Chapter 1

Introduction
1.1. What is a Computer?
A computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions (software) stored
in its own memory unit, that can accept data (input), manipulate data (process), and produce
information (output) from the processing. Generally, the term is used to describe a collection of
devices that function together as a system.
It performs the following three operations in sequence.
1. It receives data & instructions from the input device.
2. Processes the data as per instructions.
3. Provides the result (output) in a desired form.
1.2. The Evolution of Computers
The history of computers starts out about 2000 years ago, at the birth of the abacus, a wooden
rack holding two horizontal wires with beads strung on them. When these beads are moved
around, according to programming rules memorized by the user, all regular arithmetic problems
can be done.
In discussing the history of the modern computer, we classify them into generations. There are totally
five computer generations known till today.
FIRST GENERATION (1944 – 1958)
Computers of this generation were manufactured using vacuum tubes. These computers were highly un
reliable as the vacuum tubes failed very frequently. Punched cards were used for input and output. These
computers were very huge in size, produced enormous amount of heat, very slow and very, very
expensive. . ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer, the first operational electronic
digital computer in the U.S., developed by Army Ordnance to compute World War II ballistic firing
tables.) and UNIVAC (UNIVersal Automatic Computer) were the examples of first generation computer.
ENIAC used 18,000 vacuum tubes for producing the results
SECOND GENERATION (1959 – 1963)
By the early 1960s, transistors were developed and used in manufacturing computers. Transistor is an
electronic switching device that alternatively allows electronic signals to pass and it was comparatively
smaller than vacuum tube. Transistors consumed less power and produced less heat when compared to
the vacuum tubes. This second generation computer tended to be smaller in size, more reliable, and

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considerably faster than first generation of computers. Magnetic cores and disk packs were introduced as
storage devices. Programming languages like BASIC, FORTRAN, COBOL, etc. were used.

THIRD GENERATION (1964 – 1970)

During this period, the Integrated Chips very popularly known as ICs started replacing the usage of
individual transistors in manufacturing computers. Integrated Circuit is a complete circuit packed with
hundreds of transistors and other electronic components on a small silicon chip. The size of the
computers still got reduced with improved reliability and speed when compared to the previous
generation of computers. The usage of RAM (Random Access Memory) and magnetic disks as the
storage media became wide spread.
FOURTH GENERATION (1971 – Now)
Due to the technological development the Large Scale Integrated (LSI) and Very Large Scale Integrated
(VLSI) circuits were developed which contained thousands to millions of transistors on a tiny chip. In
1971, Intel developed the microprocessor, which contained the entire CPU (the Control Unit, Memory
Unit, and ALU) on a single chip, leading to the process of miniaturization – the development of smaller
and smaller computers. As a result, the computers main memory capacity increased, the cost got
decreased and speed also increased, which directly affected the types and usefulness of software that
could be used.
Software applications like Word Processing, Electronic Spreadsheets, Database Management Programs,
Painting and Drawing programs, and so forth became commercially available giving more people reasons
to use a computer.
FIFTH GENERATION
The fifth generation computers are under development. These computers function with the Artificial
Intelligence provided to it. Due to the artificial intelligence, the computer will have the ability to learn by
itself, can reason and make decision with the knowledge it possess. They try to simulate the human
way of thinking and reasoning. Artificial Intelligence includes areas like Expert System (ES),
Natural Language Processing (NLP), speech recognition, voice recognition, robotics, etc.
1.3. Characteristics of Computer
The increasing popularity of computers has proved that it is a very powerful and useful tool. The power
and usefulness of this popular tool are mainly due to its following characteristics:
Speed – A computer is a very fast device. It can perform in a few seconds the amount of work that a
human being can do in an entire year – if he worked day and night and did nothing else.
Its speed is measured by the amount of time it took to perform or carry out a basic operation.

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Computer speed measured in terms of micro second (10-6 one millionths), Nano second (10-9 one
Billionths), and Pico second (10-12 one trillionths).
Accuracy. In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate. Now day’s computers are being
used for surgical purposes, which needs almost hundred percent accuracy. From
this, we can understand that computer is accurate and consistent.
A computer allows users to store and process information
quickly and automatically.

But, when we say this it does not mean that computers are error free. Errors can occur in computers.
Errors in computer data processing are mostly human factors. The program may be wrongly coded or the
data may be wrongly entered.
Storage. You can image how much space a paper of seconds or data of a census it needs. Not only the
space, also the time it took to get or retrieve a specific information from such vast amount of data is not
negligible.
But a computer can store such amount of information in a few numbers of disks. And the time it
took to retrieve or process a single information is not more than a micro or a nano seconds. In
general a computer has a capacity to store a very large amount of information in organized
manner so that accessing information is very fast.
Versatility – describes flexibility in computer usage for different applications i.e. Computers can be
programmed and applied for different purposes. For Example, one may use one computer for word
processing purpose, another may use same computer for graphic or spreadsheet processing.
Automatic. Once necessary information and program is feed to the computer, it performs
processing without human intervention.
Diligence. A computer can handle very routine and repetitive tasks. They are tireless. As long as there is
no failure of power and no defect in the machine itself, it will never be un operational.
Limitations of computers:
1. Computers need clear & complete instructions to perform a task accurately. If the
instructions are not clear & complete, the computer will not produce the required result.
2. Computers cannot think.
3. Computers cannot learn by experience.

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1.4. Classification of Computers
There are different types of computers. Their differences depend on different categories of
characteristics.
I. Classification by the method of operation (processing)
Based on the application of computers for various purposes the computers can be classified into
three types:
A. Analog computers
B. Digital computers
C. Hybrid computers
A. Analog Computers
Computers that use analog signals for calculating and transmitting data are called Analog
computers. It can be defined as “A device that operates on data in the form of continuously
varying physical quantities”. The values of the analog signals are continuously changing with
states in between high and low. Analog data is calculated using the concept of “measuring
values” like magnitude in terms of voltage, length, current. The analog data is transmitted in a
continuous form that closely resembles the information it represents. Electrical signals on a
telephone line are nothing but analog data representing the original voice. SLIDE RULER is an example
of analog computers.
B. Digital Computers
The computers that use digital signals to calculate and transmit data are called Digital Computers. The
word digital is derived from the word “digit”. The word digit simply means numeral. The digital signal
has only two states in which it can be represented. They are ON and OFF or HIGH and LOW or 1 and 0.
Digital data is calculated using the concept of “counting values”. The result obtained from the digital
computer is more accurate when compared to the analog computers. These computers manipulate digital
data and perform arithmetic and logical operations. To facilitate the performance of digital computers
intermediate languages such as BASIC, COBOL, FORTRAN, PASCAL, C, C++, JAVA etc., has been
developed.
Digital Computers are classified as
 General purpose computers
 A general purpose computer is one that has the ability to store different programs of
instructions
 Performs a variety of operations

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  It is designed to do a wide variety of jobs rather than perform a specific activity.
 It is also called personal computers (PC’s)
 Special purpose computers
 Designed to perform one specific task
 Instructions is built into, or permanently stored in the machine
 Specialization results in the given task being performed very quickly and efficiently
 It is inflexible and cannot be easily used to perform other operations.
 Past, it was expensive.
 Now-a-days, for example, new cars have such devices installed to monitor and control
fuel, ignition and other system.
C. Hybrid Computers
Computer systems that use both analog and digital mechanisms are called Hybrid Computers. Desirable
features of analog and digital computers are combined to develop a hybrid computer. In a hospital, the
intensive care unit, an analog device measures a patient’s heart function, temperature and other vital
signs, these measurements are then converted into numbers and supplied to a digital component that
monitors the patient’s vital signs and signals to a nurse’s station.
II. Classification by Capacity and Size of Microprocessor
Computers are also classified into different types mainly based on processing and storage capacity.
Classifying them this way, we have the four groups of computers explained below.
A. Microcomputers - are the most widely used type of computers. They are single users, can
either fit to a desk (called the Desktop) or can be carried around (called the Laptop and
Notebook). Microcomputers are sometimes referred as personal computers. These
computers can be used either as a standalone machine or connected to a network.
B. Minicomputers - are bigger in size, faster in speed, have more memory capacity and expensive
when compared to the microcomputers. Minicomputers can be used for general purpose
applications and as a server for small networks.
C. Mainframe computers: - more powerful in processing, faster in speed, have large memory, and
very expensive when compared to the micro and mini computers. They are multi-user systems
and handle hundreds of users, usually used in large organizations.

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 D. Super computers: - are the largest, fastest, most expensive and very powerful computers
available when compared to the types of computers discussed earlier. They occupy
specially designed air-conditioned rooms and are often used for research and to process
complex scientific applications like weather forecasting, oil

1.5. Data Processing Using Computer

All computer processing requires data, which is a collection of raw facts, figures and symbols,
such as numbers, words, images, video and sound, given to the computer during the input phase.
Computers manipulate data to create information. Information is data that is organized,
meaningful, and useful. During the output Phase, the information that has been created is put
into some form, such as a printed report. The information can also be put in computer storage
for future use.
The activity of processing data using a computer is called data processing. Data processing
consists of three sub activities: capturing the input data, manipulating the data, and managing the
output results. As use d in data processing, information is data arranged in an order and form that
is useful to the people who receive it. That is, information is relevant knowledge, produced as the
output of data processing operation and acquired by people to enhance understanding and to
achieve specific purpose. Thus data is the raw material used as input to data processing and
information is the processed data obtained as the output of data processing.