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Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering 498

Jiadong Sun · Changfeng Yang

Shuren Guo
Editors

China Satellite
Navigation
Conference (CSNC)
2018 Proceedings
Volume II
Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering

Volume 498

Board of Series editors

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Jiadong Sun Changfeng Yang
•

Shuren Guo
Editors

China Satellite Navigation

Conference (CSNC) 2018
Proceedings
Volume II

123
Editors
Jiadong Sun Shuren Guo
China Aerospace Science China Satellite Navigation
and Technology Corporation Engineering Center
Beijing Beijing
China China

Changfeng Yang
China Satellite Navigation
Engineering Center
Beijing
China

ISSN 1876-1100 ISSN 1876-1119 (electronic)

Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering
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Editorial Board

Topic: S1: Satellite Navigation Technology

Chairman
Qin Zhang, Chang’an University, Shaanxi, China
Vice-Chairman
Feixue Wang, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha, China
Shuanggen Jin, Shanghai Astronomical Observatory Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Shanghai, China
Xiaolin Meng, University of Nottingham, UK

Topic: S2: Navigation and Location Service

Chairman
Yamin Dang, Chinese Academy of Surveying & Mapping, Beijing, China
Vice-Chairman
Baoguo Yu, The 54th Research Institute of China Electronics Technology Group
Corporation, Hebei, China
Qun Ding, The 20th Research Institute of China Electronics Technology Group
Corporation, Shaanxi, China
Kefei Zhang, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia

Topic: S3: Satellite Navigation Signal and Anti-Jamming

Technologies
Chairman
Xiaochun Lu, National Time Service Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Shaanxi, China

v
vi Editorial Board

Vice-Chairman
Yanhong Kou, Beihang University, Beijing, China
Zheng Yao, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China

Topic: S4: Satellite Orbit and Satellite Clock Error

Chairman
Xiaogong Hu, Shanghai Astronomical Observatory, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Shanghai, China
Vice-Chairman
Rongzhi Zhang, Xi’an Satellite Control Center, Shaanxi, China
Geshi Tang, Beijing Aerospace Control Center, Beijing, China
Maorong Ge, Geo Forschungs Zentrum (GFZ), Potsdam, Germany

Topic: S5: Precise Positioning Technology

Chairman
Qile Zhao, Wuhan University, Hubei, China
Vice-Chairman
Jianwen Li, The PLA Information Engineering University, Henan, China
Shuli Song, Shanghai Astronomical Observatory, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Shanghai, China
Yanming Feng, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia

Topic: S6: Time–Space Datum and Temporal Frequency

Technologies
Chairman
Lianshan Gao, The 203th Research Institute of China Aerospace Science &
Industry Corporation, Beijing, China
Vice-Chairman
Chunhao Han, Beijing Satellite Navigation Center, Beijing, China
Xiaohui Li, National Time Service Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shaanxi,
China
Nikolay Demidov, Vremya CH Corporation, Novgorod, Russia

Topic: S7: Satellite Navigation Augmentation Technology

Chairman
Junlin Zhang, OLinkStar Co., Ltd., Beijing, China
Editorial Board vii

Vice-Chairman
Jinping Chen, Beijing Satellite Navigation Center, Beijing, China
Rui Li, Beihang University, Beijing, China
Shaojun Feng, Imperial College London Qianxun Positioning Network, Co., Ltd.,
Shanghai, China
Dun Wang, Space Star Aerospace Technology Applications Co., Ltd.,
Heilongjiang, China

Topic: S8: Test and Assessment Technology

Chairman
Xiaolin Jia, Xi’an Institute of Surveying and Mapping, Shaanxi, China
Vice-Chairman
Jun Yang, National University of Defense Technology, Hunan, China
Jianguang Qu, Heilongjiang Institute of Technology, Heilongjiang, China
Yang Gao, University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada

Topic: S9: User Terminal Technology

Chairman
Haibo He, Beijing Satellite Navigation Center, Beijing, China
Vice-Chairman
Baowang Lian, Northwestern Polytechnic University, Shaanxi, China
Hong Li, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China

Topic: S10: Multi-Source Fusion Navigation Technology

Chairman
Zhongliang Deng, Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Beijing,
China
Vice-Chairman
Hong Yuan, Academy of Opto-Electronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing,
China
Yongbin Zhou, National University of Defense Technology
Jinling Wang, University of New South Wales, Australia
viii Editorial Board

Topic: S11: PNT New Concept, New Methods and New

Technology
Chairman
Mingquan Lu, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
Vice-Chairman
Wei Wang, The 20th Research Institute of China Electronics Technology Group
Corporation, Shaanxi, China
Ying Xu, Academy of Opto-Electronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Beijing, China
Sang Jeong Lee, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, South Korea

Topic: S12: Policies and Regulations, Standards

and Intellectual Properties
Chairman
Junlin Yang, Beihang University, Beijing, China
Vice-Chairman
Daiping Zhang, China Defense Science and Technology Information Center,
Beijing, China
Yonggang Wei, China Academy of Aerospace Standardization and Product
Assurance, Beijing, China
Huiying Li, Electronic Intellectual Property Center, Ministry of Industry and
Information Technology, PRC Beijing, China
Preface

BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS) is China’s global navigation satellite

system which has been developed independently. BDS is similar in principle to
global positioning system (GPS) and compatible with other global satellite navi-
gation systems (GNSSs) worldwide. BDS will provide highly reliable and precise
positioning, navigation and timing (PNT) services and short-message communi-
cation for all users under all-weather, all-time and worldwide conditions.
China Satellite Navigation Conference (CSNC) is an open platform for academic
exchanges in the field of satellite navigation. It aims to encourage technological
innovation, accelerate GNSS engineering, and boost the development of the
satellite navigation industry in China and in the world.
The 9th China Satellite Navigation Conference (CSNC 2018) is held during May
23–25, 2018, Harbin, China. The theme of CSNC2018 is Location, Time of
Augmentation, including technical seminars, academic exchanges, forums, exhi-
bitions, and lectures. The main topics are as followed:

Conference Topics
S1 Satellite Navigation Technology
S2 Navigation and Location Service
S3 Satellite Navigation Signal and Anti-Jamming Technologies
S4 Satellite Orbit and Satellite Clock Error
S5 Precise Positioning Technology
S6 Time–Space Datum and Temporal Frequency Technologies
S7 Satellite Navigation Augmentation Technology
S8 Test and Assessment Technology
S9 User Terminal Technology
S10 Multi-Source Fusion Navigation Technology
S11 PNT New Concept, New Methods and New Technology
S12 Policies and Regulations, Standards and Intellectual Properties

ix
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x Preface

The proceedings have 208 papers in twelve topics of the conference, which were
selected through a strict peer-review process from 588 papers presented at
CSNC2018. In addition, another 274 papers were selected as the electronic pro-
ceedings of CSNC2018, which are also indexed by “China Proceedings of
Conferences Full-text Database (CPCD)” of CNKI and Wan Fang Data.
We thank the contribution of each author and extend our gratitude to 279 ref-
erees and 55 session chairmen who are listed as members of editorial board. The
assistance of CNSC2018’s organizing committees and the Springer editorial office
is highly appreciated.

Beijing, China Jiadong Sun

Changfeng Yang
Shuren Guo
Scientific Committee

Chairman
Jiadong Sun, China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation, Beijing,
China
Vice-Chairman
Rongjun Shen, China Satellite Navigation System Committee, Beijing, China
Jisheng Li, China Satellite Navigation System Committee, Beijing, China
Qisheng Sui, China Satellite Navigation System Committee, Beijing, China
Changfeng Yang, China Satellite Navigation System Committee, Beijing, China
Zuhong Li, China Academy of Space Technology, Beijing, China
Shusen Tan, Beijing Satellite Navigation Center, Beijing, China
Executive Chairman
Jingnan Liu, Wuhan University, Hubei, China
Yuanxi Yang, China National Administration of GNSS and Applications, Beijing,
China
Shiwei Fan, China Satellite Navigation Engineering Center, Beijing, China
Jun Xie, China Academy of Space Technology, Beijing, China
Committee Members: (By Surnames Stroke Order)
Xiancheng Ding, China Electronics Technology Group Corporation, Beijing, China
Qingjun Bu, China National Administration of GNSS and Applications, Beijing,
China
Weixing Wan, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Beijing, China
Liheng Wang, China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation, Beijing,
China
Yuzhu Wang, Shanghai Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy
of Sciences, Shanghai, China

xi
xii Scientific Committee

Guoxiang Ai, National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences,

Beijing, China
Shuhua Ye, Shanghai Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Shanghai, China
Daren Lv, The Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Beijing, China
Yongcai Liu, China Aerospace Science & Industry Corporation, Beijing, China
Zhaowen Zhuang, National University of Defense Technology, Hunan, China
Qifeng Xu, PLA Information Engineering University, Henan, China
Houze Xu, Institute of Geodesy and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Hubei, China
Tianchu Li, National Institute of Metrology, Beijing, China
Jiancheng Li, Wuhan University, Hubei, China
Guirong Min, China Academy of Space Technology, Beijing, China
Xixiang Zhang, The 29th Research Institute of China Electronics Technology
Group Corporation, Sichuan, China
Lvqian Zhang, China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation, Beijing,
China
Junyong Chen, National Administration of Surveying, Mapping and
Geo-information, Beijing, China
Benyao Fan, China Academy of Space Technology, Beijing, China
Dongjin Luo, China People’s Liberation Army, Beijing, China
Guohong Xia, China Aerospace Science & Industry Corporation, Beijing, China
Shuren Guo, China Satellite Navigation Engineering Center, Beijing, China
Peikang Huang, China Aerospace Science & Industry Corporation, Beijing, China
Chong Cao, China Research Institute of Radio Wave Propagation (CETC 22),
Beijing, China
Faren Qi, China Academy of Space Technology, Beijing, China
Rongsheng Su, China People’s Liberation Army, Beijing, China
Ziqing Wei, Xi’an Institute of Surveying and Mapping, Shaanxi, China
Executive Members: (By Surnames Stroke Order)
Qin Zhang, Chang’an University, Shaanxi, China
Yamin Dang, Chinese Academy of Surveying & Mapping, Beijing, China
Xiaochun Lu, National Time Service Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Shaanxi, China
Xiaogong Hu, Shanghai Astronomical Observatory, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Shanghai, China
Qile Zhao, Wuhan University, Hubei, China
Lianshan Gao, The 203th Research Institute of China Aerospace Science
& Industry Corporation, Beijing, China
Junlin Zhang, OLinkStar Co., Ltd., Beijing, China
Scientific Committee xiii

Xiaolin Jia, Xi’an Institute of Surveying and Mapping, Shaanxi, China

Haibo He, Beijing Satellite Navigation Center, Beijing, China
Zhongliang Deng, Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Beijing,
China
Mingquan Lu, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
Junlin Yang, Beihang University, Beijing, China
Organizing Committee

Secretary-General
Haitao Wu, Satellite Navigation Headquarters, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Beijing, China
Executive Deputy Secretary-General
Weina Hao, Navigation Headquarters, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing,
China
Deputy Secretary-General
Wenhai Jiao, China Satellite Navigation Engineering Center, Beijing, China
Wenjun Zhao, Beijing Satellite Navigation Center, Beijing, China
Tonghuang Wang, Space Star Aerospace Technology Applications Co., Ltd.,
Heilongjiang, China
Bo Wang, Academic Exchange Center, China Satellite Navigation Office, Beijing,
China
Committee Members: (By Surnames Stroke Order)
Qun Ding, The 20th Research Institute of China Electronics Technology Group
Corporation, Shaanxi, China
Guang Yu, Harbin Institute of Technology, Heilongjiang, China
Li Wang, International Cooperation Research Center, China Satellite Navigation
Office, Beijing, China
Chunsheng Wang, Haidian Investment Promotion Bureau, Beijing, China
Ying Liu, China Satellite Navigation Engineering Center, Beijing, China
Wanming Yang, Administrative Committee of Nanjing New & High Technology
Industry Development Zone, Jiangsu, China
Jun Shen, Beijing UniStrong Science & Technology Co., Ltd., Beijing, China
Liquan Song, Heilongjiang Institute of Technology, Heilongjiang, China
Mingquan Lu, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China

xv
xvi Organizing Committee

Lu Chen, Beijing Institute of Space Science and Technology Information,

Beijing, China
Xiuwan Chen, Peking University, Beijing, China
Gang Hu, Beijing Unicore Communications, Inc., Beijing, China
Qile Zhao, Wuhan University, Hubei, China
Min Shui, The National Remote Sensing Center of China, Beijing, China
Contents

Part I Satellite Navigation Signal and Anti-jamming Technologies

A New Technique for Improving the Anti-jamming
Performance of Vector Tracking Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Ruihua Zhang, Renbiao Wu and Qiongqiong Jia
A Novel Generation Method of TM-AltBOC
Modulator and Demodulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Jun Mo, Yi Zhang and Hui Liu
Generation Mechanisms and Experimental Verifications
of Pseudo-range Biases for BDS Navigation Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Chengyan He, Ji Guo, Xiaochun Lu, Li Kang and Meng Wang
Code Phase Bias Reduction in Spatial Adaptive
Beam-Forming GNSS Receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Hailong Xu, Xiaowei Cui, Songtao Huangfu and Mingquan Lu
Multipath Mitigation Method for BOC Signals Dual Estimation
Technology Based on Synthesized Correlation Function . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Nengjie Yu, Jiantao Ruan, Qijia Dong and Dun Wang
Fast Parameter Estimation Method of Multi-components
LFM Interference to GNSS Uplink Injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Hang Ruan, Shuxian Zhang and Shuren Guo
Beidou Modulator Distortion Modeling and
Compensation Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Fei Ling, Zuo Zhang, Zhe Su, Yisong Li, Lei Wang and Xiaoxia Tao
A Variable Step Frequency-Domain LMS Narrowband Interference
Suppression Algorithm Based on Adaptive Noise Statistics . . . . . . . . . . 79
Yaohui Chen, Dun Wang, Hehe Guo, Zhenxing Xu, Peng Liu
and Dongjun Li

xvii
xviii Contents

A Cooperative Anti-spoofing Technology Based on Subspace

Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Mingyu Liu, Shuai Han, Yu Zhang and Weixiao Meng
Beidou B1I Signal Acquisition Scheme Based on Variable
Length Data Accumulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Menghuan Yang, Guoping Wang, Yingxin Zhao and Hong Wu
Design and Simulation of Synchronization Algorithm
for Short Time Burst- Mode GMSK Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Guoshuai Ren, Wenquan Feng and Xi Liu
A Novel Analog Threat Analysis of BDS Signal and Effect
on Ranging Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Meng Wang, Chengyan He, Xiaochun Lu, Ji Guo and Li Kang
Analysis of Positioning Performance of the GNSS Receiver
Under Complete and Incomplete Spoofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Ya Qi, Rui Xu, Jianye Liu and Weihao Dai
Subcarrier-Abstracted Multi-frequency Constant-Envelope
Multiplexing and Its Implementation Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Junjie Ma, Zheng Yao and Mingquan Lu
Design and Field Test of a GPS Spoofer for UAV
Trajectory Manipulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Minghan Li, Yanhong Kou, Yong Xu and Yachuan Liu
The Difference Analysis on the Effect of Third-Order
Intermodulation Between Single Antenna and Antenna
Arrays Anti-jamming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Zukun Lu, Zhengrong Li, Shaojie Ni, Baiyu Li and Gang Ou
Subspace Based Joint Delay and Direction of Arrival
Estimation for GNSS Multipath Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Ning Chang, Xi Hong, Wenjie Wang and Zhaonian Wang
An Improved CCRW Algorithm for BOC Signals with
Odd Modulation Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Hongbo Zhao, Songlin Du and Chao Sun
MC-BOC: A New Interoperable Modulation and
Performance Analysis for BeiDou B1 Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Xinming Huang, Xin Zhao, Xiangwei Zhu and Gang Ou
A New Signal Quality Monitoring Method for Anti-spoofing . . . . . . . . . 221
Chao Sun, Joon Wayn Cheong, Andrew G. Dempster, Hongbo Zhao,
Laure Demicheli and Wenquan Feng
Contents xix

An Unfuzzy Acquisition Algorithm Based on Matched

Filtering for BOC (n, n) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Xiyan Su, Fang Hao, Yuanfa Ji, Weimin Zhen, Baoguo Yu and Xingli Gan

Part II Satellite Orbit and Satellite Clock Error

A New Satellite Clock Offsets Prediction Method Based
on the IGS RTS Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Hongzhou Yang, Yang Gao, Liang Zhang and Zhixi Nie
Study on Solar Radiation Pressure Model Considering
the Yaw Attitude of the BDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Kewei Xi, Xiaoya Wang and Qunhe Zhao
Quality Analysis of Observation Data of BeiDou-3
Experimental Satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Yilei He, Qianxin Wang, Zhiwen Wang and Ya Mao
Research on Adaptability of BDS Satellite in-Orbit
Attitude Control Mode of Precise Orbit Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Jin Chang, Qiuli Chen and Haihong Wang
High-Precision GLONASS Orbit Prediction for Real-Time
Precise Point Positioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Peiyuan Zhou, Yang Gao and Hongzhou Yang
The Filtered GNSS Real-time Precise Orbit Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Xiaolei Dai, Zhiqiang Dai, Yidong Lou, Min Li and Yun Qing
Systematic Error Estimation and Accuracy Evaluation
for Two-Way Satellite Time and Frequency Transfer
Observing Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Rui Guo, Li Liu, Shan Wu, GuiFen Tang and XiaoJie Li
Accuracy Analysis of BDS-3 Experiment Satellite
Broadcast Ephemeris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Ya Mao, Qianxin Wang, Chao Hu and Yilei He
Multi-frequency Combined POD and Clock Estimation
for BDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Guang Zeng, Yanan Fang, Jie Li and Jun Zhu
Assessment of iGMAS Final Combination with Nearly
Three-Year Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Hongliang Cai, Xing Li, Guo Chen and Wenhai Jiao
Analysis on the Representation of Polar Motion in
GNSS Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Pu Li and Urs Hugentobler
xx Contents

Real-Time Monitoring of Inter-device Distance Based

on Same-Beam Interferometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Yunpeng Gao, Tianpeng Ren, Lan Du, Zejun Liu and Sirui Chen
Analysis of BDS Satellite Clock Prediction Contribution
to Rapid Orbit Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Qian Chen, Junping Chen, Yize Zhang, Shan Wu and Xiuqiang Gong
Centralized Autonomous Orbit Determination of Beidou
Satellites Under the Constraint of Anchor Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Xufeng Wen, Jinming Hao, Xiaogong Hu, Chengpan Tang,
Dongxia Wang, Jie Xin, Bo Jiao and Jing Wang

Part III Precise Positioning Technology

Research on Atmosphere Refraction Modification of Radio
Wave on TT&C System in Close-Shore Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
Demin Qiu, Bo Liang, Tianyu Pan, Yuxuan Li, Haitao Fan, Qing Sun,
Hongchao DiAO, SHAO Junfei, Maolin Xie and Shaohui Wei
A Novel Triple-Frequency Cycle Slip Detection and
Correction Method for BDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Ye Tian, Lixin Zhang and Qibing Xu
Stratified Weighting Method Based on Posterior Residual Error . . . . . . 455
Fangchao Li, Jingxiang Gao, Zengke Li, Yifei Yao, Ren Wang
and Ruoxi Li
Characterization and Mitigation of BeiDou Triple-Frequency
Code Multipath Bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
Xing Wang, Guoqiang Zhao, Feng Zhang and Yongan Yang
Comparison of Performances of Three Multi-constellation Precise
Point Positioning Models Based on iGMAS Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Yangyang Liu, Ke Su, Baoqi Sun, Yulong Ge, Guoqiang Jiao
and Shengli Wang
Influence of Three Ionospheric Models on Navigation
Positioning Accuracy in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
Cunjie Zhao, Yibin Yao, Jian Kong and Leilei Li
Analyzing the Precision and Regional Modeling Method
of Tropospheric Delay Based on Multi-base Station
GPS Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Wenchao Jin and Zhiyong Liu
A Modified LLL-MIGS Decorrelation Algorithm and
Time Efficiency Assessment Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
Mingkun Su, Jiansheng Zheng, Yanxi Yang and Qiang Wu
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Contents xxi

FCB Estimation Using IGS Real-Time Products and Its

Application in Precise Point Positioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
Bo Jiao, Yishuai Shi, Jinming Hao, Cheng Fang, Xufeng Wen
and Baofeng Song
Improved TCAR Algorithm for BDS Over Medium-Long
Baseline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
Yijun Tian, Lifen Sui, Dongqing Zhao, Shaolei Peng and Yuan Tian
Analysis of the Effect of the 06-09-2017 Solar Flare on GNSS
Signal and Positioning Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
Wei Zhou, Shegnfeng Gu, Maorong Ge and Jungang Wang
BeiDou Reliable Integer Ambiguity Resolution in the
Presence of Time-Correlated Obversion Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
Zeyu Xin, Liang Li, Chun Jia, Hui Li and Lin Zhao
An Optimal Satellite Selection Model of Global Navigation
Satellite System Based on Genetic Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
Shuyue Zhu
BDS Cycle Slips Detection and Repair Based on
Compressive Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
Dengao Li, Zhiying Ma, Wenjing Li, Jumin Zhao and Zheng Wei
Research on the Influence of Assigning Weight for BDS Satellites of
Different Orbits on Baseline Processing and Software Designing . . . . . . 609
Yihao Tang, Jinsheng Zhang and Chenggang Li
GNSS-Based Attitude Determination via Schmidt Kalman Filter . . . . . . 621
Yu Li, Huabo Wei, Min Wu, Huizhu Zhu and Jun Ye
Realization of Embedded RTK System and Performance
Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
Qingjiang Wang, Qinan Zhi, Pengfei Liu and Guoju Ma
A Precise Regional Ionospheric Model Was Established
Based on GNSS Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
Liang Chen and Hailin Guo
The Algorithm Research of BDS/GPS Network RTK
Real-Time Positioning with Centimeter Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661
Tianming Ma, Chunmei Zhao and Huizhong Zhu
A Tightly Combined GPS/Galileo Model for Long Baseline
RTK Positioning with Partial Ambiguity Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673
Qing Zhao, Chengfa Gao, Shuguo Pan, Ruicheng Zhang and Liwei Liu
xxii Contents

A Method of Medium/Long Baseline Ambiguity Resolution

Based on BDS Triple-Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689
Dengao Li, Meng Shi, Wenjing Li, Jumin Zhao and Junbing Cheng
Real-Time Detection and Repair of Cycle-Slip Based on Pseudo-range
Phase Combinations for Un-differenced GNSS Triple-Frequency
Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701
Lingdong Meng, Junping Chen, Jiexian Wang and Yize Zhang
Analysis of GPS Time Series Based on Spatio-temporal
Filtering in Antarctic Peninsula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717
Wenhao Li, Fei Li, Shengkai Zhang, Jintao Lei and Qingchuan Zhang
Wide-Lane Ambiguity Fixing Method Based on BDS
Triple Frequency Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727
Jianjian Jin, Chengfa Gao and Bo Chen

Part IV Policies and Regulations, Standards

and Intellectual Properties
Beidou+ Industry Convergence Development and
Intellectual Property Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741
Yu Jinping, Wang Yuxuan and Yang Xianna
Research on the Application of BeiDou High Precision
Positioning Intellectual Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755
Zhengfan Liu, Xueyong Xu, Ye Zhou, Jinchen Wang, Yu Xia
and Yingying Zhang
Conception About Carrying Out Standardization of X-Ray
Pulsar Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 765
Wei Jin, Ying Liu, Zhiheng Zhang, Xiaoxi Jin, Qiong Liu
and Xiaochen Jin
China’s Satellite Navigation Policy: Status Quo,
Problems and Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775
Wenbo Chen and Yuanyuan Jiang
On the Trademark Pledge for Beidou Satellite Navigation
Industrialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791
Huan Yan
Study on the Development Strategy of Legal System of
China’s Satellite Navigation System Based on
AHP-SWOT Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 801
Yingjie Du
 Part I
Satellite Navigation Signal and
Anti-jamming Technologies
A New Technique for Improving
the Anti-jamming Performance
of Vector Tracking Loop

Ruihua Zhang, Renbiao Wu and Qiongqiong Jia

Abstract The GNSS is vulnerable so that it often faces the risk of jamming, and
blanket jamming is one of the interference. Power inversion algorithm is a com-
monly method used to solve this problem, however, the receiver will lose lock
when GNSS satellites are close to RFI sources. To improve the receiver’s
anti-jamming performance in this harsh scene, a method of vector tracking loop
(VTL) based on despread-respread (DR) algorithm is present. Firstly, this paper
suppress oppressive interference. Secondly, local reference signal is reconstructed
according to predicted tracking loop parameters. Thirdly, beamforming algorithm is
present. Theoretical analysis and simulation experiments verify that the VTL based
on DR algorithm can reduce phase discriminator output errors, improve receiver’s
positioning performance, and has superior anti-jamming performance in harsh
scene. The method proposed in this paper can be applied to arbitrary array without
prior information of satellites’ directions and is not sensitive to the error of array.
Copared to VTL based on EIG, VTL based on DR algorithm has lower complexity.

Keywords Vector tracking loop
Anti-jamming
Despread-respread algorithm

Beamforming algorithm

1 Introduction

Satellite navigation is widely used in civil and military fields. The Global
Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) signals are vulnerable to interference, because
their powers are weak on the earth’s surface. For example, the signal powers of L1
frequency signals are −160 dBw. Therefore, satellite navigation receivers are vul-
nerable to various interference, and blanket jamming is a kind of the common

R. Zhang (&)
R. Wu
Q. Jia

Tianjin Key Lab for Advanced Signal Processing, Civil Aviation
University of China, Tianjin, China
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018 3

J. Sun et al. (eds.), China Satellite Navigation Conference (CSNC) 2018
Proceedings, Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering 498,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0014-1_1
4 R. Zhang et al.

jamming. It’s an important guarantee for the successful application of satellite

navigation to take research on anti-jamming technology effectively [1].
Vector tracking loop (VTL) algorithm, as a new tracking technology of GNSS in
recent years, combines the navigation filter with tracking loop in the Kalman filter
and has advantage of tracking attenuated signal in the scene of signal interruption.
Therefore, VTL has a certain of anti-jamming ability compared with the traditional
scalar receiver. Up to now, the anti-jamming technology of vector receiver is
concerned and studied by many scholars of the world [2]. However, VTL will lose
efficacy when the vector receiver is in the attenuation environment for a long time.
Therefore, the combination of array signal processing technique and VTL can
improve the anti-jamming performance of vector tracking loop. At present, the
research of anti-jamming based on VTL is divided into interference detection
technique and interference suppression technique [3]. Harbin Engineering
University used predicted signal from vector tracking loop as reference signal in
cross-SCORE algorithm to suppress interference. Xu Mingshan et al. combined
blind beamforming algorithm with VTL to improve robustness of VTL [4, 5]. DLR
firstly proposed VTL Based on EIG, but this method needs more correlators and has
more complexity [6–10].
In order to improve the anti-jamming performance of VTL in harsh scene. On
the basis of the existing VTL based on EIG, this paper combines despread-respread
(DR) algorithm [11] with VTL to propose a kind of VTL based on DR. Firstly, the
power inversion algorithm is used to suppress oppressive jamming. Secondly, the
local reference signal is reconstructed. Finally, beamforming algorithm based on
DR is present. This method has lower complexity and is not sensitive to the array
error. It can suppress oppressive jamming and provide gain to satellite signals
without knowing the direction of jamming and satellite signals. The contents of this
paper are as follows: the second section introduces the data model, the third section
introduces the VTL based on DR scheme, the fourth section gives the simulation
results and analysis, and the fifth section is a summary of this paper.

2 Data Model

Jamming signals are usually considered as zero-mean additive white Gaussian

noises (AWGN) with high power. G satellite signals and Q jamming signals are
incident on an uniform linear array. The satellite signals’ arrival angles are
respectively hg ðg ¼ 1; 2. . .; GÞ, and jamming signals’ arrival angles are respectively
hq ðq ¼ 1; 2. . .; QÞ. The received signals can be written as:

xðtÞ ¼ xs ðtÞ þ xj ðtÞ þ eðtÞ

X
G   X
Q
  ð1Þ
¼ a hg s g ð t Þ þ a hq j q ð t Þ þ e ð t Þ
g¼1 q¼1
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Fig. 30.—A piece of pork heavily
infected with pork measles
(Cysticercus cellulosæ), natural
size. (Stiles, Report U.S.A.
Bureau of Agriculture, 1901.)
 Fig. 31.—An isolated pork-measle bladder-
worm (Cysticercus cellulosæ), with extended
head, greatly enlarged. (Stiles, Report U.S.A.
Bureau of Agriculture, 1901.)

Causation. The cause of cysticercus disease in the pig may be

summed up in one phrase—viz., ingestion of eggs or embryos of
Tænia solium.
Young animals alone seem to contract the disease. After the age of
eight to ten months they appear almost entirely proof against it.
It is very rare in animals reared in confinement, but is relatively
common in those roaming at liberty; because they are much more
likely to discover human excrement and the embryos of tænia. The
eggs having been swallowed, the six-hooked embryos are set at
liberty in the intestine, perforate the tissues, enter the vessels, and
are carried by the blood into all parts of the body. Those alone
develop well which reach the interstitial and intermuscular
connective tissue. The others in the viscera usually disappear. Their
presence in the depths of the muscles produces slight general
disturbance and signs of local irritation, due to the development of
the cyst itself. At the end of a month the little vesicle is large enough
to be visible to the naked eye; in forty to forty-five days it is as large
as a mustard seed, and in two months as a grain of barley. Its
commonest seats are the abdominal muscles, muscular portions of
the diaphragm, the psoas, tongue, heart, the muscles of mastication,
intercostal and cervical muscles, the adductors of the hind legs, and
the pectorals.
Symptoms. The symptoms of invasion are so
little marked as usually to pass undetected.
Occasionally, when large quantities have been
ingested, signs of enteritis may occur, but these
are generally ascribed to some entirely different
cause. In some cases there is difficulty in moving,
and the grunt may be altered.
Certain authors declare that the thorax is
depressed between the front limbs, but this
symptom is of no particular value, and is also
common to osseous cachexia and rachitis.
Paralysis of the tongue and of the lower jaw is of
greater importance. In exceptional cases, where
the cysticerci are very numerous and penetrate
the brain, signs of encephalitis, vertigo, and
turning sickness (gid, sturdy) may be produced.
These signs, however, disappear, and the
cysticerci undergo atrophy. Interference with
movement may give rise to suspicion when the
toes of the fore and hind limbs are dragged along
the ground, and thus become worn. This
peculiarity is due to the presence of cysts in the Fig. 32.—Several
muscles of the limbs, but it occurs in an almost portions of an
identical form in osseous cachexia. adult pork-
One symptom alone is pathognomonic, and it measle
appears only at a very late stage—viz., the tapeworm
presence of cysts under the thin mucous (Tænia solium),
natural size.
membranes which are accessible to examination, (Stiles, Report
such as those of the tongue and eye. U.S.A. Bureau of
Visual examination then reveals beneath these Agriculture,
mucous membranes the presence of little 1901.)
greyish-white, semi-transparent grains the size of

Fig. 33.—Large (a) and small (b) hooks of pork-measle tapeworm

(Tænia solium). × 280. (After Leuckart.)

a grain of barley, or even larger. Unfortunately, in an animal so

difficult to handle as the pig, this visual examination is decidedly
troublesome, and is usually replaced by palpation. In many instances
the disease does not attract attention during the patient’s life, and is
only discovered on slaughter in consequence of the lesions by which
it is characterised.
Diagnosis. As the characteristic lesions of cysticercus disease are
to be found in the depths of the muscular and connective tissues, and
as the external symptoms may be regarded as of doubtful
significance, the diagnosis can only be confirmed during life by
manual examination of the tongue. This examination of the tongue
has been practised since the earliest times. Aristophanes even speaks
of it, and in the Middle Ages it was performed under sworn
guarantees. The regulations concerning the inspection of meat have
finally led to the suppression of this calling.
In this method of examining the tongue, the operator commences
by throwing the animal on its side, usually on the right side, and
holding it in this position by placing his left knee on its neck. He then
 Fig. 34.—Mature sexual segments of pork-measle tapeworm
(Tænia solium), showing the divided ovary on the pore side. cp,
Cirrus pouch; gp, genital pore; n, nerve; ov, ovary; t, testicles; tc,
transverse canal; ut, uterus; v, vagina; vc, ventral canal; vd, vas
deferens; vg, vitellogene gland. × 10. (After Leuckart.)

passes a thick stick between the jaws and behind the tusks, opens the
mouth obliquely, raising the upper jaw by manipulating the stick.
Finally he fixes one end of this last by placing his foot upon it, and
holds the other extremity by slipping it under his left arm. In this
position he is able to grasp the free end of the tongue and by digital
palpation to examine the tongue itself, the gums, the free portions of
the frænum linguæ, etc.
 Fig. 35.—Gravid segment of pork-measle tapeworm (Tænia solium),
showing the lateral branches of the uterus enlarged. (Stiles, Report U.S.A.
Bureau of Agriculture, 1901.)

If he discovers cysts, the diagnosis is confirmed, but failure to do

so by no means disposes of the possibility of infection. Railliet
declares that about one animal in four or five shows no cysts beneath
the tongue, and, moreover, fraud is possible in this connection, it
being quite possible to prick the little cysts with a needle so that the
liquid contents escape, and examination gives no positive result. For
these reasons intra-vitam examination alone is now discounted, and
the chief reliance is placed on post-mortem search.
Prognosis. The prognosis is very grave, not on account of danger
to the lives of the infected, but because infected meat may be offered
for human consumption. Should such meat, in an insufficiently
cooked condition, be eaten by man, its ingestion is followed by the
development of Tænia solium. If cooking were always perfect it
would destroy the cysticerci, but the uncertainty in this respect
should prevent such meat being consumed. The cysticerci are killed
at a temperature of 125° to 130° Fahr.

Fig. 36.—Eggs of pork-measle tapeworm (Tænia solium): a, with

primitive vitelline membrane; b, without primitive vitelline
membrane, but with striated embryophore. × 450. (After Leuckart.)

Lesions. The lesions are represented by cysts alone—i.e., by semi-

transparent bladders, each of which contains a scolex or head armed
with four suckers and a double crown of hooks. The little bladders
are most commonly found in the muscles, lodged in the
interfascicular tissue, which they slightly irritate.
The number present varies extremely, depending on the intensity
of infestation and the number of eggs swallowed. Whilst in some
cases difficult to discover, in others they are so numerous that the
tissues appear strewn with them.
They are commonest in the muscles of the tongue, neck, and
shoulders, in the intercostal and psoas muscles, and in those of the
quarter.
The viscera—viz., the liver, kidneys, heart, lungs, etc.—are less
commonly infested, and in these organs the cysts degenerate very
rapidly. In animals which have been infested for a long time, the
cysts may even have undergone caseo-calcareous degeneration, the
liquid being absorbed and the lesions presenting the appearance of
little oblong firm nodules.
 On cutting through masses of muscle the
vesicles protrude from between the bundles.
In young animals, infestation with
cysticerci causes wasting and ill-health;
subsequently the patients improve in
appearance, later on fatten, and gain
marketable condition.
Of the carcases examined in Prussian
slaughter-houses between 1876–82, one in
every 305 was found infested; between
1885–93, one in every 537.
Treatment. There is no curative
treatment. Only preventive measures are of
value. These are confined to rendering it
impossible for animals to ingest eggs of the
Tænia solium.
Cysticercus disease is rare in the north,
centre, and east of France, and in districts
where animals are reared in confinement. It
is commoner where pigs are at liberty, such
as Limousin, Auvergne, and Perigord. It is
frequent in North Germany, where the Fig. 37.—Half of hog,
custom of eating half-cooked meat showing the portions
contributes to the propagation of Tænia most likely to
solium. It is also frequent it Italy. become infested with
pork measles. (After
Ostertag.)
 Fig. 38.—Cysticercus cellulosæ in pork. c,
Cysts; v, fibrous tissue capsule which forms
around the cyst.

BEEF MEASLES.

Causation. The disease of beef measles is due to the penetration

into the connective and muscular tissues of embryos of the Tænia
saginata, or unarmed tænia of man.
This disease, unlike that of the pig, has only been recognised
within comparatively recent times, and only after Weisse’s
experiments (St. Petersburg, 1841) on feeding with raw flesh was
attention drawn to it, although as early as 1782 the Tænia saginata
had been described by Goëze.
Measles in the ox is rarely seen in France, but is common in North
and East Africa. Alix has found it in Tunis, Dupuys and Monod in
Senegal, and it is common in the south of Algeria. The disease is due
simply to oxen swallowing eggs or embryos of the unarmed tænia, a
fact which explains the frequency of the disease in places where the
inhabitants are of nomad habits, and consequently disregard the
most elementary rules of public and general hygiene.

Fig. 39.—Anatomy of the Cysticercus cellulosæ (after Robin). A,

Cyst; B, scolex with hooks; C, hooks; D, magnified fragment of
cyst.

Furthermore, cattle in the Sahara, in Senegal and in the Indies,

have a very marked habit of eating ordure, and as no attempts are
made to prevent it, the risk to these animals is greatly increased.
As in the pig, the embryos which reach the stomach and intestine
penetrate into the circulatory system, and are thereby distributed
throughout the entire organism.
 The development
of the cysticercus is
complete in forty
days, and if
swallowed by man in
infected meat after
this period it again
gives rise to the
Tænia saginata.
The age of the
animals seems of
less importance than
in the case of the pig,
for Ostertag and
Morot have seen
cases of beef measles
in animals of ten
years old.
Symptoms. The
symptoms are still
less marked than in
Fig. 40.—Section of a beef tongue heavily the pig, and in
infested with beef measles, natural size ordinary cases of
(Stiles, Annual Report U.S.A. Bureau of infection always
Agriculture, 1901). escape observation.
Stiles, however, gives
the following
account of a case experimentally infected:—
 Fig. 41.—Several portions of an adult beef-measle tapeworm (Tænia saginata)
from man, showing the head on the anterior end and the gradual increase in size of
the segments, natural size. (Stiles, Annual Report U.S.A. Bureau of Agriculture,
1901.)

“Symptoms. Four days after feeding segments of T. saginata to a

healthy three-months-old calf, the patient showed a higher
temperature (the normal temperature was 39·2° C.). The calf ate but
little on that day, showed an accelerated pulse, swollen belly, staring
coat, and upon pressure on the sides showed signs of pain. The next
day the animal was more lively, ate a little, and for nine days later did
not show any special symptoms except pain on pressure of the
abdominal walls, and a slight fever. Nine days after the infection the
temperature was 40·7° C., pulse 86, respiration 22; the calf laid
down most of the time, lost its appetite almost entirely, and groaned
considerably. When driven it showed a stiff gait and evident pain in
the side. The fever increased gradually, and with it the feebleness
and low-spiritedness of the calf, which now retained a recumbent
position most of the time, being scarcely able to rise without aid, and
eating only mash with ground corn. Diarrhœa commenced, the
temperature fell gradually, and on the twenty-third day the animal
died. The temperature had fallen to 38·2° C. During the last few days
the calf was unable to rise; in fact, it could scarcely raise its head to
lick the mash placed before it. Pulse was reduced by ten beats. On the
last day the heart-beats were very much slower, yet firm, and could
be plainly felt. Several days before death the breathing was laboured,
and on the last day there was extreme dyspnœa.”
Diagnosis. In forming a diagnosis we meet with the same
difficulty as in the case of the pig. It is always easy to examine the
 tongue; but when visible
lesions are absent diagnosis
in the case of the ox remains
doubtful and problematical
even more than in the pig.
In the carcase, diagnosis
is much easier. The cysts are
sought for, as in the pig, by
making sections of muscle,
those usually selected being
the pterygoid, cervical,
cardiac, and psoas muscles,
and those of the quarters.
Prognosis. The
prognosis is grave, not
indeed for the infected
animals, which seem little
injured by the parasite, but
for human beings, who run
the risk of contracting
Tænia inermis by eating
Fig. 42.—Apex, dorsal, and lateral insufficiently-cooked meat.
views of the head of beef-measle A temperature of 115° to
tapeworm (Tænia saginata), showing 120° Fahr. destroys the
a depression in the centre of the apex. cysticerci, but in roast meats
× 17. (Stiles, Report U.S.A. Bureau of the central temperature of
Agriculture, 1901.) the mass always remains
below this figure.
Salting for fifteen to
twenty days destroys the vitality of the parasite.
Lesions. The lesions are confined to the presence of the cyst and
of two little zones of chronic inflammation immediately surrounding
it. Unless heavily infested the subjects fatten just as well as others.
The vesicles are semi-transparent, ³⁄₁₆ inch to ¼ inch in length,
slightly ovoid in form, and contain a tænia head with four suckers,
but without hooks.
 In seven to eight months the cysts undergo degeneration, the
liquid is absorbed, and calcium salts are deposited throughout the
mass. The lesions which remain have, in the ox, the appearance of
interstitial disseminated tuberculosis.
There is no curative treatment. The infested animal recovers
spontaneously with the lapse of time, for the cysticerci undergo
degenerative processes, but the flesh of such animals is of little
commercial value.
From a preventive standpoint we can only hope to improve
matters by a gradual and progressive change in social and public
hygienic conditions.
 Fig. 43.—Sexually mature segment of beef-measle tapeworm (Tænia
saginata). c.p., Cirrus pouch with cirrhus; d.c., dorsal canal; g.p., genital
pore; n., lateral longitudinal nerves; ov., ovary; sg., shell gland; t.,
testicles; ut., median uterine stem, enlarged (in part after Leuckart); v.,
vagina; v.c., ventral canal, connected by transverse canal; tc., vd., vas
deferens; vg., vitellogene gland.

When the life of the nomad shall have been entirely replaced by
that of the highly-civilised European and private hygienic
precautions have rendered it impossible for animals to obtain access
to segments or eggs of the Tænia saginata, beef measles will
disappear.
At present, in the countries where the disease is common, one
experiences a feeling of astonishment that it is not far more frequent;
for experiment has shown that a person infected with one unarmed
tapeworm expels with the fæces an average of four hundred
proglottides per month, each proglottis or segment of the worm
containing about 30,000 eggs, each of which is capable of developing
into a tapeworm.
Beef measles is rather common in Germany, but rare in France,
Switzerland, and Italy.

TRICHINIASIS—TRICHINOSIS.

Trichinosis is a disease caused by the entrance into the body of the

Trichina spiralis. This parasite is swallowed in the larval form, and
undergoes sexual changes in the intestine, at first producing
intestinal trichinosis, which represents the first phase in the
development of the disease.
The trichinæ breed rapidly. The embryos penetrate into or are
directly deposited in the blood-vessels, which convey them to all
parts of the body, thus setting up the second phase of the disease,
known as muscular trichinosis.
Trichinosis as a disease has long been
recognised. Peacock in 1828 and J. Hilton
in 1832 mentioned the existence of the
cysts of trichinæ; Owen in 1835 gave the
name of Trichina spiralis to the parasites
contained in the cysts. Trichinosis being
common in Germany at that time, Virchow
and Leuckart undertook its investigation,
but mistook other nematodes of the
intestine for the Trichina spiralis. In 1847
Leydy recognised that trichinosis occurred
in American pigs.
In 1860 Zenker found muscular and
intestinal trichinosis on post-mortem
examination of a girl who had been
suspected of suffering from typhoid fever,
and a carefully conducted inquiry revealed
the fact that this girl had some time
previously eaten a quantity of raw ham.
Virchow and Leuckart returned to their
 Fig. 44.—Gravid investigations, and the life history of the
segment of beef-measle parasite soon became definitely known.
tapeworm (Tænia Causation. Trichinosis is capable of
saginata), showing attacking all mammifers without
lateral branches of the exception, from a man to a mouse; and
uterus, enlarged. most animals which can be made the
(Stiles, Annual Report subjects of experiment contract the disease
U.S.A. Bureau of in varying degrees.
Agriculture, 1901.) The intestinal form is seen in birds, but

Fig. 45.—Egg of beef-measle tapeworm (Tænia saginata), with thick

egg-shell (embryophore), containing the six-hooked embryo
(oncosphere), enlarged. (After Leuckart.)

the muscles do not become infested by the embryos.

Cold-blooded animals are proof against the disease.
After the ingestion of meat containing cysts of the parasite, the
processes of gastric and intestinal digestion set the larvæ at liberty.
These larvæ become sexual at the end of four to five days, and the
females, which are usually twice as numerous as the males, begin
laying eggs from the sixth day, continuing for a month to six weeks.
Each female lays approximately from 10,000 to 15,000 eggs. The
embryos perforate the intestinal walls,
pass into the circulation, and are hurried
into all parts of the system. This period of
infestation constitutes the first phase of
the disease.
Askanazy, in 1896, suggested that it was
not the embryos which perforated the
intestinal walls and thus reached the
blood-vessels, but the fertilised female
trichinæ themselves, which entered the
terminal chyle vessels and laid their eggs
directly within them.
This observation is of great interest, for
it contradicts the view held by Leuckart
and proves that treatment is useless even
in the first phase.
The males are about ¹⁄₁₆ inch in length,
the females ⅛ inch to ⁵⁄₃₂ inch, and are
ovoviviparous.
Symptoms. The symptoms lack
precise character, even when the disease is
known to be developing, and moreover Fig. 46.—Male trichina
they have only been carefully observed in from the intestine.
experimental cases. As soon as the laying (Colin.)
period begins, signs of intestinal
disturbance may be observed, possibly due to embryos perforating
the intestinal walls (if we accept Leuckart’s view), or, according to
Askanazy, to adult females penetrating the chyle vessels and
disturbing intestinal absorption.
These symptoms are only appreciable in cases of “massive”
infestation. If slight, the disturbance passes unperceived. In severe
cases the symptoms consist of diarrhœa, loss of appetite, grinding of
the teeth, abdominal pain in the form of dull colic, and sometimes
irritation of the peritoneum. The embryos carried by the circulation
then escape into the tissues and, like the cysticerci, become encysted,
preferably in the muscles, in the interfascicular connective tissue
towards the ends of the bundles. Each (asexual) parasite plays the
part of a foreign body, causing infiltration of serum and exudation of
leucocytes in its neighbourhood, and soon becoming encysted in the
interior of a little ovoid space surrounded by a fibro-fatty wall. Fat
granules accumulate at each end of the cyst.

Fig. 47.—Free larval trichina. (Colin.)

 Fig. 48.—Trichinæ
encysted in the muscular
tissue. (Colin.)