jointed shells, opposed to crustaceous.’ So we find
that some naturalists call those testaceous fish, “whose strong and
thick shells are entire and of a piece, because those which are
joined, as the lobsters, are crustaceous.”
Now some of the true testacean have shells in more than one or
two pieces, and therefore this last explanation of the term is rather
calculated to mislead a learner; but we shall explain presently
wherein the difference consists between them, and the Crus-ta-ce-
ous, or, as we pronounce it, krus-ta-shus, fish consists. Here is
another long word, it comes from the Latin crusta, a word of many
meanings, all having reference to an outer coat or covering. My
readers know all about pie-crust, and have perhaps heard a surly,
snappish, peevish person called a crusty fellow; they will now
understand what is meant by a crustacean and crustaceology, that
part of Zoology which treats of crustaceous animals. They constitute
quite a large family, these ologies, and have a strange way of
twisting themselves about, and exchanging limbs and features, so
that one is puzzled at times to tell which is which. But here we have
fixed two of them, called Testaceology and Crustaceology, twin
brothers, and very much alike in their characteristics. Let us have a
good look at them, so that we may know them again if we should
lose sight of them for awhile. Now we will spell over the name of the
first—

CONCHOLOGY.
Why, it is changed already? Has this science of shells then another
name? Yes, and this is it, pronounced kong-kol-o-gy, and derived
from the Latin concha, which means properly a shell-fish with two
shells, joined by a hinge, as the oyster, the cockle, etc. This present
volume then is a work on Conchology, the subject of it is
Conchiferous, and whoever studies it will be doing something
towards becoming a Conchologist.
So much for names and titles; but still we have the question to
answer, What are shells? In a learned work called a Cyclopædia, we
find it stated that “shell is the hard calcareous (that is chalky)
substance which protects, either partially or entirely, the testaceous
mollusks externally, or supports certain of them internally.” All this
you will understand, except perhaps the word ‘mollusks;’ this is a
term applied to soft-bodied animals, such as shell-fish, snails, etc.,
about which we shall have more to say as we proceed. By this we
learn that all shells are not external or outer coverings, some are
internal or inner supports for the soft, jelly-like bodies to which they
belong, thus performing the duty of bones. An example of this is
seen in the shell of the Cuttle Fish, called by naturalists Sepia, a
description of which will be found further on in the book.
Shells are either Crystalline or Granular. Now look at those two
words, they almost explain their own meaning. Crystalline shells are
those which have more or less of clearness, transparency as we say,
so that if held against the light it shews through them; they are
sometimes called Porcellaneous shells, from their resemblance in this
respect to porcelain, or chinaware; the Common Cowry, (Cypræa
Tigris,) is a shell of this description.
Granular, or, as they are sometimes called, Concretionary shells,
are the most hard and compact; it is in these that the substance
called nacre, or mother-of-pearl, is mostly found. One of the
commonest examples is the oyster shell; if broken across it will be
seen to consist of very thin plates, or laminæ, as they are termed,
closely packed together. The thinner these laminæ may be the more
lustrous and beautiful appears the lining of the shell; that shifting
play of colours which we call iridescent, from iris—the rainbow, is
then brightest and most noticeable. A very remarkable substance is
this mother-of-pearl; smooth, and shining, and delicately-tinted.
Who would expect to find such a beautiful lining to the rugged,
rough, dingy-looking oyster, or mussel shell? Truly these mollusks,
some of them, live in gorgeous palaces. And the most curious part of
the matter is that from the fluids or juices, of their own bodies, and
from the chalky matter collected from the water, they are enabled to
secrete or deposit such wonderfully-constructed habitations, which
after all are little more than chalk. Burn a heap of oyster shells, or
any other testaceous coverings, and you get lime the same as that
produced by burning the white lumps from the chalk-pit, which
lumps, by the way, are said to be composed wholly, or for the most
part, of marine shells. This we should call cretaceous matter, from
creta, which is the Latin for chalk, or calcerous, from calcis—lime.
Granular shells you have been told are sometimes called
concretionary, this is because they contain a large amount of this
chalky deposit. The rock called limestone, geologists tell us, is
composed entirely of fossil shells and mud, or what was once mud,
dried and hardened, most likely by extreme heat, to the consistence
of rock. Wonderful this to think of; huge mountains, and mighty
masses, and far-stretching strata, forming a large portion of the
crust of the earth, made up chiefly of the coverings of fishes, a great
portion of them so small as to be scarcely visible to the naked eye.—
Truly wonderful! But we shall have more to say upon this head when
we come to speak of Fossil Shells, as well as on the subject of
Pearls, in our chapter on the fish in whose shells they are chiefly
found.
It has been a matter of dispute with naturalists whether the
testaceous mollusks have shells at all before they issue from the
egg, and the main evidence favours the opinion that, generally
speaking, they do possess what may be considered as a kind of
pattern or model of the habitation which they are to build. This
appears to be of a pale horn-colour, and destitute of any markings;
but as soon as the animal enters upon an independent state of
existence, it begins to assume its distinctive shape and colour,
gradually increasing with the growth of its living tenant, and
becoming more and more decidedly marked, until it attains its full
perfection of testacean development. Thus the age of some shell-
fish can be at once determined by the peculiar conformation and
markings of the shell.
The relative portions of animal and earthy, or rather chalky matter,
which compose these shells, varies considerably in different kinds; in
those called Crystalline or Porcellaneous, the animal deposit is much
less than in the granular or concretionary shells, where it not only
constitutes a large part of the whole substance, but is more dense,
that is thick, and also has the appearance of being membraneous, or
organized matter. We can perhaps best explain this by saying that
whereas the different chalky layers of the crystalline shell seem
merely glued together by the intervening animal fluid; those of the
granular shell, as the oyster, appear to be connected by interlacing
membranes. But all this my readers will learn more about from more
advanced and scientific works if they proceed, as I trust they will do,
in the study of Conchology, a science which has in a greater or less
degree attracted the attention of curious and contemplative minds in
all ages, and the study of which it has been well said is peculiarly
adapted to recreate the senses, and insensibly to lead us to the
contemplation of the glory of God in creation.

BEAUTY AND VALUE OF SHELLS.

In shells, as in all the works of the Almighty Creator, we may
observe an infinite variety of form, and if they do not all strike us as
alike graceful, yet in each, however plain and simple, there is some
peculiar beauty, whether it be the mere hollow cup, or the simple
tube, the smooth or twisted cone, the slender spire, the convoluted
oval, or half circle, ribbed or spiked, with a lip curving out like the
leaf of a water lily, or a narrow rim, like that of a golden chalice;
they are indeed elegant, each perfect of its kind, and bearing the
impress of a constructive skill far above that of man, who copies
from them some of the most graceful and elegant designs wherewith
to ornament his buildings, and shapes in which to fashion his articles
of luxury or utility.
The most beautiful scroll-work of marble chimney-pieces, cornices
of rooms, and other enriched portions of both public and private
structures, are those in which the forms of shells have been taken
for the patterns of the artistic designs; and how tasteful and
appropriate is the employment of the shells themselves as
ornaments for the mantle-piece, side-board, and chiffonniere. Then
too,

“The rainbow-tinted shell, which lies

Miles deep at bottom of the sea, hath all
Colours of skies, and flowers, and gems, and plants.”

Not only has it grace and elegance of form, but it has also
richness, and delicacy, and variety of colouring. In some species the
tints are intensely vivid as the shifting lights of the aurora borealis,
or the glowing hues of an autumnal sunset; in others pale and
delicate as the first indications of coming morn, or the scarcely-
perceptible tinge of a just expanding flower-bud; in some the colours
are arranged in patterns, regularly disposed; in others, in masses
and blotches, of varying shapes and degrees of intensity; in some
again they seem to change and melt one into the other, like the
prismatic hues of the rainbow. In all, whether distinct and
unconnected, or intimately blended, whether regular or irregular,
they are beautiful exceedingly. Nor is their beauty of an evanescent,
that is fading, or vanishing character; unlike plants and animals,
which when once dead, are extremely difficult of preservation.
Shells, being composed of particles already in natural combination,
are almost indestructible; unless exposed to the action of fire, or
some powerful acid, they will remain the same for ages, requiring no
care or attention, beyond occasionally removing the dust, which
would collect upon and defile their pearly whiteness, or obscure the
brilliancy of their colours.
So easily collected, arranged, and preserved, and withal so
singular and graceful in form, and rich and various of tint, one
cannot wonder that Shells have always had a conspicuous place in
all museums, and other collections of natural history objects; neither
can we feel surprised that a high value should have been set upon
rare specimens; as much as a thousand pounds it is said has been
given for the first discovered specimen of the Venus Dione; another
shell called the Conus cedo nulli, is valued at three hundred pounds;
and the Turbo scaloris, if large and perfect, is worth one hundred
guineas; while the Cypræa aurantium, or Orange Cowry, if it has not
a hole beaten through it, will fetch fifty guineas. It has been
calculated that a complete collection of British Conchology is worth
its weight in silver.
The following quotation is from “The Young Conchologist,” by Miss
Roberts;—our readers will do well to peruse it attentively:—“We
admit that shells are beautiful, and that they are admirably adapted
to the exigencies of the wearers; but how shall we account for the
endless diversity of shades and colours, varying from the sober
coating of the garden snail, to the delicate and glowing tints which
are diffused over some of the finer species, in the infinite profusion
of undulations, clouds and spots, bands and reticulated figures, with
which these admirable architects enrich the walls of their beautiful
receptacles. The means of producing them must be sought for in the
animals themselves. Their necks are furnished with pores replete
with colouring fluid, which blends insensibly with the calcareous
exudation already noticed, and thus occasions that exquisite variety
in their testaceous coverings, which art attempts to emulate, but can
never fully equal. Thus far is the result of observation and
experiment. It now remains to account for the extraordinary fact
that the stony exudations of testaceous animals condense only on
those parts where they are essential to their welfare. But here
investigation ends—the microscope has done its office. It seems as if
material nature delighted to baffle the wisdom of her sons, and to
say to the proud assertors of the sufficiency of human reason for
comprehending the mysteries of creation and of Providence, ‘Thus
far can you go, and no farther; even in the formation of a shell, or
its insignificant inhabitant, your arrogant pretensions are completely
humbled.’”

USES OF SHELLS.
In speaking of shells as ornaments, and objects worthy of our
study and admiration, we have already mentioned some of their
uses, for surely that which contributes to the intellectual
improvement and innocent pleasure of mankind, is in its degree
useful. But on the more narrow ground of utility, shells may also
claim a high place in our estimation. To man in a barbarous and
uncivilized state, they furnish the means of performing some of the
most important operations of daily life, being extensively used as a
substitute for iron. The savage frequently forms his knife, his
hunting spear, and his fish-hook of hard shell. Lister relates that the
inhabitants of Nicaragua, in South America, fasten a shell, called the
Ostrea virginica, to a handle of wood, and use it as a spade. In
North America the natives use a blue and white belt composed of
shells called the Venus mercenaria, as a symbol of peace and unity,
and there too the gorget of the chieftain’s war-dress is composed of
the pearl-bearing mussel, called by naturalists Mytilus margaritiferus.
Many African tribes use the Murex tritonis as a military horn, and a
rare variety of this shell, which has the volutions reversed, is held
sacred, and used only by the priests. Among the Friendly Islanders
the Orange Cowry is a symbol of the highest dignity. The Money
Cowry, (Cypræa moneta,) forms the current coin of many nations of
Africa; and a certain number of these shells strung together, are
considered by the slave-hunting chiefs, as an equivalent for so many
black-skinned brothers, whom they sell into hopeless bondage.
Among nations, too, in a high state of civilization, shells are often
used for economical as well as ornamental purposes. To say nothing
of mother-of-pearl, which is converted into so many articles useful as
well as pretty, scallop, or oyster shells, are frequently employed as
scoops by druggists, grocers, and the like; and in the country the
dairy-maid, with the larger kinds of the same shell, skims her milk,
and slices her butter; while sometimes by the poor people of both
towns and villages, the deeper specimens are converted into oil
lamps. One very important use, my young readers will understand,
when I speak of a ragged urchin, who shouts to every passer-by
—‘Please remember the grotto!’
In ancient times, we are told, the people of Athens recorded their
votes on public occasions, by marks upon a shell, thus Pope says—

“He whom ungrateful Athens would expel,

At all times just, but when he signed the shell;”

in allusion to this custom, of which we are reminded by such English

words as Attestation, a certifying, a bearing witness; Testify, to give
evidence; Testament, a will, or written disposal of property, etc.; all
having their origin, it appears, in the Latin testa—a shell. In ancient
poetry we find the word Testudo used to signify a musical
instrument, also called a lyre or lute, which instrument, according to
tradition, was first made by passing strings, and straining them
tightly, over the shell of a tortoise. So the poet Dryden, describing
those who listened to the music drawn from this simple invention,
says—

“Less than a God they thought there could not dwell,

Within the hollow of that shell
That spoke so sweetly.”

A Greek writer, called Apollodorus, gives this account of the

invention of music by the Egyptian god Hermes, more commonly
known as Mercury. The Nile having overflowed its banks, and laid
under water the whole country of Egypt, left, when it returned to its
usual boundaries, various dead animals on the land; among the rest
was a tortoise, the flesh of which being dried and wasted by the
sun, nothing remained within the shell except nerves and cartilages,
or thin gristly bones; these being shrunk and tightened by the heat,
became sonorous, that is sounding. Against this shell Mercury
chanced to strike his foot, and pleased by the sound caused thereby,
examined the shell from which it came, and so got a notion, as we
say, how he might construct a musical instrument. The first which he
made was in the form of a tortoise, and strung with the dried sinews
of dead animals, even as are the lutes, harps, and fiddles of the
present day. This fanciful mode of accounting for the origin of music,
is thus alluded to by a writer named Brown:—

“The lute was first devised

In imitation of a tortoise’ back,
Whose sinews parched by Apollo’s beams,
Echoed about the concave of the shell;
And seeing the shortest and smallest gave shrillest sound;
They found out frets, whose sweet diversity
Well touched by the skilful learned fingers,
Roused so strange a multitude of chords.
And the opinion many do confirm,
Because testudo signifies a lute.”
 And now we are among the myths and fables of antiquity, we may
just mention another application of the shell to musical purposes.
Neptune, who, according to the Grecian mythology, was the god of
the sea, is frequently represented as going forth in his car in great
state and pomp, with a body-guard of Tritons; some of whom go
before with twisted conch shells as trumpets, with which we are to
suppose they make delightful harmony. Venus, too, the goddess of
beauty, rode on the ocean foam in a testaceous car. Thus Dryden
says, that Albion—our native land, so called on account of its chalky
cliffs, from the Latin alba—white:—

“Was to Neptune recommended;

Peace and plenty spread the sails;
Venus in her shell before him,
From the sands in safety bore him.”

But without believing all these fables, more poetical than true, we
may soon convince ourselves that in the hollow chambers of a shell,
there does seem to dwell, like an imprisoned spirit, a low sad kind of
music. An English poet, named Walter Savage Lander, has well
described this in these lines—

“Of pearly hue

Within, and they that lustre have imbibed
In the sun’s palace porch, where, when unyoked,
His chariot wheel stands midway in the wave;
Shake one, and it awakens; then apply
Its polished lips to your attentive ear,
And it remembers its august abodes,
And murmurs as the ocean murmurs there.”

Wordsworth, too, gives a beautiful description of a child applying

one of these pearly musical-boxes to his ear.
Many other uses of shells might be mentioned, to show that they
perform an important part in the operations of nature, as the means
and modes by and in which God sees fit to order the affairs of this
world are frequently called; and also promote the ends of science,
and the arts of every-day life. By the decomposition of the shells, of
which they are partly composed, solid rocks frequently crumble to
pieces, and spreading over a considerable surface, form a fruitful soil
for the nourishment of vegetation. The character of the testaceous
deposits, too, enable geologists, as those who study the nature and
structure of the earth are termed, to come to important conclusions
on many points connected with the subject of this investigation. And
if we include, as the subject of our book allows, the inhabitants of
shells, how wide a field of usefulness opens before us. How many
thousands of our industrious population depend wholly, or in part,
upon the capture and sale of shell-fish for their support. In some
parts, as the western and northern Islands of Scotland, they have in
times of scarcity afforded sustenance to the dwellers on the bleak
and barren shores, who but for them must have perished. But of all
this we shall have more to say when we come to describe the
different members of the testaceous family. We will now offer a few
remarks upon

THE INHABITANTS OF SHELLS;

Which belonging to that division of Natural History called the
Mollusca, from the Latin Mollis—soft; these Molluscous animals,
then, are animals having a soft body, and no internal skeleton. You
may be quite sure that a Mollusk will never break its bones, because
it has none to break; it has a shell, however, which may be broken,
at least in some cases, for all Mollusks have not snug habitations of
the kind; but wander about the watery or earthy world in which they
live, quite naked; such as the sea and land slugs, and some worms,
leeches, etc.: but with these we have nothing to do, our present
subject including only a part of

MALACOLOGY,
another member of that queer ology family, deriving its name from
two Greek words signifying soft, and a discourse; hence it means a
discourse upon soft, or soft-bodied, animals, that is mollusca. It is
only a part then of Malacology that we have to do with; that part
which relates to the shell-inhabiting mollusks, and strange creatures
enough some of these are. We will have a look at them presently;
just now it will be sufficient to observe that the mollusca testacea, or
soft-bodied animals, furnished with shells, possess the power of
exuding, that is, discharging from various parts of their bodies a
sticky kind of fluid, which mixing with the chalky matter collected
from the water, and becoming hard, forms, in process of time, the
shelly covering which is at once a dwelling and a defence for the
inhabitant.
Miss Pratt, in her delightful book on “Common Things of the Sea
Coast,” observes of these shells that, “We gather up those which we
find, and looking at their structure would fain know something of the
inmate of such a dwelling. All nature proclaims the goodness of God.
We hear that the bird which wings its way over our heads has a
song of joy; the bee hums delightedly by us; and the little shrimp
which darts in the clear pool, seems full of merriment. Was the
inmate of the shell less cared for by its Maker? No doubt the little
builder had some sense of joy, as he framed from his own substance
the house which excites our admiration. Doubtless his existence,
short and sluggish as it was, had its own consciousness of pleasure;
and obscure as is his history, and little calculated as such a creature
might seem to perform an important part in the economy of
creation, yet we know that he had a work to do, not only for the
living creatures of the sea, but for the well-being of man himself.”

CLASSIFICATION OF SHELLS.
The great naturalist Linnæus divided shells into thirty-six genera,
each of which comprised a number of species; of these species
somewhere about two thousand five hundred have been described
and classified; the varieties, more or less distinct, are almost
countless. Of shells found on and about the British Isles, there are
about five hundred and fifty species, or, we should rather say were,
for diligent enquirers into this branch of Natural History, are almost
daily adding to the number.
We have already seen that shells are sometimes called Crystalline,
and sometimes Granular, in accordance with certain peculiarities of
construction before mentioned: this is one mode of division; there
are several others made use of in different systems of arrangement,
which only a deeper study of the subject than can be here entered
upon, would enable one to understand; the plainest and most
common, however, is that which has reference to the form of the
shell, which is one of these—

These words are derived from the Latin, unus—one, bi—two,

multus—many, and therefore it may at once be seen that they apply
to shells having one, two, or several pieces or divisions. Valve comes
from the Latin valva, and means a folding door, a lid, a piece moving
on a hinge, as the divisions in several of these shells do.
This order of arrangement is generally followed by those who
make a collection of shells for a cabinet; and to this we shall adhere
as at once the most simple and convenient, when we come to
describe the several species of testaceous mollusks. We will now say
a few words on
 TAKING AND PRESERVING SHELLS.
A diligent searcher along any beach or coast line, will be sure
sometimes to light upon curious and valuable specimens, and
especially after violent storms may such be sought for, with the
greatest chance of success, for the agitation of the waters will then
have loosened them from their natural beds and dwelling-places,
and cast them on the shore. Very frequently, however, they will be
so beaten about and defaced, that they will be comparatively
valueless; if enveloped in tangled masses of sea-weed, they are
likely to be preserved from injury; and such heaps of uprooted
marine vegetation will often afford a rich harvest to the young
conchologist, who should always carefully examine them. Many of
the shells are so minute as scarcely to be seen with the naked eye,
therefore this search can scarcely be properly effected without the
assistance of a pocket lens, the cost of which is but trifling. The
undersides of pieces of stranded timber, the bottoms of boats lately
returned from a fishing voyage, the fisherman’s dredge or net, the
cable, and the deep-sea line; all these may prove productive, and
should be looked to whenever opportunity offers; nor should the
search for land and fresh-water shells be neglected, for many of
these are very curious, as well as beautiful, and no conchological
collection is complete without them. For these, the best hunting
grounds are the ditch side and the river bed, the mossy bank and
the hedge-row; amid the twining, serpent-like roots of the old thorn
and elder trees; the crevices of the garden wall, the undersides of
stones, and all sorts of out-of-the-way holes, nooks, and corners,
where may be found the Striped Zebra, and other prettily-marked
snail shells, and many other kinds worthy of a place in—

THE CABINET;
which may be either large or small, plain or handsome, in
accordance with the means of the collector. Perhaps for a beginner
just a nest of shallow drawers in a deal or other case, may be quite
sufficient; these drawers should be divided into compartments, on
the front side of each of which should be pasted a neatly written
label, with the common and scientific name of the species of shell
contained in it, together with brief mention of the date when, and
the place where, it was taken; and any observations relating to it
which can be comprised in a few words, and may seem to the
collector of sufficient interest to warrant their insertion. This would
be a good beginning; by and by, when the collection is large, the
knowledge more ample, and the outlay can be spared, it will be time
to think of something ornamental—mahogany and glass, and carved
or inlaid work, such a Cabinet as would properly display and
enhance the beauties of your testaceous treasures, which are too
often stowed away, with other natural curiosities, in a very
disorderly, higgledy-piggledy sort of manner, like the collection
described by Dryden.

“He furnishes his closet first, and fills

The crowded shelves with rarities of shells;
Adds orient pearls, which from the wave he drew,
And all the sparkling stones of various hue.”

When live shells, as they are called, that is having the living fish in
them, are obtained, the best plan is to place them in spirits of wine,
this at once deprives the inhabitant of life, without injuring the shell,
which should then be placed in hot water for a time, the body of the
mollusk is thus rendered firm, and may be removed by means of
some pointed instrument; care should be taken to leave no portion
of animal matter within, or after a while it will become putrid and
give out a stain, which will show through and injure the delicate
markings of the shell; the surest, most expeditious, and least
troublesome mode of cleansing a shell, is to place it in an ant heap
for a day or two; the busy little insects will penetrate into its inmost
cavities, and remove hence all offending matter. There will be no
difficulty in this respect with the multivalve and bivalve kinds, which
are only kept closed by means of a set of muscles, which can be
tightened or relaxed at the pleasure of the animal within, and
become powerless to keep the shell closed as soon as that is dead.
Great care must be taken to preserve unbroken the smaller parts of
these shells, such as the hinges or teeth, as on the structure of
these the scientific arrangement into genera chiefly depends; the
beard also, as it is called, and silky threads, must not be removed,
as these have much to do in determining the particular species.
River and land shells are generally very thin and brittle, and must
be carefully handled; their colours are not usually so brilliant as
those of the marine species, but they form links in the testaceous
chain, which are necessary to a proper study and elucidation of
conchology.
The most glowing and gorgeous of all shells are those brought
from the Tropical seas, and, excepting in a few rare instances,
specimens of most of these can be obtained at little cost from any
dealer, or from sailors returning from a voyage. If it is necessary to
send either those, or British shells, any distance, or to pack them
away in a small compass, the best plan is to wrap them separately in
soft paper, place them in a box, and then pour in sawdust, bran, or
fine sand, very dry, until all the open spaces are completely filled up.

ON CLEANING AND POLISHING SHELLS.

All shells, whether inhabited or not, when taken should be soaked
for a while in hot water, to remove the dirt which may adhere to
them, and dissolve the saline, that is salt, particles contained in the
sea water; they should then be thoroughly dried, and if, as is the
case with many, they naturally possess a good polish, they are at
once fit for the cabinet. Generally, however, it happens that when
shells are dry, they lose much of the peculiar brilliancy of hue, which
they possess when seen through the medium of the glistening
water; to restore this, wash them over with a thin solution of gum
arabic, or white of egg; some collectors use a varnish made of gum
mastic, dissolved in spirits of wine; this is perhaps preferable, as it is
not affected by moisture. Many shells have a very plain, dull,
appearance, in consequence of being covered over with a kind of
skin called an epidermis, a word derived from the Greek, and
signifying the outer skin, sometimes called the cuticle. To remove
this, soak the shell in warm water for some time, and then rub it
over with a stiff brush until the covering is removed; should this be
very thick, it will be necessary to mix a little nitric acid with the
water, but this must be done very cautiously, for if too strong it will
remove all the lustre from the surface of the shell subjected to its
influence. Sometimes the file, and a substance called pumice stone
has to be used, but these are dangerous agents in inexperienced
hands. The best polish for the shell after the skin is removed, is a
red earth called tripoli, applied on a piece of soft leather.

FOSSIL SHELLS.
An eminent Geologist, named Dr. Mantell, has very beautifully and
poetically termed rocks “The Medals of Creation.” As on coins and
medals we see stamped enduring records of great historical events,
so upon the rocks are written by the finger of God, a history of some
of the mighty changes which the earth has undergone, and fossil
shells are among the plainest and most easily read of the characters
or letters, in which these truths are written. As Dr. Harvey, in his
“Sea-side Book,” observes, “Shelly-coated mollusca have existed in
the waters of the sea and in rivers, from a very early period of the
world’s history, and have left in its most stratified rocks and gravels
abundance of their shells preserved in a more perfect manner than
the remains of most other animals. Now as the species in the early
rocks differ from those found in later formations, quite as much as
the latter from the mollusca of our modern seas, the gradual change
in the character of the embedded shells marks a certain interval of
time in the world’s history.” So we see that these rocks are the
leaves of a great book, written all over with wonderful truths, and
those who study such sciences as Geology and Conchology, are
enabled to read much that is there written.
 Every fossil shell that such a student picks out of the chalk, or
limestone, is like a letter in the Alphabet of Creation; it has a
significance, or meaning, and a number of such put together, form
as it were, words and sentences, that can be made up into chapters,
full of instruction, aye, and of amusement too. The study may seem
a little dry at first, but never mind, go on, and you will soon be
rewarded for your diligence, by the wonders that will unfold
themselves to your understanding—the fresh and delightful views
which you will obtain into the wide universe, the new and enlarged
ideas of the wisdom and goodness of the Creator, and of the
formation, habits, and connexion each with each of his various
creatures.
Properly to treat of fossil shells, would require a book of itself, and
a large book too; we can here but allude to the subject, as a part,
and a very important and interesting part of the study of
Conchology; more will be said about it in a volume which we
purpose writing for this series, on Rocks, and the petrified organic
remains found in and about them.

“Those relics of an older world, which tell

Of changes slow or sudden, that have past
Over the face of nature; fossil shell,
Shark’s tooth, and bone of megatheran vast,
Turned into stone, and so preserved to show
Man of those things whereof he ought to know.”
 BEAUTIFUL SHELLS.

UNIVALVES.
Gasteropoda is a name given by some naturalists to a very
extensive group of molluscous animals; the term is derived from two
Greek words, signifying stomach and foot;—it has reference to the
kind of fleshy foot which generally occupies the whole under side of
the body, and by the contraction and extension of the muscles of
which, the creature is enabled to glide, with a slow but steady
motion, from place to place. The Slug and the Snail are the
commonest examples which can be adduced of gasteropods; and
one may tell by their slimy tracks, shining like silver in the morning
sunshine, that during the night, which is their principal feeding time,
they manage to get over a considerable extent of ground, although
“a snail’s gallop” is a proverbial expression for slow motion; but it is
astonishing how much work of any kind may be done if one “keeps
at it;” by doing this the Tortoise beat the Hare, illustrating the truth
of the proverb, that “slow and sure wins the race.” If you watch a
Snail travelling with its house upon its back, it does not seem to
make much way, and you are inclined to think that it will be long ere
it reaches the new settlement to which it appears journeying with
bag and baggage; but leave the spot for a while, and the chances
are that on your return, the “slow coach” will have got somewhere
out of sight. Here is a lesson for boys and girls; whatever you take in
hand, don’t be in a hurry, and if people say you are “slow,” think of
the snail, and keep on!
 This, then, is a shelled mollusk of the third class, called
Gasteropoda, according to the system of the French naturalist
Cuvier. It has a distinct head, which, like the hinder part of the body,
which we may call a tail if we like, projects, when the creature is in
motion, considerably from the shell; it is also furnished with what we
commonly call horns, naturalists say tentacles, from the Latin tento
—trying, or essaying; with these the creature, as it were, feels its
way; being extremely sensitive; they answer the purpose of organs
both of sight and touch; put your finger slowly towards one of them,
and you will observe that, even before contact, it begins to retract,
or draw in, as though sensible of the approach of some opposing
body, as it no doubt is. These horns of the snail, then, are its feelers
—eyes to the blind, fingers to the fingerless; so God provides for his
creatures all that may be necessary for their existence, and
compensates for the deprivation of one sense or organ, by some
admirable contrivance which meets the necessities of the case.[1]

[1] It appears likely that the little knobs at the end of the snail’s
feelers, are, as some naturalists assert, in reality eyes; if so, we
were wrong in calling the creature blind. Yet is their position and
construction so different from organs of sight generally, that they
serve rather to strengthen than invalidate the above observations.
The number of the horns varies in different kinds of snails from
two to six, and some have none at all. These tentacles, when
present, are always situated above the mouth; some of them
have the knobs at the base, others at the sides; and it has been
conjectured that they may be organs of smell, as well as of sight
and touch.
 THE COMMON SNAIL
Is called by naturalists Helix aspersa, the generic name being
derived from a Greek word signifying spiral, and having reference to
the shape of the shell; the plural is Helices, a term applied to all
convoluted or twisted shells, which terminate in a point like a church
spire: a spiral-shelled fossil is called a helicate. The specific name
comes from the Latin asper—rough, whence also our English word
asperity—roughness, and several others. The Helicidæ, or Helix
family, is that which includes the land shell Snails and the naked
Slugs, and in this family there are several genera; they are
distinguished from the shelled water Snails, both sea and river, by
having a different breathing apparatus, and some other points of
internal construction which it is not necessary to describe here.
The Common Snail has a mouth, of which it makes good use, as
market gardeners well know, and yet this mouth is not furnished
with teeth; instead of these, the upper lip, which is of a horny
texture, is what is called dentated, from the Latin dentus—a tooth,
that is, divided or separated, so as to present somewhat the
appearance of a row of teeth in the jaw; this lip is of an arched
form, and appears to be a very serviceable kind of instrument to Mr.
Helix aspersa, who, if his character be not aspersed, is very
destructive to all sorts of greenery. The lower lip is divided only in
the middle, where there is an opening of some width: it is not horny,
like the upper one.
Snails lay eggs, which are about the size of very small peas; they
are soft, and of a whitish colour. Being semi, that is, half,
transparent, or clear, their contents can be partly seen; and in those
of a water Snail, deposited against the side of a glass bottle, the
young were detected with partially formed shells upon their backs.
To shew how tenacious they are of life, it has been mentioned that
Mr. S. Simon, a Dublin merchant, had a collection of fossils and other
curiosities left him by his father; among these were some shells of
Snails, and fifteen years after the collection came into his
possession, his son had the shells to play with, and placed them in a
basin of water, when lo! out came the slimy bodies and knobbed
horns of several of the Gasteropods, no doubt hungry enough after
their long sleep.
We all know that our Common Snails hybernate, or sleep through
the winter. As soon as the chills of autumn are felt, they seek out
some snug crevice in an old wall, or burrow in the earth, or
congregate beneath garden pots, roots of trees, thatched roofs, or in
any hole or corner that may be convenient, and then throwing a kind
of temporary skin, like a drum head, which naturalists call
operculum, over the opening of their shells, and sticking themselves
fast to the sides of their refuge, or to each other, they sleep away,
careless of frosts and tempests.
A moist and rather warm state of the atmosphere seems most
congenial to the land Snails, some species of which are found in all
countries, except those where the most intense cold prevails.
Generally speaking, they do not like dry heat, and to escape from it
will get under stones, and into other cool places, from whence a
shower brings them forth in such numbers, the smaller species
especially, as to lead to the popular belief that it sometimes rains
Snails.
These Gasteropods, although extremely injurious to vegetation,
must not be regarded as worse than useless, as they commonly are;
besides furnishing food for several wild, as well as domesticated,
birds, they are no doubt a nourishing article of diet for man. The
Romans had their cochlearia, where Snails were regularly fed and
fattened for the table; and the French at the present day their
escargotoires, or Snailery, for the same purpose; some of the Snails
so kept, attain an immense size, as well they may if fed, as by the
Romans, on new wine and meal. Many poor persons, especially
those who are consumptive, might no doubt derive much cheap
sustenance and benefit from using the larger species of Helicidæ,
which might be collected from hedges and gardens as food. Why
should they not eat those as well as the marine mollusks, such as
Oysters, Cockles, Whelks, etc.
Snails have an extraordinary power of re-producing any part which
may be injured or cut off, even to the extent of the whole head, as
has been observed to be the case; the reparation of injury done to
the shell they can effect easily, as can all testaceous mollusks.
Respecting the construction of the shell it may be observed that it is
produced in the thickness of the mantle, or cloak-like covering which
envelopes the body of the animal; the formation commences at the
small end or spire, and gradually goes on, whorl upon whorl, as the
still widening circles which give the ridgy appearance to most
univalves, are called. Columella, or pillar, is the name given to the
spire on which the cones are rolled; this is sometimes solid, and
sometimes hollow; when the latter, the open end is called the
Umbilicus, meaning the navel or centre. The opening at the bottom,
from which the animal issues, is the last portion finished, and this is
called the aperture, a Latin word adopted into the English dictionary.
Some of these Helices are wide and flat, even hollow and cup-like,
with the whorls rising above the pillar—these are called discoid
shells; others which are long and narrow, with projecting spires, are
termed turbinated shells; the former being more or less flat or disk-
like, the latter twisted, whirling, like a spinning-top, from the Latin
turbo—a whirling, a turning round.
 If we take a Common Snail, and plunge it into boiling water, which
will instantly kill it, so that it can be removed from the shell, we shall
find the whole of that part of the body which was lodged in the
upper whorls, or spiral part of the shell, is covered with a thin
membrane or skin; this is called the mantle, and that portion of it
which corresponds with what we may consider as the back of the
mollusk, and which is considerably thickened, is termed the collar;
here are situated the glands, which secrete the colouring and other
matter of which the shell is mainly composed; although the
substance called nacre, or mother-of-pearl, is secreted in the thinner
part of the mantle; it is however from the collar that the growth or