Lecture Note: Memory Hierarchy – Primary and Secondary Memory

Introduction to Memory in Computers

In computing systems, memory plays a vital role in storing data and instructions that are needed
for processing tasks. However, different types of memory exist in a computer system, each with
unique characteristics in terms of speed, size, and cost. To efficiently manage and use these
resources, computers are designed with a memory hierarchy—a structure that organizes
memory in levels to optimize performance.

Memory Hierarchy Overview

The memory hierarchy consists of multiple levels of storage with varying access speeds,
capacities, and costs. The closer a memory is to the central processing unit (CPU), the faster it
can be accessed. The further a memory is from the CPU, the slower and less expensive it
becomes.

The primary purpose of organizing memory into a hierarchy is to balance the trade-offs between
cost and performance, allowing the computer to achieve efficient data processing.

The memory hierarchy is generally divided into:

1. Primary Memory (Volatile)

2. Secondary Memory (Non-Volatile)

1. Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory, also called main memory, is directly accessible by the CPU. It is volatile,
meaning its contents are lost when the power is turned off. This type of memory is used for
temporarily holding data and instructions that the CPU is currently processing or will need soon.
The primary memory is fast but relatively small and expensive compared to secondary memory.

Types of Primary Memory:

 Random Access Memory (RAM):

o RAM is the most common type of primary memory.
o It stores data and instructions that are being actively used or processed by the
CPU.
o It is volatile, meaning all data is lost when the system is powered off.
o RAM is divided into two main types:
 1. Dynamic RAM (DRAM): Slower and less expensive; needs to be
refreshed constantly.
2. Static RAM (SRAM): Faster and more expensive; does not need to be
refreshed frequently, used mainly for cache memory.
 Cache Memory:
o A small, high-speed memory located very close to the CPU (often within the CPU
itself).
o It temporarily holds frequently accessed data and instructions to speed up
processing.
o There are different levels of cache memory (L1, L2, L3) that offer varying speeds
and capacities:
 L1 Cache: Integrated directly into the CPU and is the fastest.
 L2 Cache: Slower than L1 but larger, sometimes located on the CPU chip.
 L3 Cache: Shared by multiple CPU cores, slower than L2 but larger in
size.
 Registers:
o Registers are extremely fast, small storage locations directly within the CPU.
o They hold data and instructions that are immediately required for operations, such
as the result of a calculation or the address of the next instruction.
o Registers are very limited in size but are essential for CPU performance.

Characteristics of Primary Memory:

 Speed: Very fast, with access times measured in nanoseconds.

 Cost: More expensive than secondary memory.
 Capacity: Limited in size, typically ranging from a few gigabytes to tens of gigabytes.
 Volatility: Loses data when the power is switched off.

Functions of Primary Memory:

 Provides fast access to the CPU for processing data.

 Stores the operating system, application software, and currently running programs.
 Allows for quick reading and writing of data to maintain high system performance.

2. Secondary Memory (Auxiliary Storage)

Secondary memory is non-volatile, meaning it retains its data even when the power is turned
off. It provides permanent storage for large volumes of data and programs that are not currently
in use by the CPU. Secondary memory is slower than primary memory but offers much larger
storage capacities at a lower cost.

Types of Secondary Memory:

 Hard Disk Drive (HDD):

 o HDDs are mechanical storage devices that use spinning disks to read and write
data.
o They offer large storage capacities (measured in terabytes) but have slower access
times compared to solid-state drives and primary memory.
o HDDs are widely used for long-term storage of files, software, and operating
systems.
 Solid-State Drive (SSD):
o SSDs are non-mechanical devices that use flash memory to store data.
o They are significantly faster than HDDs because they have no moving parts,
leading to quicker data access and retrieval.
o SSDs are commonly used in modern computers for the operating system and
frequently accessed applications.
 Optical Disks (CD, DVD, Blu-ray):
o Optical disks use laser technology to read and write data.
o They are mainly used for distributing software, storing media files, and backups.
o Although they offer slower data access compared to HDDs and SSDs, they are
relatively inexpensive.
 USB Flash Drives:
o Flash drives are portable storage devices that use flash memory.
o They offer moderate storage capacities and are commonly used for transferring
files between computers.
 Magnetic Tape:
o Magnetic tape is an older storage medium used primarily for backups and archival
purposes.
o It provides very large storage capacities at low cost but has very slow access
speeds.

Characteristics of Secondary Memory:

 Speed: Slower than primary memory, with access times in milliseconds.

 Cost: Less expensive compared to primary memory.
 Capacity: Much larger storage capacities, often measured in terabytes.
 Volatility: Non-volatile, meaning data is preserved even when the system is powered off.

Functions of Secondary Memory:

 Long-term storage of data, files, and programs.

 Stores the operating system, applications, and user data that are not currently in use.
 Provides backup solutions for important data.

Key Differences Between Primary and Secondary Memory

Characteristic Primary Memory Secondary Memory

Speed Very fast (nanoseconds) Slower (milliseconds)
 Characteristic Primary Memory Secondary Memory
Volatile (loses data when powered
Volatility Non-volatile (retains data)
off)
Cost Expensive Relatively inexpensive
Capacity Limited (gigabytes) Large (terabytes or more)
Proximity to Accessed indirectly via the storage
Directly accessed by CPU
CPU bus
HDD, SSD, USB drives, Optical
Examples RAM, Cache, Registers
Disks

The memory hierarchy is designed to balance the trade-offs between speed, cost, and capacity in
computer systems. Primary memory offers fast, temporary storage that is essential for
processing, while secondary memory provides large, permanent storage for long-term data
retention. By using a combination of both types of memory, computers achieve high
performance and efficient data management.

Review Questions:

1. Explain the role of primary memory in a computer system.

2. Compare and contrast RAM and cache memory.
3. Why is secondary memory considered non-volatile?
4. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using SSD over HDD.
5. What are the different levels of cache memory, and how do they differ?