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Governance and Citizenship in Asia
Xiaoxin Du
Role Differentiation
in Chinese Higher
Education
Tensions between Political Socialization
and Academic Autonomy
Governance and Citizenship in Asia
Series Editors
Kerry J. Kennedy, The Education University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
Sonny Shiu Hing Lo, School of Professional and Continuing Education,
The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
Aims and Scope
This series explores how citizenship is shaped by social, political, cultural and
historical contexts and how it may be moulded to serve the nation state in the age
of globalization. In these publications we see how governance relates to all aspects
of civic life, including politics, public policy, administration, civil society and the
economy, as well as the core values of society.
Titles cover themes including public trust and trust building, the role of civil society,
citizens’ rights and obligations, citizenship identities including those related to
gender, class and ethnicities. Authors explore how young people are shaped by
democratic and traditional value systems and the importance of citizenship chal-
lenges in the Asia Pacific region.
Research collaborations in this interdisciplinary series probe questions such as: What
are the links between ‘good governance’ and new forms of citizenship? What is the
role of citizenship education as a tool in state formation and the development of
active citizenship cultures? How do we explain the distinctive features of gover-
nance and citizenship in Asian societies?
Through these publications we see that citizenship is an integral part of ‘good
governance’ and that such governance ultimately enriches citizenship. Scholarly
investigation and academic dialogue in this series describe the interdependence and
mutuality of governance and citizenship.
Role Differentiation in
Chinese Higher Education
Tensions between Political Socialization and
Academic Autonomy
Xiaoxin Du
Fudan Development Institute
Fudan University
Shanghai, China
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721,
Singapore
Foreword
This book opens up profound insights into the sensitive theme of the tension
between political socialization and academic freedom in the case of an influential
Chinese university located in a major east coast metropolis of China. The book
began its life as a doctoral thesis carried out at the University of Hong Kong, but it
has now been re-crafted into a highly readable scholarly text that elucidates and
elaborates on the concept of role differentiation between political indoctrination and
open-ended critical academic inquiry. If the Western mind finds it difficult to grasp
how these opposite roles can coexist harmoniously, that may reflect a form of logic
that assumes the need for a synthesis in the dialectical move between thesis and
antithesis. The strength of classical Chinese epistemology, by contrast, is the ability
to hold opposites permanently in tension, in a dialectic that does not require a
synthesis. Thus, Confucianism and Daoism, with their opposite philosophical ori-
entations, have provided a kind of balance and flexibility in China’s development
over the country’s long history. And author Du Xiaoxin demonstrates in this book
how the strategy of role differentiation has served to balance the dual tasks of
political socialization and academic inquiry in such a way that they are able to
coexist at the same time without diametrical opposition.
Her research methods make possible a rich and fine-grained picture of a leading
Chinese university. Readers are able to hear the voices of students, through inter-
views as well as a survey that received nearly 800 responses. Interviews with faculty
members, both those teaching academic subjects and those responsible for political
education, also with student counsellors, and senior leaders, expose the reader to a
range of voices expressing diverse and sometimes opposite viewpoints. In her
preface, she has used the lively image of the parade of masks in The Phantom of
the Opera to give a vivid depiction of the dance that keeps everyone moving! She
also draws on substantive documentary, historical and archival sources to fill out her
depiction of this remarkable institution. The chapter on the university’s 115-year
history is particularly significant. It shows the intense efforts by early leaders to mold
v
vi Foreword
a modern university that would carry forward China’s own rich traditions of higher
education while remaining open to influences that came from France; from the
United States, especially Yale, where a long-serving early president had graduated;
and later from the Soviet Union. At certain periods, its students and faculty were
active in a range of democratic movements and also in some of the radical action of
the Cultural Revolution period.
The issue of university autonomy and how it should be defined in a Chinese
context is central to the analysis. Du Xiaoxin discusses the term used in Pan Suyan’s
well-known book on another illustrious Chinese university—semi-independence.
She concludes that it fit JU fairly well, even though JU did not have quite the same
degree of influence. The term regulated autonomy used by Yang Rui, another well-
known scholar of Chinese higher education, is also discussed as a way of under-
standing JU’s standing. This term is used effectively throughout the book in the
discussion of the activity patterns of faculty and students. In reflecting on the
application of the term autonomy to universities in a Chinese context, I have noted
that two distinctive Chinese terms are used. One is zizhi (自治) or self-rule, which is
close to the English term and its Greek roots. The other is zizhu (自主), which might
be translated as self-mastery. This term may be more appropriate in depicting the
standing of Chinese universities at the current time. Du Xiaoxin described how the
JU president has spoken out on academic freedom and encouraged faculty to foster
critical thinking, thus demonstrating a spirit of independent thought which is essen-
tial to nurturing academic excellence. At the same time, the degree of legal protec-
tion the university enjoys through its charter is limited under Communist Party
supervision. Because of the strength of China’s own academic tradition and the
respect in which the scholar has been held throughout the country’s long history, the
forms of indoctrination that are part of political socialization within the “Presidential
responsibility system under the leadership of the Communist Party Committee” do
not necessarily undermine the academic quality of the institution.
Chapters 6 and 7 give considerable detail on all the ways academic faculty
members diversify the contents of the courses they teach and open up space for
students to explore a wide range of perspectives on what they read and study.
Students, for their part, are involved in a plethora of activities outside of their classes
as well. These include musical performances; a range of social service opportunities,
both under Communist Party guidance and in affiliation with various NGOs; and all
kinds of athletic events. Organizations such as the Communist Youth League
arrange lectures, salons, and debates to attract student interest, rather than focusing
only on the political dimension. Internationalization is another way in which the
campus is opened up to diverse perspectives with as many as 50 formal teaching staff
from 20 countries giving courses, and a large number of international students on
campus. Also, many local students and faculty are able to enjoy study-abroad
experiences and so are quite cosmopolitan in their outlook and their exposure to
global trends.
Foreword vii
In conclusion, let me say that this book has many strengths. It is based on
thorough and meticulous research combining both qualitative and quantitative
elements. It is forthright and open in dealing with issues that are often seen as highly
sensitive and presents a genuine and nuanced portrait of a leading Chinese univer-
sity. There is much here that will challenge the misguided stereotypes of Chinese
universities that have arisen in some circles within the global community.
This book explains the tension between the state’s demand for political socialization
as a restriction on university autonomy and the university’s promotion of academic
development through promoting academic freedom and fostering critical thinkers in
Chinese higher education, using Jour University (JU) in PRC, as a case study. The
research problem focuses on the dynamics and complexity of the interplay among
the state, university, faculty, staff, and students in the process of socialization
through political education and academic activities. Theories on political socializa-
tion and higher education were used to guide this study. As universities’ sociopolit-
ical task of imbuing students with a certain type of ideology coexists with their role
of promoting university autonomy to fulfill their conventional task of knowledge
creation through academic freedom for research and teaching, examining China’s
higher education system can provide important insights as different players’ inter-
action constitutes a dynamic picture of role differentiation as a strategy to cope with
a politically restricted autonomy.
In 2012, after 4 years of being a student counselor in a Chinese university and
finishing my master’s degree, I started my Ph.D. program in the University of Hong
Kong. As a student, who used to major in a very special discipline in China—
ideological and political socialization, I always wondered what exactly this disci-
pline serves for. In addition, I did have a very rough idea of telling the story of my
university education in an academic way. Starting to live a life in Hong Kong
strengthened my impulse in venting it all out, since this city, the Ph.D. program,
and the people I met have all given me a comparative perspective to look back on
these experiences.
Through the progress of my Ph.D. study, I found a research gap as little research
has been done on the detailed interaction among different players in the university
around how they deal with the political task given by the state. After a thorough
review of the literature about political socialization and Chinese higher education, I
started my fieldwork to collect data in 2014 with a research design focused on a
single case university, where questionnaires were collected from 709 participants;
ix
x Preface
This is exactly what I pictured as a role split strategy in Chinese higher education,
and instead of only one mask in the masquerade for each dancer, the players have
several masks like face-changing techniques in traditional Sichuan opera in China.
Sometimes this conceptualization provided me an explanation that drew upon things
other than the higher education systems.
I am grateful that a lot of people’s contributions finally made the publication of
this book possible. My deepest gratitude goes, undoubtedly, to my supervisor,
Professor Wing-wah Law, of the Faculty of Education, the University of Hong
Kong, for always providing careful instruction on academic issues, encouraging
me to reach various achievements, and always being an example of how to be a
mentor by guiding me to investigate things and to demonstrate integrity. I would also
give my thanks to all the participants from the case university who facilitated my
data collection, including all the teachers, students, and alumni whose names I
cannot mention due to ethical considerations. I would also thank all the editors,
reviewers, and examiners of this study for their valuable and constructive sugges-
tions. My special thanks go to Professor Ruth Hayhoe from the Department of
Leadership, Higher and Adult Education (LHAE), O.I.S.E., University of Toronto,
for accepting my invitation to write the foreword of this book. Lastly, I want to
express my gratitude to all my family members who supported me unconditionally in
the writing process of this book. I would like to dedicate this book to my little girl,
Hana, as an encouragement to always be herself in front of me.
Du, X. (2018). Role split phenomenon of academic staff in Chinese higher
education: a case study of Fudan University. Higher Education, 75(6), 997-1013.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-017-0180-7.
xiii
xiv Contents
The political control on Chinese higher education had long been an impression for a
lot of people working in the field of higher education. Some might think universities
in China lack university autonomy, academic freedom, and critical thinking, as they
are controlled politically by the party-state in various ways; for example, 10% of
students’ total credits must come from political education courses, academic staff
need to be cautious about what they say, and discussing certain historical events in
class is taboo. However, these and other mechanisms of political control might not
necessarily eliminate all efforts at seeking for university autonomy and academic
freedom. The state, in an effort to improve the global reputation of Chinese higher
education, has encouraged Chinese universities to be innovative, and to promote the
critical thinking required of world-class universities. However, this may largely
counter the effectiveness of the political indoctrination the CPC (Communist Party
of China) wishes to implement in China’s higher education system. This book
focused the research problem on the dynamics and complexity of the interplay
among the state, university, faculty, staff, and students in the process of socialization
through political education and academic affairs. Theories on political socialization
and higher education will be used to guide this study.
Extant theoretical studies on political socialization (Dawson and Prewitt 1969;
Jennings 2007; Niemi and Sobieszek 1977; Torney-Purta 2004)—including the
three major approaches in political socialization study (partisanship (Jennings and
Markus 1984), moral development (Wilson 1981), and political system theory
(Easton and Hess 1961a)—explain political socialization in a Western context and
focus on how students become social members of a given polity by gradually
becoming attached to a political party, learning morality, and providing support to
the political system. A considerable number of studies have examined the role of
such different agents as family, media, peer groups, and educational institutions in
one’s ongoing political socialization (Dawson and Prewitt 1969; Easton and Hess
1961b; Giddens 1993; Dowse and Hughes 1971); however, many of these studies
have focused on childhood as an important age period, and have ignored higher
education’s influence.
addition, it aims to become world-class universities, with students from all over
China and a considerable number of international students.
Students in the selected university are comparatively active in student activities,
especially political ones. The students in the selected university participated actively
in the May Fourth Movement and the development of CPC (Document 50) (Hayhoe
1987; Chen 2000; Xiao 2005). During the reeducation of university students that
followed the 1989 Tiananmen Square Incident, students from this university were
required to complete military training, which lasted for a long time (Rosen 1993;
Zhao 1998; Dreyer 2004), indicating that the state paid considerable attention to
students’ political socialization at this university in an effort to build trust between
students and the party, and to cultivate it among future generations of students
(Rosen 1992). Thus, compared to other universities, JU was a more appropriate
subject for this research, and as a case to focus on a holistic description and
explanation (particularistic, descriptive, and heuristic) (Merriam 1998) of the related
research questions.
A 3-month fieldwork period was conducted in JU beginning in March, 2014,
involving a pilot questionnaire and draft interview questions; the questions were
modified based on the results of the pilot survey. In November, 2014, a second round
of data collection, lasting 1 month, was conducted in JU; consistent follow-up
interviews were conducted through email and online instant messaging from 2015
to 2018. This case study does not intend to generalize its result statistically, but to
investigate the research problem so as to develop a deep understanding thereof.
Pseudonyms and codes were used in this study including the university name,
people’s names, and publication name.
Based on the analysis of the interplay of different players, this study suggests that
role differentiation is a strategy in Chinese higher education through which different
players with different specific roles form strategies to cope with tensions; and players
undertake complex interactions with each other while dealing with those tensions. In
such interactions, players take on different roles (with different expectations and
responsibilities), adopt different strategies, and exhibit different or even contrasting
behaviors on different occasions. These behaviors could range from obediently
observing the bottom lines and boundaries set by the state, particularly as regards
political affairs to challenging the state by attempting to expand the scope of
academic autonomy and freedom, even in areas it might deem politically sensitive.
This framework also facilitates our understanding of political socialization,
university autonomy, academic freedom, and especially players’ interactions in
Chinese higher education. It supplements the conventional understanding of educa-
tional institutions as agents of political socialization by looking into the interactions
within a specific educational institution. It explores additional mechanisms of
political socialization in higher education institutions by not focusing solely on
political education courses. It also supplements the extant literatures on political
socialization in China and the role of ideological and political education in making
obedient citizens by paying attention to possible disobedience by playing the role to
embrace political socialization and the complexity of political socialization imple-
mentation. This book highlights the tension between political control and pursuit of
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6 1 Introduction: Chinese Higher Education and Its Political Task
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Il n'y avait pas de fête qu'il ne célébrât, soit par une ode ou par
un récit en vers ampoulés qu'il déclamait aux passants d'une
manière ridiculement emphatique. Arrivait-il un personnage
important? Sa verve est en mouvement, et bientôt il lui présente les
fruits de sa muse. Du reste il n'était pas difficile, et se contentait du
moindre présent. Il était fort joyeux lorsqu'il obtenait de quoi
s'acheter quelques verres de genièvre. Nous ignorons quand est
mort cet original.
TROISIEME SECTION.
EPIGRAPHES.
PHILOSOPHIE ET SCIENCE.
EPIGRAPHES.
Moore.
POLITIQUE.
Invocation.
Traduction.
DEUXIEME PARTIE.
BIOGRAPHIES.
BLUET D'ARBERES.
PREMIERE SECTION.
BIOGRAPHIE.