Chapter

Fundamentals and
1 Functions
Day 1
Fundamentals
Basic Definitions
(i) Natural numbers:-
N= {1, 2, 3, 4, ………}
(ii) Integers:-
Denoted by I or Z. {……., -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ……..}
(a) Positive integers by 𝐼 + = 1, 2, 3, 4, … … . . = 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠.
(b) Negative integers by 𝐼 − = … … … , −4, −3, −2, −1,
(c) Non-negative integers: {0, 1, 2, 3, 4,……….}=whole numbers
(d) Non-positive integers: {…….., -3, -2, -1, 0}
(iii) Rational Numbers:-
All the numbers of the form p/q, where p and q are integers and 𝑞 ≠ 0 are called
rational numbers and their set is denoted by Q.
𝑝
𝑄 = 𝑞 such that 𝑝, 𝑞 ∈ 𝐼 and 𝑞 ≠ 0 and HCF of 𝑝, 𝑞 is 1.
(1) Every integer is a rational number as it could be written as
𝑝
𝑄=𝑞 where 𝑞 = 1
(2) All recurring decimals are rational numbers.
1
𝑄 = 3 = 0.3333 … …
(iv)Irrational Numbers:-
Those values which neither terminate nor could be expressed as recurring decimals
are irrational numbers. i.e. , it cannot be expressed as p/q form, and are denoted by 𝑄𝑐
(i.e., complement of Q).
1 −3 2 1
2, 1 + 2, , , , 3, 1 + 3, ± ,  … … … etc.
2 2 2 3
(v) Real Numbers:-
The set which contain both rational and irrational are called real and is denoted
by R.
𝑅 = 𝑄 ∪ 𝑄𝑐
5 3 7 1 1 1
∴ 𝑅 = … … . −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, … … . . , 6 , 4 , 9 , 3 , 7 , 5 , … … … . 2, 3, , … … .

Question Practice Online

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CLOSED AND OPEN INTERVALS
(i) Open-open interval:-
=𝑎<𝑥<𝑏
= 𝑥 ∈ 𝑎, 𝑏
= 1 < 𝑥 < 2 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 1, 2
Illustration
−2 < 2𝑥 − 1 < 2
Solution
= −1 < 2𝑥 < 3
1 3
= −2 < 𝑥 < 2
1 3
= 𝑥 ∈ −2,2
This solution can be graphed on a real line as;

(ii) Open –closed interval:-

𝑎 < 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏]
(iii) Closed-open interval:-
𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 < 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏)
𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏)
(iv) Closed-closed interval:-
𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑎, 𝑏
Illustration
Solve the following equations:
2𝑥−3 4𝑥
+9≥+ +3
4 3
Solution
2𝑥−3 4𝑥
⇒ − ≥ 3−9
4 3
3 2𝑥−3 −16𝑥
⇒ ≥ −6
12
−10𝑥−9
⇒ ≥ −6
12
⇒ −10𝑥 − 9 ≥ −72
⇒ −10𝑥 ≥ −63
“as we know the inequality sign changes, if multiplied by (-ve)”
∴ 10𝑥 ≤ 63
63
= 𝑥 ≤ 10
Hence, the solution set of the given in equation is (−∞, 63 10].

Modulus or Absolute Value Function

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 𝑥, 𝑥 ≥ 0
𝑦= 𝑥 =
−𝑥, 𝑥 < 0
Illustration
𝑥 =2
Solution
𝑥 = 2 ⇒ 𝑥 = ±2,
Which means, x is at a distance of 2 units from 0 which is certainly 2 and -2.
Illustration
𝑥 = −2
Solution
𝑥 = −2 ⇒ 𝑥 𝑕𝑎𝑠 𝑛𝑜 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
As |x| is always positive or zero it can never be negative.
∴ R. H. S > L. H. S
Illustration
𝑥 <2
Solution
𝑥 <2
It means that x is the number, which is at distance less than 2 from 0.
Illustration
𝑥 < −2
Solution
𝑥 < −2
Which shows no solution.
As L.H.S. is non-negative and RHS is negative or |x|<-2 does not possess any
solution.
Illustration
𝑥 > −2
Solution
𝑥 > −2
We knows here L.H.S. ≥ 0 and R.H.S < 0
⇒ L. H. S. > R. H. S.
i.e., above statement is true for all real x.
(as we know that non-negative number is always greater than negative.)
Illustration
𝑥 >2
Solution 𝑥 >2
It means that x is the number which is at distance greatest than 2 from 0.
𝑥 < −2 or 𝑥 > 2.
Generalised Results
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 (i):- For any real number x, we have
𝑥2 = 𝑥 2
(ii):- For any real number x, we have
𝑥2 = 𝑥
(iii):- If a > 0 then:
a 𝑥 2 ≤ 𝑎2 ⟺ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎 ⟺ −𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎
b 𝑥 2 < 𝑎2 ⟺ 𝑥 < 𝑎 ⟺ −𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑎
c 𝑥 2 ≥ 𝑎2 ⟺ 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎 ⟺ 𝑥 ≤ −𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎
d 𝑥 2 > 𝑎2 ⟺ 𝑥 > 𝑎 ⟺ 𝑥 < −𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 𝑎
e 𝑎2 ≤ 𝑥 2 ≤ 𝑏2 ⟺ 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 ⟺ 𝑥 ∈ −𝑏, −𝑎 ∪ 𝑎, 𝑏
f 𝑎2 < 𝑥 2 < 𝑏2 ⟺ 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏 ⟺ 𝑥 ∈ −𝑏, −𝑎 ∪ 𝑎. 𝑏

(iv):- If a < 0 then:

a 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎 ⇒ no solution.
b 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎 ⇒ all real numbers.

(v):- |x + y| = |x| + |y|

⟺ 𝑥 ≥ 0 and 𝑦 ≥ 0 or 𝑥 ≤ 0 and 𝑦 ≤ 0
⟺ 𝑥𝑦 ≥ 0.

(vi):-|𝑥 − 𝑦| = |𝑥| − |𝑦|

⟺ 𝑥 ≥ 0, 𝑦 ≥ 0 and 𝑥 ≥ 𝑦 or 𝑥 ≤ 0, 𝑦 ≤ 0 and 𝑥 ≥ 𝑦 .

(vii):- 𝑥 ± 𝑦 ≤ 𝑥 + 𝑦
(viii):- 𝑥 ± 𝑦 ≥ 𝑥 − 𝑦

Illustration
solve 𝑥 − 1 ≤ 2
Solution
⇒ 𝑥−1 ≤2
⇒ −2 ≤ 𝑥 − 1 ≤ 2
⇒ −2 + 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2 + 1
⇒ −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3
𝑥 ∈ −1, 3 .
Illustration
1≤ 𝑥−1 ≤3
Solution
⇒ −3 ≤ 𝑥 − 1 ≤ −1 or 1 ≤ 𝑥 − 1 ≤ 3

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 i.e., the distance covered is between 1unit to 3 units.
⇒ −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 0 or 2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4
Hence, the solution set of the given in equation is 𝑥 ∈ −2, 0 ∪ 2, 4
Illustration
𝑥 − 1 ≤ 5, 𝑥 ≥ 2
Solution
𝑖. 𝑒. , −5 ≤ 𝑥 − 1 ≤ 5 and 𝑥 ≤ −2 or 𝑥 ≥ 2
𝑖. 𝑒. , −4 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 6 … . . i and
𝑥 ≤ −2 or 𝑥 ≥ 2 … ii
(i) and (ii) could be graphically shown as;
Thus, the shaded portion i.e., common to both (i) and (ii) is the required region.
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ −4, 2 ∪ 2, 6 .
Illustration
𝑥−1 + 𝑥−2 ≥4
Solution
On the L.H.S. of the given in equation we have two modulus,
So we should define each
Modulus, i.e., by equating to zero.
𝑥−1 , 𝑥 ≥1
𝑥−1 =
− 𝑥−1 , 𝑥 <1
𝑥−2 , 𝑥 ≥2
𝑥−2 =
− 𝑥−2 , 𝑥 <2
Thus it gives three cases:
Case I:- When − ∞ < 𝑥 < 1
𝑥−1 + 𝑥−2 ≥4
⇒ − 𝑥−1 − 𝑥−2 ≥4
⇒ −2𝑥 + 3 ≥ 4
⇒ −2𝑥 ≥ 1
1
⇒ 𝑥 ≤ −2 … (i)
But − ∞ < 𝑥 < 1
1
∴ solution set is 𝑥 ∈ −∞, 2 ]
Case II:-
When 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2
𝑥−1 + 𝑥−2 ≥4
⇒ 𝑥−1 − 𝑥−2 ≥4
⇒ 1 ≥ 4, which is meaningless.
∴ no solution for 𝑥 ∈ 1, 2 … (ii)

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Case III:-
When x >2
𝑥−1 + 𝑥−2 ≥4
⇒ 𝑥−1 + 𝑥−2 ≥4
⇒ 2𝑥 − 3 ≥ 4
7
⇒ 𝑥≥2
But 𝑥 > 2
7
∴ Solution set is , ∞) … iii
2
From (i), (ii) and (iii), we get,
1 7
𝑥 ∈ −∞, − 2 ] ∪ , ∞).
2
Wavy Curve Method/Number Line Rule/ Sign Scheme For Rational Function
It is used to solve algebraic inequalities using following steps:
(i):- Put only odd power factors in numerator and denominator equal to zero separately.
(as for polynomial function only numerator =0, denominator ≠ 0).
(ii):- Plot these points on number line in increasing order.
(iii):- Now check the coefficients of x and make them positive.
(iv):- Start the number line form right to lift taking sign of 𝑓 𝑥 .
(v):- Check your answer should not contain a point for which 𝑓 𝑥 does not exists.
Illustration
Find the interval in which 𝑓 𝑥 is positive or negative,
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥−1 𝑥−2 𝑥−3
Solution
Here, 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 − 3 has all factors with odd powers so put them zero.
i.e., 𝑥 − 1 = 0, 𝑥 − 2 = 0, 𝑥 − 3 = 0,
We get,
x = 1, 2, 3
Plotting on number line we get,
𝑓 𝑥 > 0 when 1 < 𝑥 < 2 and 𝑥 > 3 𝑓 𝑥 < 0 when 𝑥 < 1 and 2 < 𝑥 < 3
Illustration
Find the values of x for which
𝑥−2 2 1−𝑥 𝑥−3 3 𝑥−4 2
𝑓 𝑥 = ≤0
𝑥+1
Solution
Here,
𝑥−2 2 1−𝑥 𝑥−3 3 𝑥−4 2 𝑥−2 2 𝑥−1 𝑥−3 3 𝑥−4 2
𝑓 𝑥 = ≤0 𝑓 𝑥 =− ≥ 𝑥 ≠ −1
𝑥+1 𝑥+1
3
Putting zero to 𝑥 − 1 , 𝑥 − 3 , 𝑥 + 1 as having odd powers and
neglecting 𝑥 − 2 2 , 𝑥 − 4 2 .

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 We get,
𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 0 when − 1 < 𝑥 ≤ 1 using i as 𝑥 ≠ −1
=3≤𝑥<∞
= 𝑥 ∈ −1, 1 ∪ [3, ∞)

Question Practice Online

Fundamentals Of Quadratic Equations

We know every quadratic equation represents a parabola (explained in later part).
Thus,
(i):- If 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 > 0, ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 ⇒ 𝑎 > 0 and 𝐷 < 0
(ii):- If 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 < 0, ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 ⇒ 𝑎 < 0 and 𝐷 < 0

Illustration
Find a for which
3𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 3 > 0, ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 ?
Solution
Here,
3𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 3 > 0, ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅
⇒ 𝐷<0
⇒ 𝑎 2−4 3 3 <0
⇒ 𝑎2 − 36 < 0
⇒ 𝑎 − 6 𝑎 + 6 < 0,
Using number line rule as shown in figure,
Which shows
−6 < 𝑎 < 6
𝑎 ∈ −6, 6

Illustration
𝑥2 = 4
Solution
𝑥2 = 4
⇒ 𝑥+2 𝑥−2 =0
⇒ 𝑥 = 2, −2.
Illustration
𝑥 2 = −4
Solution
𝑥 2 = −4

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 Hence, no solution as L. H. S. ≥ 0and R.H.S.< 0.

Illustration
𝑥2 < 4
Solution
𝑥2 < 4
⇒ 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 + 2 < 0,
Using number line rule as shown in figure, we get , −2 < 𝑥 < 2.
Illustration
𝑥2 > 4
Solution
𝑥2 > 4
⇒ 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 + 2 > 0,
Using number line rule as shown in figure we get; −2 or 𝑥 > 2.
Illustration
𝑥 2 < −4
Solution
𝑥 2 < −4
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 4 < 0, 𝑤𝑕𝑖𝑐𝑕 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒
∴ no solution .
Illustration
𝑥 2 > −4
Solution
𝑥 2 > −4
⇒ 𝑥
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 4 > 0, which is true for all
𝑥 ∈ real number
∴ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅.
The sum of several non-negative terms
Illustration
Solve:-
𝑥 + 1 2 + 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2 2
=0
Solution
Here,
𝑥 + 1 2 + 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2 2 = 0
If and only if each term is zero simultaneously,
𝑥 + 1 = 0 and 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2 = 0
𝑥 = −1 and 𝑥 = −1, −2

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 ∴ The common solution is 𝑥 = −1
Hence, solution of above equation is x = -1.
Illustration
Solve:-
𝑥+1 + 𝑥−1 =0
Solution
Here
𝑥 + 1 + 𝑥 − 1 = 0,
Where each term is non-negative
∴ 𝑥 + 1 = 0 and 𝑥 − 1 = 0
Should be zero simultaneously
i.e., x = -1 and x =1, which is not possible.
There is no x for which each term is zero simultaneously.
Hence, there is no solution.
Illustration
Solve:-
𝑥2 − 1 + 𝑥 − 1 2
+ 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 0
Solution
Here each of the terms is non-negative thus each must be zero simultaneously,
𝑥 2 − 1 = 0, 𝑥 − 1 2 = 0 and 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 0
⇒ 𝑥 = ±1, 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = 1, 2
The common solution is x=1
Therefore, x=1 is solution of above equation.
Illustration
Let
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 be two real valued functions,
∅ 𝑥 be a function satisfying the condition ;
∅ 𝑥 − 𝑓 𝑥 2 + ∅ 𝑥 − 𝑔 𝑥 2 = 0. Then find ∅ 𝑥
Solution
Here,
∅ 𝑥 − 𝑓 𝑥 2 + ∅ 𝑥 − 𝑔 𝑥 2 = 0 is only possible if
∅ 𝑥 − 𝑓 𝑥 = 0 and ∅ 𝑥 − 𝑔 𝑥 = 0
⇒ ∅ 𝑥 =𝑓 𝑥 =𝑔 𝑥
∅ 𝑥 =𝑥= 𝑥 ,
Which is only possible if x is non-negative
Therefore,
∅ 𝑥 = 𝑥, ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 0, ∞
Question Practice Online

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 Day 2

Definition
Let A and b be two non- empty sets and ‘𝑓’ is a rule which associates each element of set A
with unique of set B; then ‘𝑓’ is called a function from A to B Here set A is called the
domain of ‘𝑓’ and B the co-domain of ‘𝑓’. The set of elements of B which are the images of
the elements of set A is called the Range of ‘𝑓’.
Domain of ‘𝑓’ = {p, q, r, s}
Range of ‘𝑓’ = {1, 2, 3}
Co- domain of ‘𝑓’ = {1, 2, 3, 4}
In general Range is subset of co-domain.
Independent and dependent variable
An independent variable is the symbol which denotes a member of the domain of the function
and dependent variable is the symbol used to denote the range of the function. Area of a circle
is function of its radius i.e. 𝐴 = 𝑓 𝑟 = 𝜋 𝑟 2 . Here, r is and independent variable and A is
dependent.
Graphical representation of function
Let ‘𝑓’ be a function with domain D so that 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 .
Then, the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 is the collection of points in
the 𝑥𝑦 plane obtained by giving different values to x.
Here, x is abscissa the independent variable and
corresponding 𝑓(𝑥) values are ordinates (the dependent
variable)
It should be noted that in any function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) for each
value of x there is one and only one value of 𝑓(𝑥). In
graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) if a straight line parallel to y-axis is
drawn, it intersects the graph at one and only one point.

Note:-
(i):- An element of A cannot be associated with more than one elements in B.
(ii):- If graph of a function is plotted, no line parallel to y-axis cuts the graph at more than one point.
(iii):-The function defined by above definition is known as a single valued function. The definition of
function is sometimes

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Broadened so that to each value of x, within a certain range, there corresponds not one but several
values of y. This type function is known as multi valued function. But whenever we speak of a function,
we shall have in view only single valued function 𝑓(𝑥) or y = ex is a single valued function while x2+y2
=a2 is a multiple- valued function. Although 𝑦 = 𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = − 𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 are two different
single valued function described by 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 .

Real Function
Content function
Let k be a fixed real number. Then a function 𝑓 𝑥
given by 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑘 for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 is called a constant
function.
Sometimes we also call it the constant function k.

Identity function
The function defined by 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅,
is called the identity function on R.

Modulus function
Properties of modulus function
(i):- 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎 ⇒ −𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎; 𝑎 ≥ 0
(ii):- 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑥 ≤ −𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎; 𝑎 ≥ 0
(iii):- 𝑥±𝑦 ≤ 𝑥 + 𝑦
(iv):- 𝑥±𝑦 ≥ 𝑥 − 𝑦

The greatest integer function

For any real number x, we denote [x],
the greatest integer less than or equal to x.
For example,
[2.45]=2, [-2.1] = -3, [1.75]=1, [0.32]=0 etc.
The function 𝑓 defined by 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 for all
𝑥 ∈ 𝑅, is called the greatest integer function.

Properties of greatest integral function

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 (i):- 𝑥 = 𝑥 holds if x is integer.
(ii):- 𝑥 + 𝐼 = 𝑥 + 𝐼 if 𝐼 is integer.
(iii):- 𝑥+𝑦 ≥ 𝑥 + 𝑦
(iv):- If ∅ 𝑥 ≥ 𝐼, then ∅ 𝑥 ≥ 𝐼.
(v):- If ∅ 𝑥 ≤ 𝐼, then ∅ 𝑥 < 𝐼 + 1.
(vi):- If 𝑥 > 𝑛 ⇒ 𝑥 ≥ 𝑛 + 1, 𝑛 ∈ integer.
(vii):- If 𝑥 < 𝑛 ⇒ 𝑥 < 𝑛, 𝑛 ∈ integer.
(viii):- ∅ 𝑥 > 𝐼 ⇒ ∅ 𝑥 ≥ 𝐼 + 1.
(ix):- ∅ 𝑥 < 𝐼 ⇒ ∅ 𝑥 ≤ 𝐼 − 1.
(x):- −𝑥 = − 𝑥 if 𝑥 ∈ integer.
(xi):- −𝑥 = − 𝑥 − 1 if 𝑥 ∉ integer.
(xii):- 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 for all 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅
(xiii):- 1 2 𝑛−1
𝑥 + 𝑥 + + 𝑥 + + ⋯+ 𝑥 + = 𝑛𝑥 , 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

Illustration
3 3 1 3 2 3 99
Find the value of + + 100 + + 100 + ⋯ + + 100 .
4 4 4 4
Solution
3 3 1 3 24 3 25 3 99
+ + 100 + ⋯ + + 100 + + 100 + ⋯ + + 100
4 4 4 4 4
⇒ 0.75 + ⋯ + 0.99 + 1.0 + ⋯ + 1.74
25 terms are zero 75 terms are each equal to 1
= 75.
Illustration
Given: 𝑦 = 2 𝑥 + 3 and 𝑦 = 3 𝑥 − 2 + 5, then find value of 𝑥 + 𝑦 .
Solution
2 𝑥 +3 =3 𝑥−2 +5
⇒ 2 𝑥 +3 =3 𝑥 −6+5
⇒ 𝑥 =4 ⇒ 4≤𝑥<5
𝑥 = 4 + 𝑓 𝑓 → fraction
𝑦 = 2 𝑥 + 3 = 11
Hence,
𝑥 + 𝑦 = 4 + 𝑓 + 11 = 15 + 𝑓 = 15.

Fractional part function

𝑦= 𝑥 .
It indicates fractional part of x.
ln 𝑥 = 𝐼 + 𝑓, 𝐼 = 𝑥 and 𝑓 = 𝑥 .
∴ 𝑦= 𝑥 =𝑥− 𝑥

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 𝑥 𝑥
0≤𝑥<1 x +1
1≤𝑥<2 𝑥−1
2≤𝑥<3 𝑥−2
−1 ≤ 𝑥 < 0 𝑥+1
−2 ≤ 𝑥 − 1 𝑥+2

Properties of fractional part of x

(i):- 𝑥 = 𝑥 if 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 1.
(ii):- 𝑥 = 0 if 𝑥 ∈ integer.
(iii):- −𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥 if 𝑥 ∉ integer.

Illustration
Solve 4{x} = x + [x].
Solution
We know
𝑥= 𝑥 + 𝑥
4𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥
2𝑥
𝑥 = … i
3
But
0≤ 𝑥 <1
So,
2𝑥
0≤ <1
3
3
0 ≤ 𝑥 < 2 , hence, 𝑥 = 0 or 1.
2
If 𝑥 = 1, then 𝑥 = 3
Thus,
5
𝑥=3
if 𝑥 = 0, 𝑥 = 0
So,

Thus, solution of
5
4 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑥 are 𝑥 ∈ 0, 3 .

Least integer function

𝑦 = 𝑥 = 𝑥 , 𝑥 or 𝑥
Indicates the integral part of x which is nearest and greater integer to x.

Page 13
 It is known as ceiling of x.
Thus,
2.3203 = 3, 0.23 = 1
−8.0725 = −8, −0.6 = 0
In general,
𝑛 < 𝑥 ≤𝑛+1 𝑛 ∈ integer
𝑥 =𝑛+1
𝑥 =𝑛 𝑥 =𝑛+1 = 𝑥
Here, 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 = 𝑥 , can be expressed graphically as

𝑥 𝑥 = 𝑥
−1 < 𝑥 ≤ 0 0
0<𝑥≤1 1
1<𝑥≤2 2
2<𝑥≤3 3
−2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ −1 −1

(o) represents value is taken.

( ) represents value is neglected.

Properties of least integer function

(i):- 𝑥 = 𝑥 = 𝑥 holds if x is integer.
(ii):- 𝑥 + 𝐼 = 𝑥 + 𝐼 = 𝑥 + 𝐼, 𝐼 ∈ integer.
(iii):- Greatest integral function [x] converts 𝑥 = 𝐼 + 𝑓 into 𝐼 while 𝑥 converts to( I+1).

Illustration
2 2
Find the solution set of 𝑥 + 𝑥+1 = 25, where (x) is the least integer greater than
equal to x.
Solution
Let 𝑥 = 𝐼 + 𝑓 where I ( integer) and f ( fractional part)
Then
𝐼 + 𝑓 2 + 𝐼 + 𝑓 + 1 2 = 25
⇒ 𝐼 + 1 2 + 𝐼 + 2 2 = 25
⇒ 𝐼 2 + 2𝐼 + 1 + 𝐼 2 + 4𝐼 + 4 = 25
⇒ 2𝐼 2 + 6𝐼 + 5 − 25 = 0
⇒ 2𝐼 2 + 6𝐼 − 20 = 0
So,
𝐼 = 2, −5
Thus,

Page 14
 𝑥 = 2 + 𝑓, −5 + 𝑓 where 0 < 𝑓 < 1
⇒ 2 < 2 + 𝑓 < 3,
−5 < −5 + 𝑓 < −4 … (i)
Again let x = I
𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 2 = 25
𝑥 = 3, −4 … ii
Form (i) and (ii);
𝑥 ∈ −5, −4 ∪ (2, 3]

Signum Function
The function defined by
1, 𝑥 > 0
𝑥 𝑥≠0
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 , or 𝑓 𝑥 = 0, 𝑥 = 0
𝑥=0
0, −1, 𝑥 < 0
is called the signum function.

The function that associates each non-zero real number x to its reciprocal 1/x is called the
reciprocal function.

Logarithmic function
If „a‟ is a positive real number, then the function that associates every positive real
number to log 𝑎 𝑥 i.e. 𝑓 𝑥 = log 𝑎 𝑥 is called the logarithmic function.

Exponential function
If a is positive real number, then the function which associates every real number x to 𝑎 𝑋 i.e.
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑥 is called the exponential function.

Page 15
Square root function
The function that associates every positive real
number x to + 𝑥 is called the square root
function, i.e., 𝑓 𝑥 = + 𝑥.

Polynomial function
A function of the form 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛 , where
𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … . . 𝑎𝑛 are real numbers, 𝑎0 ≠ 0 and 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁, is called a polynomial of
degree n.
𝐷𝑓 = 𝑅
Rational function
𝑝 𝑥
A function of the form 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑞 , where p (x) and q (x) are polynomials and
𝑥
𝑞 𝑥 ≠ 0, is called a rational function.
𝐷𝑓 = 𝑅 − point where 𝑞 𝑥 ≠ 0

Trigonometric Functions
(a):- Sine function:-
𝑓 𝑥 = sin 𝑥
The domain of sine function is R and the [-1, 1].

(b):- Cosine function:-

f (x) = cos x
The domain of cosine function is R and
the range is [–1, 1].

(c):- Tangent function:-

𝑓 𝑥 = tan 𝑥
Here, domain of tangent function is
2𝑛+1 
𝑅− , 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍 and range is R.
2

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(d):- Cosecant function:-
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥
𝑛
Here, domain ∈ 𝑅 − ∈𝑍 ;
𝑛
Range ∈ 𝑅— −1, 1

(e):- Secant function:-

𝑓 𝑥 = sec 𝑥

Here, domain ∈ 𝑅 − 2𝑛 + 1 |𝑛 ∈ 𝑍
2
Range ∈ 𝑅— −1, 1

(f):- Cotangent function:-

𝑓 𝑥 = cot 𝑥
𝑛
Here, domain ∈ 𝑅 − ∈𝑍 ;
𝑛
Range ∈ 𝑅.

Inverse of trigonometric function

(a):-
𝑦 = sin−1 𝑥.
 
Here, domain ∈ −1, 1 , Range ∈ − 2 , 2

(b):-
𝑦 = cos −1 𝑥
Here, domain ∈ −1, 1 ; Range ∈ 0, 

(c):-
𝑦 = tan−1 𝑥

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  
Here, domain ∈ 𝑅; Range ∈ − 2 , 2

(d):-
𝑦 = cot −1 𝑥
Here, domain ∈ 𝑅; Range
∈ (0, 𝜋)
(e):-
𝑦 = cosec −1 𝑥
Here, domain ∈ 𝑅— −1, 1 ;
Range
 
∈ − 2 , 2 − {0}
(f):-
𝑦 = sec −1 𝑥
Here, domain ∈ 𝑅— −1, 1 ;
Range

∈ 0,  −
2

Operations on real function

In this section we will introduce some operations on real functions to define new function.
Sum:-
Let f and g be two real functions with domain D1 and D2 respectively. Then we define their sum
𝑓 + 𝑔 asthat function from 𝐷1 ∩ 𝐷2 to R which associates each 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷1 ∩ 𝐷2 to the number
𝑓 𝑥 +𝑔 𝑥 .
Thus, 𝑓 + 𝑔 ∶ 𝐷1 ∩ 𝐷2 → 𝑅 such that
𝑓 + 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔 𝑥 for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷1 ∩ 𝐷2 .
Similarly, we define the difference, product and quotient as follows:

Difference :-
𝑓 − 𝑔 ∶ 𝐷1 ∩ 𝐷2 → 𝑅 such that
𝑓 − 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑔 𝑥 for al𝑙 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷1 ∩ 𝐷2
Product :-
𝑓𝑔 ∶ 𝐷1 ∩ 𝐷2 → 𝑅 such that
𝑓𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷1 ∩ 𝐷2

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Quotient:-
𝑓
∶ 𝐷1 ∩ 𝐷2 − 𝑥|𝑔 𝑥 0 = 0 → 𝑅 such that
𝑔
𝑓 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥 =𝑔 for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷1 ∩ 𝐷2 − 𝑥|𝑔 𝑥 = 0
𝑔 𝑥

Composition of functions
Let 𝑓 and g be two function with domain D1 and D2 respectively. if range 𝑓 ⊂ domain (g), we
define go f by the rule
𝑔𝑜𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑓 𝑥 for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷1 .
Also, if range 𝑔 ⊂ domain 𝑓 , we define fog by the rule
𝑓𝑜𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷2
It follows from the above discussion that if f(x) and g(x) are two real function with domains
D1 and D2 respectively. Then
(i):- Domain of 𝑓 ± 𝑔 = 𝐷1 ∩ 𝐷2
(ii):- Domain of 𝑓𝑔 = 𝐷1 ∩ 𝐷2
𝑓
(iii):- Domain of = 𝐷1 ∩ 𝐷2 − 𝑥|𝑔 𝑥 = 0
𝑔

Rule for Finding Domain

(i):- Expression under even root (i.e. square root, fourth root etc.) 0.
(ii):- Dr 0.
(iii):- 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 is defined if 𝑥 > 0, 𝑎 > 0 & 𝑎 ≠ 1.
(iv):- If domain of 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 & 𝑦 = 𝑔 𝑥 are 𝐷1 & 𝐷2 respectively then the domain of
𝑓 𝑥 ± 𝑔 𝑥 or 𝑓 𝑥 . 𝑔 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝐷1 ∩ 𝐷2 .
(v):- While domain of 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 is 𝐷1 ∩ 𝐷2 − 𝑔 𝑥 = 0 .

Illustration
𝑥
Find the domain of the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 −3𝑥+2
Solution
Clearly, 𝑓 𝑥 is not defined, when 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 0
Now,
𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 1, 2.
So, 𝑓 𝑥 is not defined for 𝑥 = 1, 2.
Hence, its domain is 𝑅 − 1, 2 .

Illustration
Find the domain of the function
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 4.
Solution

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 Clearly, 𝑓 𝑥 is a real number for all 𝑥 2 − 4 ≥ 0.
So, domain of 𝑓 𝑥 is the set of all real numbers for which 𝑥 2 − 4 ≥ 0.
Now,
𝑥2 − 4 ≥ 0 ⇒ 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 + 2 ≥ 0
⇒ 𝑥 ≤ −2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 2
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ −∞, −2 ∪ [2, ∞)
Hence, domain of 𝑓 = −∞, −2 ∪ [2, ∞).

Illustration
Find the domain of the following functions:
i cos −1 3x − 1 ii sin−1 2x

Solution
(i):-
Clearly, cos −1 3𝑥 − 1 is defined, if
−1 ≤ 3𝑥 − 1 ≤ 1
Domain of cos −1 𝑥 = −1, 1
⇒ −1 + 1 ≤ 3𝑥 ≤ 1 + 1
⇒ 0 ≤ 3𝑥 ≤ 2
2
⇒ 0≤𝑥≤3
2
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 0, 3
2
Hence, domain of cos −1 3𝑥 − 1 is 0, 3 .

(ii):-
Clearly, sin−1 2𝑥 exists, if
−1 ≤ 2𝑥 ≤ 1 Domain o f sin−1 𝑥 = −1, 1
1 1
⇒ −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2
1 1
⇒ 𝑥∈ − ,
2 2
1 1
Hence, domain of sin−1 2𝑥 is − 2 , 2.

Illustration
Find the domain of the following functions:
sin −1 𝑥 cos −1 𝑥 1
i ii iii
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 −𝑥

Solution
(i):-

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 sin −1 𝑥
Let 𝑓 𝑥 = , 𝑔 𝑥 = sin−1 𝑥 and h (x) = x.
𝑥
𝑔 𝑥
Then 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑕 ⇒ domain 𝑓 = Domain 𝑔 ∩ Domain 𝑕 − 𝑥|𝑕 𝑥 = 0 .
𝑥
Clearly, domain (g) =[-1, 1], domain h=R and {x | h(x)=0}={0}
Domain 𝑓 = −1, 1 ∩ 𝑅 − 0 = −1, 0) ∪ (0, 1 .
(ii):-
cos −1 𝑥
Let 𝑓 𝑥 = , 𝑔 𝑥 = cos −1 𝑥 and h(x) = [x]. Then
𝑥
𝑔 𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 =𝑕 ⇒ domain 𝑓 = Domain 𝑔 ∩ Domain 𝑕 − 𝑥|𝑕 𝑥 = 0
𝑥
Clearly, domain (g) =[-1, 1], domain h=R, and 𝑥|𝑕 𝑥 = 0 = 𝑥| 𝑥 = 0 = 0, 1 .
Domain 𝑓 = −1, 1 ∩ 𝑅 − 0, 1 = −1, 0 ∪ 1 .
(iii):-
1
Let 𝑓 𝑥 = , Clearly, 𝑓 𝑥 is defined for
𝑥 −𝑥

𝑥 −𝑥 >0⇒ 𝑥 >𝑥 ⇒𝑥 <0

Hence, domain 𝑓 = −∞, 0 .
Illustration
Find the domain of the function
1
𝑓 𝑥 = log + 𝑥+2
10 1−𝑥

Solution
1
Let 𝑔 𝑥 = log and 𝑕 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 2. Then 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑕 𝑥 . Therefore,
10 1−𝑥

Domain 𝑓 = Domain 𝑔 ∩ Domain 𝑕

1
Now, 𝑔 𝑥 = log exists, if 1-x > 0 and 1 − 𝑥 ≠ 1 i.e. x < 1 and 𝑥 ≠ 0.
10 1−𝑥
So, domain (g) = −∞, 1 − 0 .
Clearly, 𝑕 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 2 exists, if 𝑥 + 2 ≥ 0, 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑥 ≥ −2 so, domain 𝑕 = [−2, ∞)
Hence, domain 𝑓 = −∞, 1 − 0 ∩ [−2, ∞)
⇒ −2, 0 ∪ 0, 1

Illustration
Find the domain of the function
3𝑥−1
𝑓 𝑥 = 1 − 2𝑥 + 3 sin−1 2
Solution
Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑕 𝑥 ,
Where
𝑔 𝑥 = 1 − 2𝑥

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 And
3𝑥−1
𝑕 𝑥 = 3 sin−1 2
Clearly, g(x) is not defined, when 1-2x < 0 i.e. g(x) is defined,
When
1
1 − 2𝑥 ≥ 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ≤ 2 .
Therefore, Domain
1
𝑔 = (−∞, ]
2
Also, h(x) is defined, when
3𝑥−1
−1 ≤ ≤ 1 ⇒ −2 ≤ 3𝑥 − 1 ≤ 2
2
−1
⇒ −1 ≤ 3𝑥 ≤ 3 ⇒ ≤𝑥≤1
3
So, domain (h) = [-1/3, 1]
Hence, domain
1 −1 −1 1
𝑓 = −∞, ∩ ,1 = ,
2 3 3 2

Illustration
𝑥2
Find the domain of the function 𝑓 𝑥 = sin−1 log2 2
Solution
Since the domain of sin−1 𝑥 is [-1, 1]. Therefore,
𝑥2
𝑓 𝑥 = sin−1 log2 exists if
2
𝑥2 𝑥2
−1 ≤ log 2 ≤ 1 ⇒ 2−1 ≤ ≤ 21 ⇒ 1 ≤ 𝑥 2 ≤ 4
2 2
⇒ 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ −2, −1 ∪ 1, 2
Hence, the domain of the 𝑓 𝑥 is −2, −1 ∪ 1, 2 .
Illustration
Find the domain of the definition of the function
𝑓 𝑥 = log 4 log 5 log 3 18𝑥 − 𝑥 2 − 77
Solution
Since log x is defined for x > 0. Therefore,
𝑓 𝑥 = log 4 log 5 log 3 18𝑥 − 𝑥 2 − 77
log5 log3 18 − 𝑥 2 − 77 > 0 ⇒ log 3 18𝑥 − 𝑥 2 − 77 > 50
⇒ 18𝑥 − 𝑥 2 − 77 > 31 ⇒ 𝑥 2 − 18 + 80 < 0
⇒ 𝑥 − 8 𝑥 − 10 < 0 ⇒ 8 < 𝑥 < 10 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 8, 10
Hence, the domain the definition of the given function is (8, 10).

Page 22
 Day 3

Monotonic Function
Monotonous behavior i.e. in the sense of ascending (increasing) or descending
(decreasing). There are two types of monotonic function.
(i):- Increasing function:-
It can be further studied under two subtopics
(ii):- Strictly increasing function:-
A function f (x) is known as strictly increasing function in its domain if
𝑥1 < 𝑥2 ⇒ 𝑓 𝑥1 < 𝑓 𝑥2 i.e. for the smaller inprt we have smaller output and for
higher value of input we have higher output.

Nature of derivative of function

We know that
𝑓 𝑥+𝑕 −𝑓 𝑥
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = lim𝑕→0 𝑕
𝑥 < 𝑥+𝑕 𝑎𝑠 𝑕 > 0
Hence,
𝑓 𝑥 <𝑓 𝑥+𝑕
𝑓 𝑥+𝑕 −𝑓 𝑥 >0
+𝑣𝑒
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = −𝑣𝑒 = +𝑣𝑒
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑓′ 𝑥 > 0
„𝑓 ′ 𝑥 may also be zero but only at finite number of points and not in an interval.
(i):- Non decreasing function:-
A function f (x) is said to be non decreasing if for
𝑥1 < 𝑥2
It follows 𝑓 𝑥1 ≤ 𝑓 𝑥2
For AB & CD portions
𝑥1 < 𝑥2 ⇒ 𝑓 𝑥1 < 𝑓 𝑥2
And for BC, 𝑥1 < 𝑥2 ⇒ 𝑓 𝑥1 = 𝑓 𝑥2
Hence, as a whole we can say that for non decreasing
functions
𝑥1 < 𝑥2 ⇒ 𝑓 𝑥1 ≤ 𝑓 𝑥2 .
Obviously, for this 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 ≥ 0 where equality holds for horizontal path of the graph i.e.
in the interval of BC.
(ii):- Decreasing Function:-
(a):- Strictly decreasing function:-
A function f (x) is said to be strictly decreasing in its domain if it follows
𝑥1 < 𝑥2 ⇒ 𝑓 𝑥1 > 𝑥2 i.e. for smaller value of input we have higher output

Page 23
 and for higher input we have smaller output.

Nature of derivative
We have,
𝑓 𝑥+𝑕 −𝑓 𝑥
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = lim𝑕→0
𝑕
𝑥 < 𝑥 + 𝑕 𝑎𝑠 𝑕 > 0
𝑓 𝑥 > 𝑓 𝑥+𝑕
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥+𝑕 −𝑓 𝑥 <0
−𝑣𝑒
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = +𝑣𝑒 = −𝑣𝑒.
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 < 0 for strictly decreasing function. 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 may also be zero but only at finite
number of points.

(ii):- Non increasing functions

A function 𝑓 𝑥 is called non-increasing
if for 𝑥1 < 𝑥2 ⇒ 𝑓 𝑥1 ≥ 𝑥2 For AB
& CD portion 𝑥1 < 𝑥2 ⇒ 𝑓 𝑥1 > 𝑓 𝑥2
while 𝑥1 < 𝑥2 ⇒ 𝑓 𝑥1 = 𝑓 𝑥2 for BC
portion. It is clear that 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 ≤ 0
for this case.

Illustration
(i) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 increases strictly in „R‟.

1
(ii) 𝑓 𝑥 = is strictly increasing in
𝑥
−∞, 0 and strictly decreasing in 0, ∞ .

(iii) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 is strictly increasing in

„R‟

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 (iv) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 is increasing but not
strictly increasing ( i.e. non decreasing)
in „R‟.

Illustration
Find the interval of increase or decrease of the following functions.
(a) 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 1
Solution (a):-
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 6𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 12 = 6 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2
When 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2 = 0, 𝑥 = −2, 1
Since 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 < 0 in −2, 1
Hence the function decreases in the interval −2, 1 and increases when 𝑥 < −2 or x >1
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 > 0 in these intervals .

Range
Method to find the range of a function y = f(x)
First of all find the domain of y = f(x)
(i):- If domain is a set having only finite number of points, range is the set of corresponding f(x)
values.
(ii):- If domain of y = f(x) is R or R- {some finite points} or an infinite interval, express x in terms
of y. From this find y for x to be defined or real. Or, form an equation in terms of x and apply the
condition for real roots.
(iii):- If domain is not an infinite interval find the least and the greatest values of f(x) using
monotonicity.

Illustration
𝑥2
\ Find the range 𝑜𝑓 𝑦 = 1+𝑥 2
Solution
𝑦 𝑖s defind ∀ 𝑥 𝜖𝑅 hence, domain is ′ 𝑅′
From
𝑥2
𝑦 = 1+𝑥 2 we have
𝑦
𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 ⇒ 𝑥 2 = 1−𝑦
𝑦 𝑦
∴ 𝑥=+ 𝑜𝑟 −
1−𝑦 1−𝑦

In either case, for x to be defined

Page 25
 𝑦
= 1−𝑦 ≥ 0
⇒ 0 ≤ 𝑦 < 1 using sign scheme or 0,1 .
Illustration
Find the domain and range of the function 𝑦 = log𝑒 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 5
Solution
𝑦 is defind if 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 5 > 0
It‟s discreminant
= −4 2 − 1.3.5 = −44 < 0 and coef𝑓. 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 2 = 3 > 0
Hence
3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 5 > 0 ∀𝑥𝜖𝑅.
 domain is R.
Now,
From,
𝑦 = log 𝑒 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 5 we have
3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 5 = 𝑒 𝑦
⇒ 3𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 5 − 𝑒 𝑦 = 0
2

Since x is real  disc  0

𝑖. 𝑒. 42 − 4.3 5 − 𝑒 𝑦 ≥ 00
⇒ 12𝑒 𝑦 ≥ 44
11
⇒ 𝑒𝑦 ≥ ⇒ 𝑦 ≥ ln 11 3
3
Hence range is ln 11 3 , ∞ .

Illustration
Find the range of 𝑦 = 𝑎 cos 𝑥 + 𝑏 sin 𝑥
Solution
In the case of trigonometrical functions we should directly try to find the minimum and
maximum values of y.
Now
𝑦 = 𝑎cos 𝑥 + 𝑏 sin 𝑥
⇒ 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 cos 𝑥 cos 𝛼 + sin 𝑥 sin 𝛼
𝑎
where cos 𝛼 =
𝑎2 + 𝑏2
⇒ 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 cos 𝑥 − 𝛼
∴ 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 & 𝑦𝑚𝑖𝑛 = − 𝑎2 + 𝑏2
Hence range is – 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 , 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 .

Illustration
Find the range of 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 1 + 5 − 𝑥
Page 26
 Solution
The domain of this function is 1,5 , which is a finite interval. Therefore we should use
monotonicity.
Now
𝑑𝑦 1 1
= −
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑥−1 2 5−𝑥
When
𝑑𝑦
= 0 we have 𝑥 = 3
𝑑𝑥
Sign scheme for 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 is as below
Y is minimum at x = 1 and x = 5
𝑦𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 1 is 2
𝑦𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 5 is also 2
But
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 3 is 2 2
 Range is 𝑦𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥
⇒ 2 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 2 2.
Note: When y is minimum at two or more points the smallest value from them is taken
and when y is maximum at two or more points the largest value from them is take.

Illustration
Find the range of
𝜋2 𝜋2
i 𝑦 = 3 sin − 𝑥2, ii 𝑦 = 3 cos − 𝑥2
9 9

Solution
𝜋 𝜋
The domain of both functions is − 3 , 3 , which is also a finite interval and hence it can be solved
by monotonicity, but it is better to solve with the help of trigonometric properties.
Here
𝜋2
− 𝑥2 ≥ 0
9
Let
𝜋2
𝜃= − 𝑥2 ≥ 0
9
𝜋
∴ 0≤𝜃≤ 3
i.e.  lies in the 1st quadrant where „sine‟ is increasing while „cos‟ is decreasing.
Hence
𝜋
0≤𝜃≤ ⇒ 0 ≤ sin 𝜃 ≤ sin 𝜋 3
3
3 3
⇒ 0≤𝑦≤ 2

Page 27
 𝜋
and 0≤𝜃≤ 3
𝜋
⇒ cos 0 ≥ cos 𝜃 ≥ sin 3
3
⇒ 3≥𝑦≥2
Students should find the range of the following functions with the help of the properties of
logarithmic function
𝜋2 𝜋
𝑓 𝑥 = ln sin − 𝑥2 + 6
9

𝜋2
𝑓 𝑥 = ln cos − 𝑥2
9

𝑓 𝑥 = log12 𝑥−1+ 5−𝑥

𝜋2
𝑓 𝑥 = log1𝑒 tan − 𝑥2
9

Odd and even function

Odd function
A function 𝑓 𝑥 is said to be an odd function if, 𝑓 −𝑥 = −𝑓 𝑥 for all x.
Graph of odd function is symmetrical in opposite quadrants, i.e. the curve in first
quadrant is identical to the curve in third quadrant and the curve in second quadrant is
identical to the curve in fourth quadrant.

Even Function
A function 𝑓 𝑥 is said to be an even of 𝑓 −𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 for all x.
The graph is always symmetrical about y-axis i.e. the graph on left hand side of y-axis is
the mirror image of the curve on its right hand side.
Some graphs which are symmetrical about y-axis.

Page 28
Properties of odd and even function
(i):- Product of two odd functions or two even functions is an even function.
(ii):- Product of odd and even function is an odd function.
(iii):- Every function 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 can be expressed as the sum of an even and odd function.
(iv):- The derivative of an odd function is an even function and derivative of even function is odd function.
(v):- The function which is even or odd, when squared becomes even function.

Illustration
If f is even function; find the real values of x satisfying the equation
𝑥+1
𝑓 𝑥 =𝑓 .
𝑥+2
Solution
Since, 𝑓 𝑥 is even so,
𝑓 −𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥
Thus,
𝑥+1 𝑥+1
𝑥 = 𝑥+2 or − 𝑥 = 𝑥+2
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 = 𝑥 + 1 or − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 = 𝑥 + 1
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1 = 0 or − 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 1 = 0
−1± 5 −3± 5
⇒𝑥= 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 =
2 2

Thus,
−1+ 5 −1− 5 −3+ 5 −3− 5
𝑥= , , , .
2 2 2 2

Illustration
Find out whether the given function is even, odd or neither even nor odd Where,
𝑥𝑥, 𝑥 ≤ −1
𝑓 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + 1 − 𝑥 , −1 < 𝑥 < 1
−𝑥 𝑥 , 𝑥≥1
Where | | and [ ] represents modulus and greatest integral function.
Solution
The given function can be written as;
𝑥𝑥, 𝑥 ≤ −1
𝑓 𝑥 =
1 + 𝑥 + 1 − 𝑥 , −1 < 𝑥 < 1
−𝑥 𝑥 , 𝑥≥1
{using definition of modulus and greatest integral function}

Page 29
 −𝑥 2 , 𝑥 ≤ −1
2 − 1 + 0 , −1 < 𝑥 < 0
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 = 2 , 𝑥=0
2+0−1 , 0 <𝑥 <1
−𝑥 2 , 𝑥 ≥ 1
2
−𝑥 , 𝑥 ≤ −1
1 , −1 < 𝑥 < 0
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 = 2 , 𝑥=0
1 , 0<𝑥<1
−𝑥 2 , 𝑥 ≥ 1
Which is clearly even as if 𝑓 −𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 .
Thus, 𝑓 𝑥 is even.

Periodic function
Definition:- A function 𝑓 𝑥 is said to be periodic function if, there exists a positive real
number,
such that
𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑇 = 𝑓 𝑥 , ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅.
Then, 𝑓 𝑥 is periodic with period T, where T is least positive value.

Graphically:- If the graph repeats at fixed interval then function is said to be periodic and its
period is the width of that interval.

Illustration
Prove sin x is periodic and find its period.
Solution
Let 𝑓 𝑥 = sin 𝑥 and T > 0 then
𝑓 𝑥 is periodic if 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑇 = 𝑓 𝑥 .
⇒ sin 𝑥 + 𝑇 = sin 𝑥 , ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅
⇒ 𝑇 = 2, 4, 6, … ….
But, period of 𝑓 𝑥 is smallest
Positive real number
Thus period of f (x) is 2

Illustration
Prove that 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑥 is periodic function. Also, find its period.

Let T > 0.
Then,
𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑇 = 𝑓 𝑥 ,∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅

Page 30
 ⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑇 − 𝑥 + 𝑇 = 𝑥 − 𝑥 ,∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅
⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑇 − 𝑥 = 𝑇, ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅
⇒ 𝑇 = 1, 2, 3, 4, … …. since, subtraction of tqo integers
The smallest value of T satisfying
𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑇 = 𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 1
Thus, periodic with period 1.

Illustration
Let 𝑓 𝑥 be periodic and k be a positive real number such that
𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑘 + 𝑓 𝑥 = 0 for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅.
Prove that 𝑓 𝑥 is a periodic with period 2k.
Solution
We have,
𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑘 + 𝑓 𝑥 = 0, ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑘 = −𝑓 𝑥 , ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑘
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 + 2𝑘 = −𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑘 , ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 𝑎𝑠 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑘 = −𝑓 𝑥
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 + 2𝑘 = 𝑓 𝑥 , ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅
Which clearly shows that 𝑓 𝑥 is periodic with period 2k.

Some standard results on periodic functions

Functions Periods
i sin 𝑥, cos 𝑛 𝑥
𝑛
; if n is even.
sec 𝑛 𝑥, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑛 𝑥 2; if n is odd or function
ii tan𝑛 𝑥, cot 𝑛 𝑥 ; 𝑛 is even or odd.
iii sin 𝑥 , cos 𝑥 , tan 𝑥 , 
cot 𝑥 , sec 𝑥 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥
iv 𝑥 − 𝑥 1
v Algebraic functions Period does not exists.
𝑒. 𝑔. , 𝑥, 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 3 + 5, … . etc.

Properties of periodic function

(i):- If 𝑓 𝑥 is periodic with period T, then:
(a):- 𝑐. 𝑓 𝑥 is periodic with period T.
(b):- 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑐 is periodic with period T.
(c):- 𝑓 𝑥 ± 𝑐 is periodic with period T.
Page 31
 Where c is any constant
We know sin x has period 2.
The 𝑓 𝑥 = 5 sin 𝑥 + 4 is also periodic with period 2.
i.e., “If constant is added, subtracted, multiplied or divided in periodic function,

(ii):- If 𝑓 𝑥 is periodic with period T, then,

𝑇
𝑘𝑓 𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑑 has period , i.e., period is only affected by coefficient of x.
𝑐
Where; 𝑘, 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ constant
 2
We know 𝑓 𝑥 = 7 sin 2𝑥 + 9 − 12 has the period = , as sin x is dic with period 2.
𝑐
(iii):- If 𝑓1 𝑥 , 𝑓2 𝑥 are periodic functions with periods T1, T2 respectively then;
We have, 𝑕 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑓1 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑓2 𝑥 has period as,
LCM of T1 , T2 ; If h x is nt an even function
OR,
= 1
LCM of T ,
1 2 T ; If f1 x and f2 x are complemintary
2
pair wise comparable functions

While taking LCM we should always remember

(a):-
a c e LCM of a,c,e
LCM of , , =
b d f HCF of b,d,f
2   LCM of 2,, 2
e. g. , LCM of , , = =
3 6 12 HCF of 3,6,12 3
2   2
∴ LCM of , 6 , 12 = .
3 3

(b):- LCM of rational with rational is possible

LCM of irrational with irrational is possible
But LCM of rational and irrational is not possible.
e. g., LCM of (2, 1, 6) is not possible as 2, 6 ∈ irrational and 1 ∈ rational.

Illustration
𝑥
Find the period of 𝑓 𝑥 = tan 3𝑥 + sin .
3
Solution

period for tan 3𝑥 is .
3
𝑥 3
period for sin 3 is 2 × 1 = 6
Thus,
 6 6
LCM of and ⇒ .
3 1 1
Thus, 𝑓 𝑥 is periodic with period 6.

Page 32
Illustration
Find the period of,
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 = sin 𝑥 + tan + sin 2 + tan 3 + ⋯ + sin 𝑛−1 + tan 𝑛 .
2 2 2 2 2
Solution
We have, Period for
𝑥
sin 𝑥 + tan 2 is 2
𝑥 𝑥
sin 22 + tan 23 is 23 
……………………………
……………………………
𝑥 𝑥
sin 2𝑛 −1 + tan 2𝑛 is 2𝑛 .
Thus,
LCM of 2, 23 , … . , 2𝑛  = 2𝑛 .
Hence, period of 𝑓 𝑥 is 2𝑛 .

Illustration
Find the period of 𝑓 𝑥 = sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 .
Solution
|sin x| has period , | cos x| has period ,
Here, 𝑓 𝑥 is an even function and sin x, cos x, are complementary.
Thus,
1 
period of 𝑓 𝑥 = LCM of  𝑎𝑛𝑑  =
2 2

Thus, period for 𝑓 𝑥 is 2 .
Find period of 𝑓 𝑥 = sin4 𝑥 + cos 4 𝑥
Sin4x and cos4x both has period  [as n is even]
But 𝑓 𝑥 is an even function and sin x, cos x are complementary.
Hence,
1 
𝑓 𝑥 has period = 2 LCM 𝑜𝑓 ,  = 2
Thus, period of 𝑓 𝑥 is /2.

Illustration
Find period of 𝑓 𝑥 = cos cos 𝑥 + cos sin 𝑥 .
Solution
Here, cos (cos x) has period; as even, also cos (sin x) has period ; as even.
Thus,

Page 33
 1
period of 𝑓 𝑥 = 2 𝐿𝐶𝑀 𝑜𝑓  𝑎𝑛𝑑 
Hence,
period of 𝑓 𝑥 =  2.
Illustration
Period of the function 𝑓 𝑥 = sin sin 𝑥 + 𝑒 3𝑥
,
Where {.} denotes the fractional part of x is:
𝑎 1 𝑏 2 𝑐 3 𝑑 none of these
As,
2
sin 𝑥 has period = =2

∴ sin sin 𝑥 has period 2.
3𝑥
and 𝑒 has period 1 3
∴ period of 𝑓 𝑥 = sin sin 𝑥 + 𝑒 3𝑥
, is:
LCM of 2, 1 3 = 2
Hence (b) is the correct answer.
Illustration
sin ax + cos ax and |cos x|+|sin x| are periodic functions of same fundamental period of „a‟
equals:
𝑎 0 𝑏 1 𝑐 2 𝑑 4
Solution
Fundamental period of |sin x| + |cos x| is /2
Fundamental period of (sin ax + cos ax) is 2/a
∴𝑎=4
Hence (d) is the correct answer.

Page 34
 Day 4

Mapping of Function
Function exists only if, “to every element in domain there exists unique image in
co-domain.

Kinds of function
There are four kinds of mapping defined as,
(i):- one-one-onto (or) bijective, i.e. injective and surjective.
(ii):- one-one-into (or) only injective, not surjective.
(iii):- many one-one (or) non injective, but surjective.
(iv):- many one-into (or) neither injective, nor surjective.

One-one Mapping or injective or monomorphic

A function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is said to be one-one mapping or injective if different elements
of A have different images in B.
Thus no two elements of set A can have the same f image.

Illustration
Let us consider set A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {3, 7, 11, 15},
where 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵.and 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 1 then ,
Here, every element in domain possess distinct images in co- domain.
Thus, f(x) is one-one or injective.

Method to check one-one mapping

Method1. Theoretically: If f(x) = f(y) ⇒ x = y then f(x) is one-one.
Method2. Graphically: A function is one-one iff no line parallel to x- axis meets
the graph of function at more than one point.

Illustration
− 
Let 𝑓: , 2 → −1, 1 where 𝑓 𝑥 = sin 𝑥.
2
Find whether f(x) is one-one or not.
Solution

Page 35
 − 
𝑓: , 2 → −1, 1
2
− 
Indicates domain ∈ ,2
2
and
co-domain ∈ −1, 1 .
It is one – one.

Number of one – one Mapping

If A and B are finite sets having m and n elements,
number of one-one function from A to B.

Here,
𝑥1 can take n images.
x2 can take n − 1 images.
x3 can take n − 2 images.
……………………………….
……………………………….
𝑥𝑚 can take 𝑛 − 𝑚 + 1 images.
thus, number of mapping
⇒ 𝑛 𝑛 −1 𝑛 −2 …… 𝑛 − 𝑚 +1
𝑛𝑃 𝑚 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 ≥ 𝑚.
⇒
0 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 < 𝑚.

Illustration

Method to check Many-One

They are same as for one-one because, if mapping is not one-one it is many-one.

Illustration
Show 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅 difined by 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥
for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 is many − one .

Page 36
Solution

By graph
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥2 + 𝑥
can be represented graphically as,
shown in figure
where the straight line is parallel to x-axis
which, meets the curve at two points. (i.e.)
more than one point.
Thus , not one-one or many-one.

Onto Function or (Subjective)

If the function f:Ab is such that each element of B is the f image of at least one element in A. It
isexpressed as f:AB.
Here, range of f = co-domain.
i.e., f (A) = B
Method of show onto or subjective
Find the range of y = f(x) and show range of f(x) = co-domain if f(x).
Number of onto Functions
If A and B are two sets having m and n elements respectively such that 1≤ n ≤ m ; then number
of onto functions from A to B is
Coefficient of 𝑥 𝑚 in 𝑚 ! 𝑒 𝑥 − 1 𝑛
⇒ coefficient of 𝑥 𝑚 𝑖𝑛
𝑛 𝑛
𝑚! {𝑛 𝐶0 𝑒 𝑛𝑥 −𝑛 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑛−1 𝑥 + ⋯ + −1 𝑟 𝐶𝑟 𝑒 𝑟𝑥 + ⋯ + −1 𝑛 𝐶𝑛 }
𝑛 𝑛−𝑟 𝑛
⇒ 𝑟=1 −1 𝐶𝑟 𝑟 𝑚 .

Illustration
Find number of surjection from A to B where 𝐴 = 1,2,3,4, , 𝐵 = 𝑎, 𝑏
Solution
Number of surjection from A to B
2 2−𝑟 2 4
⇒ 𝑟=1 −1 𝐶𝑟 𝑟
2−1 2 2
⇒ −1 𝐶1 1 4 + −1 2−2 𝐶2 2 4
⇒ −2 + 16
⇒ 14.
Therefore, number of onto mapping from A to B = 14.

Illustration
Let 𝐴 = 𝑥: −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 = 𝐵 be a mapping 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵. For each of the following functions

Page 37
 from A to B, Find whether it is surjective or bijective.
𝑥
(a) f(x) = |x| (b) f(x) = x |x| 𝒄 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥3 (d) f(x) = [x] 𝒆 𝑓 𝑥 = sin .
2
Solution
(a):-
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥
Graphically:- Which shows many one, as the
straight line is parallel to x-axis and cuts at two
points. Here range for 𝑓 𝑥 ∈ 0, 1 . Which is
clearly subset of co - domain.
i.e.,
0, 1 ⊆ −1, 1
Thus, into.
Hence, function is many – one – one,
Neither injective nor surjective.
(b):-
𝑥 =𝑥 𝑥,
e graph shows f(x) is one –
line parallel to x – axis
oint.
Here range
𝑓 𝑥 ∈ −1, 1
domain Thus, range = co-domain Hence, onto.
e – one onto or (bijective).

(c):-
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3,
Graphically:- Graph shows f(x) is one – one onto
(i.e., bijective)
[as explained in above example].

(d):-
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥
Graphically:- Which shows f(x) is many –
one, as the straight line parallel to x – axis
meets at more than one point.
Here, ran
𝑓 𝑥 ∈ −1, 0, 1
Which shows into as range ⊆ co – domain

Page 38
 Hence, many – one – into.
(e):-
𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 = sin 2 ,
Graphically:- Which shows f(x) is one – one and
onto as range = co – domain.
jective.

Number of one – one onto mapping or bijection

If A and B are finite sets and 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is a bejection.
Then A and B have the same number of elements. if A has n elements, then number of
bijection 𝐴 → 𝐵
Here,
𝑥1 can take n images.
𝑥2 can take n − 1 images.
𝑥3 can take n − 2 images.
……………………………………
……………………………………
𝑥𝑛 can take 1 image.
Thus, total number of mapping are,
𝑛 𝑛 − 1 𝑛 −2 ……… 2 1
Therefore, number of bijection from
𝐴→𝐵= 𝑛 !

Equal and identical function

Two function f and g are said to be equal if:
(i):- the domain of f = the domain of g,
(ii):- the range of f = the range of g and
(iii):- 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑥 , ∀ 𝑥 ∈ domain.
𝑥2
e.g., : f(x) = x and 𝑔 𝑥 = are not equal functions as they do not have same domain and range.
2
Illustration
Let 𝑓 𝑥 = log 𝑥 2 25 and 𝑔 𝑥 = log 𝑥 5 then f(x) = g(x) holds,
then find the interval for x.
Solution
Domain of 𝑓 ∈ 𝑅 − ±1, 0
Domain of 𝑔 ∈ 0, ∞ − 1
For
𝑓 𝑥 =𝑔 𝑥 ,
Domain of f = domain of g.

Page 39
 i.e.,
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑥 ; 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ∈ 0, ∞ − 1 .

Inverse of function
Let 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 be a one – one and onto function then there exists a unique function,
𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐴 such that 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑦 ⟺ 𝑔 𝑦 = 𝑥, ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵.
Then g is said to be inverse of f
Thus, 𝑔 = 𝑓 −1 : 𝐵 → 𝐴 = 𝑓 𝑥 , 𝑥 | 𝑥, 𝑓 𝑥 ∈ 𝑓
Let us consider one – one function with domain A and range B.
Where 𝐴 = 1, 2, 3, 4 and 𝐵 = 2, 4, 6, 8 and 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is given by 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥,
then write f and 𝑓 −1 as a set of ordered pairs.
Here, member 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵 arises from one and only one member 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴
So,
𝑓 = 1, 2 2, 4 3, 6 4, 8
𝑓 −1 = 2, 1 4, 2 6, 3 8, 4

Illustration
If 𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 − 5, then find 𝑓 −1 𝑥 .
Solution
Here f(x) = 3x-5,
Which is clearly bijective as linear in x.
Thus, let
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑦.
⇒ 𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 5
𝑦+5
𝑥=
3
−1 𝑦+5
𝑓 𝑦 = 3
𝑎𝑠 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑓 −1 𝑦
Therefore,
𝑥+5
𝑓 −1 𝑥 = .
3

Illustration

Page 40
 1
If 𝑓: 1, ∞ → 2, ∞ is given by 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑥 then find 𝑓 −1 𝑥 .
(assume bijective).
Solution
Let
𝑦=𝑓 𝑥
𝑥 2 +1
𝑦= ⇒ 𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 + 1 = 0
𝑥
𝑦± 𝑦 2 −4
⇒ 𝑥= 2
𝑦± 𝑦 2 −4
⇒ 𝑓 −1 𝑦 = as 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑓 −1 𝑦
2
𝑥± 𝑥 2 −4
⇒ 𝑓 −1 𝑥 = 2
Since, range of inverse function is 1, ∞ , therefore, neglecting negative sign,
We have,
𝑥+ 𝑥 2 −4
𝑓 −1 𝑥 = .
2

Graph of the inverse of an invertible function

The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 and its inverse written inform 𝑦 = 𝑔 𝑥 are symmetrical about the
line y = x.
The graph 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 and 𝑦 = 𝑓 −1 𝑥 , if intersect then meet on the line y = x only.
Hence, the solution of 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 −1 𝑥 are also the solution of 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥.

𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥
Let 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅 be defined by 𝑓 𝑥 = . Is f(x) invertible? If so, find its inverse.
2
Solution
Let us check for invertibility of f(x):
(a) One – one: Here,
𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥
𝑓′ 𝑥 = 2
′ 𝑒 2𝑥 +1
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑒 𝑥
Which is strictly increasing as 𝑒 2𝑥 > 0 for all x.
Thus, one – one.
(b) Onto: Let

Page 41
 𝑦=𝑓 𝑥
𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
⇒ 𝑦= where y is stirctly monotic.
2
Hence, range of
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 −∞ , 𝑓 ∞
⇒ range of 𝑓 𝑥 = −∞, ∞
So,
range of 𝑓 𝑥 = co − domain.
Hence, f(x) is one – one and onto.

(c) To find 𝒇−𝟏 :

𝑒 2𝑥 −1
𝑦=
2𝑒 𝑥
2𝑥 𝑥
⇒𝑒 − 2𝑒 𝑦 − 1 = 0
2𝑦± 4𝑦 2 +4
⇒ 𝑒𝑥 = 2

⇒ 𝑥 = log 𝑦 ± 𝑦 2 + 1
⇒ 𝑓 −1 𝑦 = log 𝑦 ± 𝑦 2 + 1 𝑎𝑠 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑓 −1 𝑦
𝑓 −1 𝑥
Since, 𝑒 is always positive.
So, neglecting negative sign.
Hence,
𝑓 −1 𝑥 = log 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 1

Properties of inverse of a function

(1) The inverse of bijection is unique.
(2) The inverse of bijection is also bijection.
(3) If 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is bijection and 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐴 is inverse of f.
Then 𝑓𝑜𝑔 = 𝐼𝐵 and 𝑔𝑜𝑓 = 𝐼𝐴 .
Where, IA and IB are identity functions on the sets A and B respectively.
(4) If 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐶 are two bijections,
then 𝑔𝑜𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐶 is bijection and 𝑔𝑜𝑓 −1 = 𝑓 −1 𝑜𝑔−1 .
(5) 𝑓𝑜𝑔 ≠ 𝑔𝑜𝑓 but if, 𝑓𝑜𝑔 = 𝑔𝑜𝑓 then either 𝑓 −1 = 𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝑔−1 = 𝑓 also,

Composite functions
Let us consider two functions,
𝑓: 𝑥 → 𝑦1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔: 𝑦1 → 𝑦.
we define function 𝑕: 𝑥 → 𝑦;
Such that
𝑕 𝑥 =𝑔 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑔𝑜𝑓 𝑥 .

Page 42
 to obtain h(x),
we first take f – image of an element 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋
so that
𝑓 𝑥 ∈ 𝑦1 ,
Which is the domain of g(x).
Then take g- image of f(x), i.e.,
g(f(x))which would be an element of y.

The adjacent figure shows the steps to be taken

The function h defined in
adjacent figure is called
composition of f and g and is
denoted by (gof). It can also
expressed clearly as; shown in
figure.

Domain 𝑔𝑜𝑓 = 𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑓 , 𝑓 𝑥 ∈ 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑔

Similarly, we can write 𝑓𝑜𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑔 , 𝑔 𝑥 ∈ 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑓

Illustration
Let
−1, 𝑥 < 0
𝑔 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 𝑥 = 0, 𝑥 = 0
1, 𝑥 > 0
Then for all x find f(g(x)).
Solution
Here,
𝑔 𝑥 =1+𝑥− 𝑥
⇒ 𝑔 𝑥 =1+ 𝑥 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 − 𝑥 = 𝑥
i.e., g(x) is greater than 1.
So, f(g(x))=1.
Since, f(x) = 1 for all x > 0.
Thus, 𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 = 1, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅.

Illustration
Let
1 + 𝑥, 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2
𝑓 𝑥 =
3 − 𝑥, 2 < 𝑥 ≤ 3

Page 43
 Find 𝑓𝑜𝑓 𝑥 .
Solution
𝑓 1+𝑥 , 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2
𝑓𝑜𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑓 3−𝑥 , 2 < 𝑥 ≤ 3
𝑓 1+𝑥 , 0≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1
⇒ 𝑓 1+𝑥 , 1≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2
𝑓 3−𝑥 , 2< 𝑥 ≤ 3
1+ 1+𝑥 , 0≤𝑥≤1
⇒ 3− 1+𝑥 , 1≤𝑥≤2
1+ 3−𝑥 , 2<𝑥≤3
2 + 𝑥, 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤1
⇒ 2 − 𝑥, 1 < 𝑥 ≤2
4 − 𝑥, 2 < 𝑥 ≤3
Position of function
(i) f is even, g is even ⇒ fog is even function.
(ii) f is odd, g is odd ⇒ fog is odd function.
(iii) f is even, g is odd ⇒ fog is even function.
(iv) f is odd, g is even ⇒ fog is even function.

Illustration
A function 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅 satisfies
sin 𝑥 cos 𝑦 𝑓 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑓 2𝑥 − 2𝑦 = cos 𝑥 sin 𝑦 𝑓 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑓 2𝑥 − 2𝑦
1
If 𝑓 ′ 0 = 2 , then:
𝑎 𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 = 0 𝑏 4𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 + 𝑓 𝑥 = 0
𝑐 𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 + 𝑓 𝑥 = 0 𝑑 4𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 − 𝑓 𝑥 = 0
Solution
We have
𝑓 2𝑥+2𝑦 sin 𝑥+𝑦
= sin
𝑓 2𝑥−2𝑦 𝑥−𝑦
𝑓 𝛼 𝑓 𝛽
⇒ 𝛼 = 𝛽 =𝑘
sin sin
2 2
𝑥
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑘 sin 2
𝑘 𝑥
⇒ 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 2 cos 2
−𝑘 𝑥
⇒ 𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = sin 2
4
⇒ 4𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 + 𝑓 𝑥 = 0
Hence (b) is the correct answer.

Question Practice Online

Page 44
 Day 5
𝑥2
1. If the function 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝐴 given by 𝑓 𝑥 = is a surjection, then A=
𝑥 2 +1
𝑎 𝑅 𝑏 0, 1 𝑐 0, 1 𝑑 [0, 1)

2. The function 𝑓 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 , is periodic with period

𝑎 2 𝑏  𝑐  2 𝑑  4

3. The function
sin4 𝑥 + cos 4 𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑖𝑠
𝑥 + 𝑥 2 tan 𝑥
a even b odd c periodic with period  d periodic with period 2

𝑥 3+ 𝑥
4. Let 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅 be a function defined by 𝑓 𝑥 = − , then the graph of f (x) lies in the
1+𝑥 2
a i and ii quadrants b i and iii quadrants

5. Let g(x) be a function defined on [-1, 1]. If the area of the equilateral triangle with two of its
3
vertices at (0, 0) and (x, g(x)) is , then the function g(x) is
4

𝑎 ± 1 − 𝑥2 𝑏 − 1 − 𝑥2 𝑐 1 − 𝑥2 𝑑 1 + 𝑥2

𝑥−3
6. The domain of definition of the function 𝑓 𝑥 = sin−1 − ln 4 − 𝑥 is
2
𝑎 1≤𝑥≤5 𝑏 1<𝑥<4 𝑐 1≤𝑥<4 𝑑 1≤𝑥≤4
3
7. The domain of definition of 𝑓 𝑥 = sin−1 𝑥 − 1 − 2 is
𝑎 −2, 0 ∪ 2, 4 𝑏 −2, 0 ∪ 2, 4 𝑐 −2, 0 ∪ 1, 3 𝑑 𝑁. 𝑂. 𝑇.

sin 𝑥
8. 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑖𝑓 𝐼𝐷 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓, 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠.
1+3 sin 𝑥

𝑎 0,  𝑏 −2, − 𝑐 3, 4 𝑑 𝑁. 𝑂. 𝑇.

9. The value of the parameter ∝, for which the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 1+∝ 𝑥, ∝≠ 0 is the inverse of itself,
is
𝑎 −2 𝑏 −1 𝑐 1 𝑑 2

1 sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥
10. The function 𝑓 𝑥 = 2 cos 𝑥
+ cos 𝑥
is periodic with period
𝑎  𝑏 2 𝑐  2 𝑑 𝑁. 𝑂. 𝑇.

Page 45
11. If f(x) is defined on [0, 1], then the domain of 𝑓 3𝑥 2 is
1 1 1 𝑐 − 3, 3 𝑑 𝑁. 𝑂. 𝑇.
𝑎 0, 𝑏 − ,
3 3 3

12. Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 1 and ∅ 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 2. Then the values of x satisfying 𝑓 𝑥 + ∅ 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 +

∅ 𝑥 are:
𝑎 −∞, 1 𝑏 2, ∞ 𝑐 −∞, −2 𝑑 [1, ∞)

13. If the function 𝑓: 1, ∞ → [1, ∞) is defined by 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 𝑥−1 , then 𝑓 −1 𝑥 is

1 𝑥 𝑥−1 1 1 𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑
𝑎 𝑏 1 + 1 + 4 log 2 𝑥 𝑐 1 − 1 + 4 log 2 𝑥
2 2 2
𝑥+1 1
14. 𝑓 = 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 4 then f(3)=
𝑥
𝑎 47 (b) 45 (c) 49 𝑑 𝑁. 𝑂. 𝑇.

−1 𝑥 2 +1
15. The domain of cos sin 𝑥 + 1 − 𝑥 + sin−1 will be
2𝑥
𝑎 𝑅− 1 𝑏 −1, 1 𝑐 𝑥>1 𝑑 𝑁. 𝑂. 𝑇.
𝑥4
16. The range of is
𝑥 8 +1
𝑎 0, 1 2 𝑏 0, 1 2 𝑐 0, ∞ 𝑑 𝑁. 𝑂. 𝑇.
17. The period of the function 𝑓 𝑥 = sin 3𝑥 + cos 6𝑥 is ( [ .] denotes the greatest integer less than
or equal to x)
𝑎  𝑏 2 3 𝑐  2 𝑑 2
−1 3 1/5
18. If 𝑓 𝑥 = sin 4 − 𝑥 − 7 , then its inverse is …………..
19. If g(x) is a polynomial satisfying g(x) g(y)=g(x)+g(y)+g(x y)-2 for all real x & y and g(2) =5 then
g(3) is equal to
𝑎 10 𝑏 24 𝑐 21 𝑑 𝑁. 𝑂. 𝑇.
20. Function f(x) is defined on interval [0, 1]. Find domain of definition of:
Answer
(1) d (2) b (3) c (4) d
(5) b, c (6) c (7) a (8) b
(9) b (10) b (11) b (12) a, b

Page 46
 Day 6

1. The Value of b and c for which the identity 𝑓 𝑥 + 1 − 𝑓 𝑥 = 8𝑥 + 3 is satisfied, where

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 are
𝑎 𝑏 = 2, 𝑐 = 1 𝑏 𝑏 = 4, 𝑐 = −1 𝑐 𝑏 = −1, 𝑐 = 4 𝑑 𝑁𝑜𝑛𝑒

2. If f (0) =2, f(1)=3 and f(x+2)=2f(x)-f(x+1) for every real x then f(5) is equal to:
𝑎 13 𝑏 1 𝑐 5 𝑑 1

∝𝑥
3. Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥+1 , 𝑥 ≠ −1 then for what value of ∝ is 𝑓 𝑓 𝑥 =𝑥
𝑎 2 𝑏 − 2 𝑐 1 𝑑 −1

4. Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∝ 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 be periodic. Then ∝ must be

a rational b irrational c Positive real number d None of these

10 𝑥 −10 −𝑥
5. The inverse of the function 𝑦 = 10 𝑥 +10 −𝑥 + 1 is:
𝑥 1 𝑥 1 𝑥 𝑑 None of these
𝑎 𝑦 = log10 𝑏 𝑦 = log 𝑐 𝑦 = log10
2−𝑥 2 10
2−𝑥 2 1−𝑥

6. If 𝑓 𝑥 + 2𝑓 1 − 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 2 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 then f(x) is equal to

𝑎 𝑥2 − 2 𝑏 1 𝑐 1 3 𝑥−2 2
𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑒

2𝑥 𝑥 ≥ 0
7. The equivalent definition of the function given by 𝑓 𝑥 = is
0, 𝑥 < 0
𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑏 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 𝑐 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 +𝑥 𝑑 𝑓 𝑥 = 2|𝑥|

8. If f(x) is an odd periodic function with period 2 then f (4) equals:

𝑎 0 𝑏 2 𝑐 4 𝑑 −4

9. If 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅 is a function such that 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 𝑓 ′ 1 + 𝑥𝑓"(2) + F"′ 3 for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 then

𝑓 2 − 𝑓 1 is:
𝑎 1 0 𝑏 −𝑓 0 𝑐 𝑓′ 0 𝑑 − 𝑓′ 0

1
10. The range of the function 𝑓 𝑥 = =
2−sin 3𝑥
𝑎 1 3,1 𝑏 1 3,1 𝑐 1 3,1 𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑒

11. The domain of the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 2 − 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 is

Page 47
 𝑎 −3 ≤𝑥 ≤ 3 𝑏 − 1 − 3 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ −1 + 3 𝑐 −2≤𝑥 ≤2 𝑑 None of these

log 2 𝑥+3
12. The domain of definition of 𝑓 𝑥 = is
𝑥 2 +3𝑥+2
𝑅 𝑏 −2, ∞ 𝑅 −3, ∞
𝑎 𝑐 𝑑
−1, −2 −1, −2, −3 −1, −2

13. If 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 + 𝑑 then range of f(x) is:

𝑎 𝑑 + 𝑎 𝑑 + 2𝑎 𝑏 𝑎−𝑑 𝑎+𝑑 𝑐 𝑑+𝑎 𝑎−𝑑 𝑑 𝑑−𝑎 𝑑+𝑎

14. The value of b for which the function 𝑓 𝑥 = sin 𝑥 − 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 is decreasing in the interval (−∞, ∞) is
given by:
𝑎 𝑏<1 𝑏 𝑏≥1 𝑐 𝑏>1 𝑑 𝑏≤1

Answer

(1) b (2) a (3) d (4) a

(5) b (6) c (7) c (8) a

(9) b (10) b (11) b (12) d

(13) d (14) a

Page 48
 Chapter
ggg Limit
2
Day 1

Basic concept
Enquiry:-why do we want to know the limit of a function?
𝑥 2 −𝑎 2
Consider a function 𝑓 𝑥 = . The function f(x) is defined at all points except at x = a
𝑥−𝑎
because at x = a, f(x) = 0/0 which is indeterminate in the language of mathematics hence we want
𝑥 2 −𝑎 2
to know what value does f(x) approach as x approaches a. Graph of 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 ± 𝑎 is
𝑥 −𝑎
shown in fig. 1. Circle at point (a, 2a) means that the point is excluded from the graph of the
function. It is for this reason we define limit‟s get rid of manipulation or simplification constraint
of function. So the mineral
We write
𝑥 2 −𝑎 2 𝑥−𝑎 𝑥+𝑎
lim𝑥→𝑎 = lim𝑥→𝑎 = lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑎 = 2𝑎
𝑥−𝑎 𝑥−𝑎

Fig (I)
(i):- Limit of function f(x) is said to exist as 𝑥 → 𝑎 then,
lim𝑥→𝑎 − 𝑓 𝑥 = lim𝑥→𝑎 + 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑙 finite quantity

(Limit exist, at x = a) (Limit does not exist, at x = a)

Fundamental algebraic operation on limits of function

Page 49
 Let
limx→a 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝛼 and lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝛽 then
(ii):-
lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 ± 𝑔 𝑥 = lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 ± lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝛼 ± 𝛽
lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 . 𝑔 𝑥 = lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 . lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝛼𝛽
𝑓 𝑥 lim 𝑓 𝑥 𝛼
lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑔 = lim 𝑥 →𝑎 𝑔 =𝛽 proveded 𝛽 ≠ 0
𝑥 𝑥 →𝑎 𝑥
lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑘 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑘𝛼 where k is a constant.
lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝛽 ,
Provided f is continuous at 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝛽.
Standard limits
(a):- sin 𝑥
lim =1
𝑥 →0 𝑥
(b):- tan 𝑥 tan−1 𝑥 sin−1 𝑥
lim = 1 = lim = lim . Where x is in radian.
𝑥 →0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑥
(c):- 1
lim 1 + 𝑥 1/𝑥 = 𝑒 = lim 1 +
𝑥 →0 𝑥→∞ 𝑥
(d):- lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 1 and lim ∅ 𝑥 = ∞, then
𝑥 →𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
∅ 𝑥
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = lim
𝑥 →𝑎
∅ 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 −1
𝑥 →𝑎 e
𝑥
(e):- 𝑎 −1
lim = ln 𝑎 𝑎 > 0
𝑥 →0 𝑥
𝑥
(f):- 𝑒 −1
lim =1
𝑥 →0 𝑥
(g):- 𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛
lim = 𝑛 𝑎𝑛 −1
𝑥 →𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑎
(h):- log𝑒 1 + 𝑥
lim =1
𝑥 →0 𝑥

Indeterminate forms
0 ∞
, , 0 × ∞, 00 , ∞0 , ∞ − ∞ and 1∞ , ∞ − ∞
0 ∞

Sandwich theorem
Let f, g, h be three continuous functions such that f < g < h is an open interval containing „a‟ and
suppose
lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 = lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑕 𝑥 = 𝑙
Then,
lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑔 𝑥
Also exists and is equal to l.
Some important expansions

Page 50
 (i):- 𝑥2 𝑥3
𝑒𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + + +⋯
2! 3!
(ii):- 𝑥2 𝑥3
ln 1 + 𝑥 = 𝑥 − + − ⋯ 𝑥 <1
2 3
(iii):- 𝑛 𝑛−1 2
1 + 𝑥 𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛 , 𝑛∈𝑁
2!
(iv):- 𝑥2 𝑥3
𝑎 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 ln 𝑎 + ln 𝑎 2 + ln 𝑎 3 + ⋯
2! 3!
(v):- 𝑥3 𝑥5
sin 𝑥 = 𝑥 − + − ⋯
3! 5!
(vi):- 𝑥2 𝑥4
cos 𝑥 = 1 − + − ⋯
2! 4!
(vii):- 1 𝑥 11 2
1+𝑥 𝑥 = 𝑒 1− + 𝑥 +⋯
2 24
(viii):- 𝑥 3 2𝑥 5
tan 𝑥 = 𝑥 + + +⋯
3 15
(ix):- 𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7
tan−1 𝑥 = 𝑥 − + − + ⋯
3 5 7
3 2 2
(x):- 𝑥 1 . 3 12 . 32 . 52 7
sin−1 𝑥 = 𝑥 + + 𝑥5 + 𝑥 +⋯
3! 5! 7!
(xi):- 𝑥 2 5𝑥 4 6𝑥 6
sec −1 𝑥 = 1 + + + +⋯
2! 4! 6!
Following strategies should be born in mind for evaluating the limits:
(a):- Factorization
(b):- Rationalization or double rationalization
(c):- Use of trigonometric transformation, appropriate substitution and using standard limits.

Factorization method

Illustration
𝑥−1
lim𝑥→1
2𝑥 2 −7𝑥+5
Solution
The given limit
𝑥−1
lim𝑥→1
2𝑥 2 −7𝑥+5
𝑥−1
⇒ lim𝑥→1
𝑥−1 2𝑥−5
1 1
⇒ lim =
𝑥→1 2𝑥−5 2×1−5
1
⇒ −
3

Page 51
Illustration
𝑥 3 −𝑥 2 ln 𝑥+ln 𝑥 −1
lim𝑥→1 𝑥 2 −1
Solution
The given limit
𝑥 3 −1 − 𝑥 2 −1 ln 𝑥
lim𝑥→1 𝑥 2 −1
𝑥−1 𝑥 2 +𝑥+1 − 𝑥−1 𝑥+1 ln 𝑥
⇒ lim𝑥→1 𝑥−1 𝑥+1
𝑥−1 𝑥 2 +𝑥+1− 𝑥+1 ln 𝑥
⇒ lim𝑥→1 𝑥−1 𝑥+1
12 +1+1− 1+1 ln 1
⇒ 1+1
3−0 3
⇒ =2
2

Rationalization Method

Illustration
𝑥+𝑕 − 𝑥
lim𝑕→0 𝑕

Solution
𝑥+𝑕 − 𝑥
lim𝑕→0 𝑕

𝑥+𝑕 − 𝑥 𝑥+𝑕 + 𝑥
⇒ lim𝑕→0 ×
𝑕 𝑥+𝑕 + 𝑥
𝑥+𝑕 −𝑥
⇒ lim𝑕→0 𝑕 𝑥+𝑕 + 𝑥
1
⇒ 2 𝑥

Illustration
3
10−𝑥 −2
lim𝑥→2
𝑥−2
Solution
Because the fractional power of (10-x) is 1/3, hence we have to multiply and divide the
expression by such expression so that each terms become free from radicals (fractional powers).
Hence if we think
3
10 − 𝑥 − 2 = 𝑎 − 𝑏. The suitable terms is 𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏2 .
As (a-b) 𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏2 = 𝑎3 − 𝑏3 . Now see below
The given limit

Page 52
 3
3
(10−𝑥)−2 10−𝑥 +2. 3 10−𝑥 +4
⇒ lim𝑥→2 3
𝑥−2 10−𝑥 +2. 3 10−𝑥 +4

3 3
10−𝑥 −23
⇒ lim𝑥→2 3
𝑥−2 10−𝑥 +2. 3 10−𝑥 +4
2−𝑥
⇒ lim𝑥
𝑥−2 10−𝑥 2/3 +2. 10−𝑥 2/3 +4
1
⇒ − 12

Based on standard formula

𝑥 𝑛 −𝑎 𝑛
lim𝑥→𝑎 = 𝑛 𝑎𝑛−1 , wheere ′n′ is rational number
𝑥−𝑎
Illustration
𝑥 3 −23
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→2 𝑥−2
Solution
𝑥 3 −23 3−1
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→2 ⇒3 2
𝑥−2
⇒ 12.
Illustration
3
𝑥 + 𝑥+𝑥 𝑥−3
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→1 𝑥 3 −1
Solution
3 3
𝑥 −1 + 𝑥−1 + 𝑥 3/2 −1 𝑥 −1 𝑥−1 𝑥 3 2 −1 1
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→1 ⇒ 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→1 + +
𝑥−1 𝑥 2 +𝑥+1 𝑥−1 𝑥−1 𝑥−1 𝑥 2 +𝑥+1
1 −2/3 1 −1/2 3 1/2 1
⇒ × 1 +2× 1 +2× 1 ×3
3
⇒7 9
Illustration
𝑥 𝑝 +1 − 𝑝+1 𝑥+𝑝
lim𝑥→1 𝑥−1 2

Solution
𝑥 𝑝 +1 − 𝑝+1 𝑥+𝑝 𝑥 𝑝 +1 −𝑝𝑥 −𝑥+𝑝 𝑥 𝑥 𝑝 −1 −𝑝 𝑥−1
⇒ lim𝑥→1 ⇒ lim ⇒ lim𝑥→1
𝑥−1 2 𝑥→1 𝑥−1 2 𝑥−1 2
r r
Dividing N and D by (x-1) we get the limit
𝑥 𝑝 −1
𝑥 −𝑝 𝑥+𝑥 2 +𝑥 3 + ……+𝑥 𝑝 −𝑝
𝑥 −1
⇒ lim𝑥→1 ⇒ lim
𝑥−1 𝑥→1 𝑥−1
(Using summation of x terms of G.P.)
𝑥−1 + 𝑥 2 −1 + 𝑥 3 −1 + …..+ 𝑥 𝑝 −1
⇒ limx→1 𝑥−1
𝑥−1 𝑥 2 −1 𝑥 3 −1 𝑥 𝑝 −1
⇒ lim𝑥→1 + + + …………+
𝑥−1 𝑥−1 𝑥−1 𝑥−1
𝑝 𝑝+1
⇒ 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ … … … … . +𝑝 ⇒ 2

Page 53
 Day 2

Algebraic function of ∞ type ∞ ∞ form

First of all we should know the limiting values of 1/x, a x (a>0) as 𝑥 → ∞. See the graph function
of these function. You will see in the graph of 1/x that the curve appears to touch x- axis on right
1
side as 𝑥 → ∞. This is because lim𝑥→∞ 𝑥 → 0 and it‟s true for any function like
𝐴 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑛𝑜. 𝑘
𝑓 𝑥 = =
𝑥 𝑥
i.e.
𝐴 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑛𝑜. = 𝑘
lim →0
𝑥→∞ 𝑥

Now see the graph of ax when a>1. This graph appears to touch x- axis in the negative side of x-
axis and there after it increases rapidly. That‟s why because lim𝑥→∞ 𝑎 𝑥 → 0. Again you‟ll also
the result lim𝑥→∞ 𝑎 𝑥 → ∞. In fact we have the following results
∞ 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 > 1
lim ax = 1 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 = 1
𝑥→∞
0 𝑖𝑓0 ≤ 𝑎 < 1

How to solve problems

This type of problems are solved by taking the highest power of the terms tending to infinity as
common in Nr & Dr. there after they are can cancelled and the rest outputs the result. Now see the
problems below.

Illustration
12 22 32 𝑛2
lim𝑛→∞ + 𝑛3 + 𝑛3 + … … . + 𝑛3
𝑛3
Solution
The given limit
12 +22 +32 + ………+𝑛 2
⇒ lim𝑛→∞ 𝑛3
𝑛2
⇒ limn→∞ 𝑛3
But from the knowledge of progression we know that
𝑛 𝑛+1 2𝑛+1
𝑛2 = 6
2𝑛 3 +3𝑛 2 +𝑛
⇒ 6
Hence the given limit
3 1
𝑛 3 2+ + 2
𝑛 𝑛
⇒ limn→∞ 6×𝑛 2
⇒ 1 3

Page 54
Illustration
𝑛+2 !+ 𝑛+1 !
lim
𝑛→∞ 𝑛+2 !− 𝑛+1 !
Solution
Since
𝑛+2 != 𝑛+2 𝑛+1 !
Hence the given limit
𝑛+2 𝑛+1 !+ 𝑛+1 !
⇒ lim𝑛→∞ 𝑛+2 𝑛+1 !− 𝑛+1 !
𝑛+2+1 𝑛+1 !
⇒ lim𝑛→∞ 𝑛+2−1 𝑛+1 !
𝑛 1+3 𝑛
⇒ lim𝑛→∞ 𝑛 1+1 𝑛
⇒ 1

Illustration
𝑥 2 +𝑥
lim𝑥→±∞ 𝑥+6
Solution
𝑥 2 +𝑥
𝑥+6
𝑥 2 1+1 𝑥
⇒ 𝑥 1+6 𝑥
𝑥 2 1+1 𝑥
⇒ 𝑥 1+6 𝑥
𝑥 1+1 𝑥
⇒ 𝑥 1+6 𝑥
When
𝑥 → +∞; 𝑥 = 𝑥
Hence the given limit
𝑥 1+1 𝑥
⇒ lim𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 1+6 𝑥
⇒1
When
𝑥 → −∞; 𝑥 = −𝑥
Hence the given limit
−𝑥 1+1 𝑥
⇒ lim𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 1+6 𝑥
⇒ −1

Illustration
lim𝑛→∞ 𝑛 − 𝑛2 + 𝑛
Solution

Page 55
 𝑛 + 𝑛 2 +𝑛
⇒ lim 𝑛 − 𝑛2 + 𝑛 ×
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 + 𝑛 2 +𝑛

𝑛 2 −𝑛 2 −𝑛
⇒ lim
𝑛→∞ 𝑛+ 𝑛 2 1+1/𝑛
−𝑛
⇒ lim𝑛→∞
𝑛+𝑛 1+1 𝑛
−𝑛
⇒ lim𝑛→∞
𝑛 1+ 1+1 𝑛
−1
⇒ 1+ 1+0
⇒ −1 2

Illustration
lim𝑥→±∞ 𝑥 𝑥2 + 𝑘 − 𝑥
Solution
𝑥 𝑥 2 +𝑘+𝑥
⇒ lim 𝑥 𝑥2 + 𝑘 − 𝑥 ×
𝑥→±∞ 𝑥 𝑥 2 +𝑘+𝑥

𝑥 𝑥 2 +𝑘−𝑥 2
⇒ lim𝑥→±∞
𝑥 2 1+𝑘/𝑥 2 +𝑥
𝑥𝑘
⇒ lim𝑥→±∞
𝑥 2 1+𝑘/𝑥 2 +𝑥
𝑥𝑘
⇒ lim𝑥→±∞
𝑥 1+𝑘/𝑥 2 +𝑥
Here the consider the two cases
(i) When
𝑥 → ∞; 𝑥 = 𝑥
Then the given limit
𝑥𝑘
⇒ lim𝑥→∞
𝑥 1+𝑘 𝑥 2 +𝑥
𝑥𝑘
⇒ lim𝑥→∞ 𝑘
𝑥 1+ 2 +1
𝑥

⇒𝑘 2
(i) Whensd
𝑥 → −∞; 𝑥 = −𝑥
Then the given limit
𝑥𝑘
⇒ lim𝑥→∞
−𝑥 1+𝑘 𝑥 2 +𝑥
𝑥𝑘
⇒ lim𝑥→∞
𝑥 − 1+𝑘/𝑥 2 +1
𝑘
⇒ −1+1
𝑘
⇒0→∞
Trigonometrical Limits

Page 56
 We use following formulae under this class
sin 𝜃
𝐢 : limθ→0 =1
𝜃
𝐢𝐢 : limθ→0 cos 𝜃 = 1
tan 𝜃
𝐢𝐢𝐢 : limθ→0 =1
𝜃

Illustration
sin 𝛼𝑥
Evaluate lim𝑥→0 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽𝑥
Solution
sin 𝛼𝑥
lim𝑥→0 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽𝑥
1
⇒ lim sin 𝛼𝑥 × tan 𝛽𝑥
𝑥→0
sin 𝛼𝑥 1
⇒ lim𝑥→0 × 𝛼𝑥 × tan 𝛽𝑥
𝛼𝑥
𝛽𝑥
1
⇒ 1×𝛼 × 1×𝛽
⇒𝛼 𝛽

Illustration
1−cos 𝑥
Evaluate lim𝑥→0 𝑥2
Solution
1−cos 𝑥
lim𝑥→0 𝑥2
2
2 sin 𝑥 2
⇒ lim
𝑥→0 𝑥2
sin 𝑥 2 2
⇒ lim 2
𝑥→0 2 𝑥 2
2
⇒2 1 2
⇒1 2

Illustration
sin 𝑥−𝜋/6
Evaluate lim𝑥→𝜋/6 3 2−cos 𝑥

Solution
sin 𝑥−𝜋/6
lim𝑥→𝜋/6 cos 𝜋/6−cos 𝑥
𝑥 −𝜋 /6 𝑥−𝜋 /6
2 sin cos
2 2
⇒ lim 𝜋 6 +𝑥 𝑥 −𝜋 /6
𝑥→𝜋/6 2 sin sin
2 2
cos 0
⇒ sin 𝜋 6
1
⇒1 2

Page 57
 ⇒2

Illustration
Evaluate lim𝑥→∞ 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑑/𝑒 𝑥
Solution
When
𝑥 → ∞; 𝑒 𝑥 → ∞
But the angle of
‘𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 𝑑/𝑒 𝑥
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒
= ∞
=0
The given limit
sin 𝑑/𝑒 𝑥
⇒ lim𝑥→∞ 1 𝑒𝑥
sin 𝑑/𝑒 𝑥
⇒ lim𝑥→∞ ×𝑑
𝑑 𝑒𝑥
⇒1×𝑑
⇒𝑑

Illustration
sin −1 𝑦 tan −1 𝑧
Evaluate 𝑖 lim , Evaluate 𝑖𝑖 lim
𝑦→0 𝑦 𝑧→0 𝑧

Solution
Let
sin−1 𝑦 = 𝜃.
Because
𝑦→0
Therefore
𝜃 = sin−1 𝑦 → 0 and 𝑦 = sin 𝜃
∴ The limit
sin −1 𝑦
⇒ lim𝑦→0
𝑦
𝜃
⇒ lim𝜃→0 sin 𝜃
1
⇒ lim𝜃→0 sin 𝜃
𝜃

⇒1
Similarly, we can prove
tan −1 𝑧
𝑖𝑖 lim =1
𝑧→0 𝑧
Illustration

Page 58
 2𝑥−tan −1 𝑥
Evaluate lim𝑥→0 4𝑥+sin −1 𝑥
Solution
2𝑥−tan −1 𝑥
lim𝑥→0 4𝑥+sin −1 𝑥
tan −1 𝑥
𝑥 2−
𝑥
⇒ lim −1 𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑥 4+sin
x
2−1
⇒ 4+1
⇒ 1 5.

Illustration
𝑥 sin 𝑎 −𝑎 sin 𝑥
Evaluate lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑥 −𝑎
Solution
𝑥 sin 𝑎 −𝑎 sin 𝑥
lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎
𝑥 sin 𝑎 −𝑎 sin 𝑎 +𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎 −𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
⇒ lim
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎
𝑥−𝑎 sin 𝑎−𝑎 sin 𝑥−sin 𝑎
⇒ lim
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎
sin 𝑥−sin 𝑎
⇒ lim𝑥→𝑎 sin 𝑎 − 𝑎 × 𝑥−𝑎
𝑥 −𝑎
𝑥+𝑎 sin
⇒ sin 𝑎 − 𝑎 × lim𝑥→𝑎 2 cos 𝑥 −𝑎
2
2
2

⇒ sin 𝑎 − 𝑎 cos 𝑎.

Illustration
1−tan 𝑥
Evaluate lim𝑥→𝜋/4 1− 2 sin 𝑥
Solution
1−tan 𝑥
lim𝑥→𝜋/4 1− 2 sin 𝑥
sin 𝑥 1
⇒ lim 1 − cos 𝑥
𝑥→𝜋/4 2 1 2−sin 𝑥
1 cos 𝑥 −sin 𝑥 1
⇒ lim𝑥→𝜋 4 cos 𝑥 2 sin 𝜋 4− sin 𝑥
1 1
⇒ lim𝑥→𝜋 4 cos 𝑥 sin 𝜋 4 cos 𝑥 − cos 𝜋 4 sin 𝑥 sin 𝜋 4− sin 𝑥
1 sin 𝜋 4−𝑥
⇒ lim𝑥→𝜋 4 cos 𝑥 × sin 𝜋 4 − sin 𝑥
𝜋 4 −𝑥 𝜋 4 −𝑥
1 2sin cos
2 2
lim𝑥→𝜋 4 cos 𝑥 × 𝜋 4 +𝑥 𝜋 4 −𝑥
2cos sin
2 2

=2
Illustration

Page 59
 1−cos 𝑥 cos 2𝑥
Evaluate lim𝑥→0 𝑥2
Solution
1−cos 𝑥 cos 2𝑥
lim𝑥→0 𝑥2
1−cos 𝑥 cos 2𝑥 1+cos 𝑥 cos 2𝑥
⇒ lim ×
𝑥→0 𝑥2 1+cos 𝑥 cos 2𝑥
1−cos 2 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥
⇒ lim𝑥→0 𝑥 2 1+cos 𝑥 cos 2𝑥
1−cos 2 𝑥 1−2 sin 2 𝑥
⇒ lim𝑥→0 𝑥 2 1+cos 𝑥 cos 2𝑥
(1−cos 2 𝑥)+2 cos 2 𝑥 sin 2 𝑥
⇒ lim
𝑥→0 𝑥 2 1+cos 𝑥 cos 2𝑥
sin 2 𝑥 (1+2 cos 2 𝑥)
⇒ lim ×
𝑥→0 𝑥2 1+cos 𝑥 cos 2𝑥
1+2×1
⇒ 12 × 1+1× 1
⇒3 2

Illustration
1−cos 𝑥 1−cos 𝑥
Evaluate lim𝑥→0
𝑥4
Solution
1−cos 𝑥 1−cos 𝑥
lim
𝑥→0 𝑥4
1−cos 𝑥 2 sin 2 𝑥/2
⇒ lim𝑥→0 𝑥4
2 sin 2 𝑥 /2
2 sin 2
2
⇒ lim 𝑥→0 𝑥4
𝟐
𝑠𝑖𝑛 sin 2 𝑥 2 𝟐 sin 2 𝑥 2
⇒ lim𝑥→0 2 ×
sin 2 𝑥 2 𝑥2
4
𝑠𝑖𝑛 sin 2 𝑥 2 𝟐 sin 2 𝑥 2
⇒ lim𝑥→0 2 ×
sin 2 𝑥 2 𝑥 2×2
⇒ 2 × 12 × 1 2 4

⇒1 8

Logarithmic Limits
ln 1+𝑥
lim𝑥→0 𝑥

Illustration
Evaluate lim𝑥→∞ 𝑥 ln 1 + 1/𝑥
Solution
lim𝑥→∞ 𝑥 ln 1 + 1 𝑥

Page 60
 ln 1+1/𝑥
⇒ lim𝑥→∞ 1/𝑥
Here, we can assume
1/𝑥 = 𝑕.
Obviously this
𝑕→0
When
𝑥→∞
Hence the given limit
ln 1+𝑕
lim𝑕→0 𝑕
⇒1

Illustration
ln 1+𝑘𝑥
Evaluate lim𝑥→0 𝑥
Solution
ln 1+𝑘𝑥
⇒ lim ×𝑘
𝑥→0 𝑘𝑥
Here, we can assume
𝑘𝑥 = 𝑕.
Obviously this
𝑕→0
When
𝑥→0
Hence the given limit
ln 1+𝑘𝑥
⇒ lim ×𝑘
𝑥→0 𝑘𝑥
ln 1+𝑕
⇒ lim𝑕→0 ×𝑘
𝑕
⇒1×𝑘
⇒𝑘

Illustration
ln 5+𝑥 −ln 5−𝑥
Evaluate lim𝑥→0 𝑥
Solution
ln 5+𝑥 −ln 5−𝑥
lim𝑥→0 𝑥
ln 5 1+𝑥/5 −ln 5 1−𝑥/5
⇒ lim
𝑥→0 𝑥
ln 5+ln 1+𝑥 5 − ln 5+ln 1+𝑥 5
⇒ lim
𝑥→0 𝑥
ln 1+𝑥 5 −ln 1+𝑥 5
⇒ lim
𝑥→0 𝑥

Page 61
 𝑥 𝑥
1 ln 1+5 ln 1−
5 1
⇒ lim𝑥→0 5 − lim𝑥→0 .
𝑥 5 −𝑥 5 −5
1 1
⇒5+5
⇒2 5
Exponential Limits
𝑒 𝑥 −1
lim𝑥→0 =1
𝑥

Illustration
𝑎 𝑥 −1
Evaluate lim𝑥→0 𝑥
Solution
𝑎 𝑥 −1
lim𝑥→0 𝑥
∵ 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥𝑙𝑛 𝑎
The given limit
𝑒 𝑥𝑙𝑛 𝑎 −1
lim𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑥𝑙𝑛 𝑎 2
1+𝑥 ln 𝑎 + + …….𝑡𝑜 ∞ −1
2!
⇒ lim
𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑥𝑙𝑛 𝑎 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑎
⇒ lim𝑥 1+ + terms of higher power of 𝑥
𝑥 2!
⇒ ln 𝑎
𝑒 𝑥𝑙𝑛 𝑎 −1
or, lim𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑒 𝑥𝑙𝑛 𝑎
⇒ lim𝑥→0 × ln 𝑎
𝑥𝑙𝑛 𝑎
⇒ 1 × ln 𝑎
⇒ ln 𝑎

Illustration
𝑎 𝑥 −𝑏 𝑥
Evaluate lim𝑥→0 𝑥
Solution
𝑎 𝑥 −𝑏 𝑥
lim𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑎 𝑥 −1+1−𝑏 𝑥
⇒ lim𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑎 𝑥 −1 − 𝑏 𝑥 −1
⇒ lim𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑎 𝑥 −1 𝑏 𝑥 −1
⇒ lim𝑥 −
𝑥 𝑥
⇒ ln 𝑎 − ln 𝑏
⇒ ln 𝑎 𝑏

Page 62
Illustration
𝑝 𝑥 −𝑞 𝑥
Evaluate lim𝑥→0 𝑟 𝑥 −𝑠 𝑥
Solution
𝑝 𝑥 −𝑞 𝑥
lim𝑥→0 𝑟 𝑥 −𝑠 𝑥
𝑝 𝑥 −𝑞 𝑥
𝑥
⇒ lim 𝑟 𝑥 −𝑠 𝑥
𝑥→0
𝑥
ln 𝑝 𝑞
⇒ ln 𝑟 𝑠

Illustration
𝑎𝑏 𝑥 −𝑎 𝑥 −𝑏 𝑥 +1
Evaluate lim𝑥→0 𝑥2
Solution
𝑎𝑏 𝑥 −𝑎 𝑥 −𝑏 𝑥 +1
lim𝑥→0 𝑥2
𝑎 𝑥 𝑏 𝑥 −𝑎 𝑥 −𝑏 𝑥 +1
⇒ lim
𝑥→0 𝑥2
𝑎 𝑥 𝑏 𝑥 −1 −1 𝑏 𝑥 −1
⇒ lim 𝑥→0 𝑥2
𝑎 𝑥 −1 𝑏 𝑥 −1
⇒ lim𝑥→0 ×
𝑥 𝑥
⇒ ln 𝑎 × ln 𝑏
Illustration
3𝑥 −3 −𝑥 −2
Evaluate lim𝑥→0 𝑥2
Solution
3𝑥 −3 −𝑥 −2
lim𝑥→0 𝑥2
32𝑥 −2.3𝑥 +1
⇒ lim
𝑥→0 3𝑥 𝑥 2
3𝑥 −1 2 1
⇒ lim𝑥→0 . 3𝑥
𝑥
⇒ ln 3 2 . 1 3 0

⇒ ln 3 2
Illustration
𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
Evaluate lim𝑥→0 𝑥
Solution
𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
lim𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑒 𝑥 −1 𝑒 −𝑥 −1
⇒ lim𝑥→0 −
𝑥 𝑥
𝑒 𝑥 −1 𝑒 −𝑥 −1
⇒ lim𝑥→0 + lim𝑥→0
𝑥 −𝑥

Page 63
 ⇒1+1
⇒2
Illustration
𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 −𝑒 𝑥
𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 lim𝑥→0 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 −𝑥
Solution
𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 −𝑒 𝑥
lim𝑥→0 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 −𝑥
𝑒 𝑥 ×𝑒 tan 𝑥 −𝑥 −𝑒 𝑥
⇒ lim𝑥→0 tan 𝑥−𝑥
𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 tan 𝑥 −𝑥 −1
⇒ lim𝑥→0 tan 𝑥−𝑥
𝑥 𝑒 tan 𝑥 −𝑥 −1
⇒ lim𝑥→0 𝑒 × lim𝑥→0 ⇒1×1 ⇒1
tan 𝑥−𝑥

Page 64
 Day 3

Based on definition of ‘e’

Evaluation of exponential limits of the form 1 
To evaluate the exponential form 1 we use the following results.
Result:-
if lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 = lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑔 𝑥 = 0, 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛
1 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥 lim x →a
lim𝑥→𝑎 1 + 𝑓 𝑥 𝑥 =e 𝑔 𝑥

When
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 1𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim 𝑔 𝑥 =  ,
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
Then
𝑔 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥
lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 = lim𝑥→𝑎 1 + 𝑓 𝑥 − 1
⇒ 𝑒 lim 𝑥 →𝑎 𝑦 𝑥 −1 𝑔 𝑥

Particular cases
𝑖 lim 1 + 𝑥 1/𝑥
=𝑒 1 𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑖𝑖 lim 1 + =𝑒
𝑥→ 𝑥
𝑖𝑖𝑖 lim 1 + 𝜆𝑥 1/𝑥
= 𝑒𝜆 𝜆 𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑖𝑣 lim 1 + = 𝑒𝜆
𝑥→ 𝑥
Illustration
1 2𝑥
Evaluate lim𝑥→0 1 + tan2 𝑥 .
Solution
1 2𝑥
⇒ lim𝑥→0 1 + tan2 𝑥
2 1
⇒ 𝑒 lim 𝑥 →0 tan 𝑥
2𝑥
2
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
1 2 lim 𝑥 →0
⇒𝑒 𝑥

⇒ 𝑒1 2

Illustration
1 𝑥2
1+5𝑥 2
Evaluate lim𝑥→0 1+3𝑥 2
Solution
1 𝑥2
1+5𝑥 2
⇒ lim𝑥→0 1+3𝑥 2
1 𝑥2
2𝑥 2
⇒ lim𝑥→0 1 + 1+3𝑥 2

Page 65
 2𝑥 2 1
lim 𝑥 →0 .
⇒𝑒 1+3𝑥 2 𝑥 2
2
⇒ 𝑒 1+0
⇒ 𝑒2

Illustration
𝑥−3 2
Evaluate limx→ 𝑥+2
Solution
𝑥−3 𝑥
lim𝑥→ 𝑥+2
−5 𝑥
⇒ lim𝑥→ 1 + 𝑥+2
−5
⇒ 𝑒 lim 𝑥 → .𝑥
𝑥 +2
−5
lim 𝑥 → 2
1+𝑥
⇒𝑒
⇒ 𝑒 −5

Illustration
𝜋 1 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥
The value of lim𝑥→1 tan + 𝑙𝑛𝑥 is equal to:
4
𝑎 𝑒 𝑏 𝑒 −1 𝑐 𝑒2 𝑑 𝑒 −2
Solution
Here
1
𝜋 𝑙𝑛𝑥
lim𝑥→1 tan + 𝑙𝑛𝑥 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
4
2 tan ln 𝑥 1 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥
⇒ lim𝑥→1 1 − 1−tan ln 𝑥
2 tan 𝑙𝑛𝑥 1
lim 𝑥 →1 .
⇒𝑒 {1−tan 𝑙𝑛𝑥 } 𝑙𝑛𝑥

⇒ 𝑒 2. 1
⇒ 𝑒2
Hence (c) is the correct answer.

Miscellaneous Forms
o0 form: When limx→a x ≢ 1 but f x is positive in the neighbourhood of x = a.
𝑔 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑙0𝑔𝑒
𝑔
⇒ lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 𝑥 = 𝑒 lim 𝑥 →𝑎 𝑔 𝑥 log 𝑒 𝑓 𝑥

Illustration
𝑥
𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 lim𝑥→0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥

Page 66
Solution
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐴 = lim𝑥→0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑥 0 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐴 = lim𝑥→0 𝑥 log 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥
log 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 
⇒ lim𝑥→0 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
1 𝑥 
1
. −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 cot 𝑥
⇒ lim𝑥→0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥
𝐵𝑦 𝐿′ 𝐻𝑜𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 ′ 𝑠 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑒
−1 𝑥 2
𝑥2
⇒ lim𝑥→0 ⇒0
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
⇒∴ log 𝐴 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝐴 = 1
𝑥
⇒ lim 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 =𝟏

Illustration
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 lim𝑥→0 + sin 𝑥
Solution
Here,
lim𝑥→0+ sin 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 00 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
𝐴 = lim𝑥→0+ sin 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 .
Taking log on both sides, we get,
ln𝑒 𝐴 = lim𝑥→0+ tan 𝑥 ln sin 𝑥
ln sin 𝑥 −
⇒ lim𝑥→0+ 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
cot 𝑥 
Applying L- Hospital‟s rule.
1
lim𝑥→0+ sin 𝑥 . cos 𝑥
−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑐 2 𝑥

⇒ lim𝑥→0+ − sin 𝑥 . cos 𝑥

⇒0
∴ log𝑒 𝐴 = 0
⇒ 𝐴 = 𝑒0
⇒1
⇒𝐴=1

Use of Sandwich theorem (Squeeze theorem)

Sandwich theorem helps in calculating the limits, When limits can not be calculated using the usual
method. The following illustration would make the procedure clear ill.

Use of Newton-Leibnitz’s formula in evaluating the limits

Let us consider definite integral
Ψ x
l x = ∫Φ x
f t dt
Newton- Leibnitz‟s formula stares that

Page 67
 𝑑
{𝑙 𝑥 }
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
⇒𝑓 𝛹 𝑥 . 𝛹 𝑥 −𝑓 𝛷 𝑥 𝛷 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Illustration
𝑥
𝑥−∫0 cos 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 lim𝑥→0 𝑥 3 −6𝑥
Solution
𝒙
𝑥−∫𝟎 cos 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 0
lim𝑥→0 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
𝑥 3 −6𝑥 0
Applying L-Hospital‟s rule we get
𝑑 𝑥
1− ∫ cos 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 0
⇒ lim𝑥→0
3𝑥 2 −6
Applying Newton-Leibnitz‟s rule to,
𝑑 𝑥
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 ∫0 cos 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
⇒ cos 𝑥 2 . 1 − 0
𝑑 𝑥
1− ∫ cos 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
 ⇒ lim𝑥→0 𝑑𝑥 0
3𝑥 2 −6
1−cos 𝑥 2
⇒ lim𝑥→0 3 𝑥 2 −2
1−cos 0
⇒ 3 0−2
1−1
⇒3 −2
0
⇒ −6
⇒0
L’ Hospital’s Theorem
Let f(x) and g(x) be function of x such that f(a)=0=g(a), then
𝑓 𝑥 𝑓′ 𝑥
limx→a 𝑔 = limx→a 𝑔 ′ , 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠.
𝑥 𝑥
′ ′
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑓 𝑓 𝑎 = 0 = 𝑔 𝑎 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛
𝑓′ 𝑥 𝑓′′ 𝑥
limx→a 𝑔′ = limx→a 𝑔′′ =𝑙
𝑥 𝑥

𝑓 ′ 𝑎 = 0, 𝑓 ′′ 𝑎 = 0, … … … … . 𝑓 𝑛 −1 𝑎 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑔′ 𝑎 = 0, 𝑔′′ 𝑎 = 0, … … … … . 𝑔𝑛−1 𝑎 = 0
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑓 𝑛 𝑎 ≠ 0 & 𝑔𝑛 𝑎 ≠ 0
Then
𝑓 𝑥 𝑓𝑛 𝑥 𝑓𝑛 𝑎
limx→a 𝑔 = limx→a 𝑔 𝑛 = 𝑔𝑛
𝑥 𝑥 𝑎

Page 68
 0 ∞
The given theorem is not only true for limits of form it also holds for the form ∞ , but not the
0
0 ∞
other forms. But if a limit is of any other form and con be converted to 𝑜𝑟 form then after
0 ∞
conversion of the form, L‟ H0spital‟s rule can be used.

Illustration
𝑥−sin 𝑥
𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 lim𝑥→0 𝑥3
Solution
𝑥−sin 𝑥 0
lim𝑥→0 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 0
𝑥3
Applying L‟ Hospital‟s rule we have the given limit
1−cos 𝑥
⇒ lim𝑥→0
3𝑥 2
2 sin 𝑥 2 2
lim𝑥→0 3 2𝑥 2
2
⇒ 3.22
⇒ 1 6.
Illustration
𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 −ln 1+𝑥
𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 lim𝑥→0 𝑥2
Solution
𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 −ln 1+𝑥
lim𝑥→0 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 0 0
𝑥2
Applying L‟s Hospital‟s rule we have the given limit
1
𝑥𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 𝑥 −
1+𝑥
⇒ 𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = limx→0 2𝑥
It is also of the form (0/0)
Hence again applying L‟ Hospital‟s rule we have
𝑥𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 𝑥 + 1+𝑥 −2
⇒ limx→0 2
2+1
⇒ 2
⇒3 2
Illustration
2
tan 𝑥 1/𝑥
𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 lim𝑥→0 𝑥
Solution
2
tan 𝑥 1/𝑥
lim𝑥→0 is of the form 1∞
𝑥
2
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 1 𝑥
∴ limx→0 𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 −𝑥
𝑥
𝑥3
tan 𝑥 −𝑥 tan 𝑥 −𝑥
⇒ lim𝑥→0 1+ 𝑥

Page 69
 tan 𝑥 −𝑥
⇒ lim𝑥→0 𝑒 𝑥 3
Applying L‟ Hospital‟ s rule to the power of e.
The limit
sec 2 𝑥 −1
⇒ lim𝑥→0 𝑒 3𝑥 2

1 tan 𝑥 2
lim 𝑥 →0
⇒ e 3 𝑥

1/3
⇒ 𝑒
Question Practice Online

Page 70
 Day 4

1 − cos 𝑥 sin 5𝑥
𝟏. lim 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜
𝑥→0 𝑥 2 sin 3𝑥
𝑎 10 3 𝑏 3 10 𝑐 6 5 𝑑 5/6

2 + cos 𝑥 − 1
𝟐. lim =
𝑥→𝜋 𝜋−𝑥 2
𝑎 2 𝜋 𝑏 𝜋 𝑐 1 4 𝑑 1/2

𝟑. lim 𝑎 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑏/𝑎 𝑥 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 > 1 =

x→∞
𝑎 𝑏 ln 𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 ln 𝑏 𝑐 𝑏 𝑑 𝑎

sin 𝑥
𝟒. 𝐼𝑓 𝑓 𝑥 = , 𝑥 ≠ 0, = 0, 𝑥 = 0, 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥 denote the greatest integer less than or
𝑥
equal to 𝑥, then lim 𝑓 𝑥 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑠
𝑥→0
𝑎 1 𝑏 0 𝑐 −1 𝑑 𝑁𝑜𝑡

3 3
1 + sin 𝑥 − 1 − sin 𝑥
𝟓. lim =0
𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑎 1/3 𝑏 2 3 𝑐 1 𝑑 0

𝑥 cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥
𝟔. . lim =
𝑥→0 𝑥 2 sin 𝑥
𝑎 1 2 𝑏 −1 2 𝑐 1 3 𝑑 − 1/3

𝑥 1 + 𝑎 cos 𝑥 − 𝑏 sin 𝑥
𝟕. 𝐼𝑓 lim = 1 , 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑎, 𝑏 𝑎𝑟𝑒
x→0 𝑥3
(𝑎) 1 ∕ 2, −3 ∕ 2 (b) 5/2,3/2 𝑐 − 5 2,−3 2 (𝑑)𝑁𝑜𝑡

𝑎𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑎
𝟖. lim = 1, 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑎
𝑎 𝑎=1 𝑏 𝑎=0 𝑐 𝑎=𝑒 𝑑 𝑁𝑜𝑡

1 − cot 3 𝑥
𝟗. lim =
x→π/4 2 − cot 𝑥 − cot 3 𝑥
𝑎 3 4 𝑏 11 4 𝑐 1 2 𝑑 𝑁𝑜𝑡

Page 71
 cos 𝑡 − 3 cos 𝑡
𝟏𝟎. lim 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜
𝑡→0 sin2 𝑡
𝑎 1 3 𝑏 1 6 𝑐 − 1 12 𝑑 2/3

𝑥
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1
𝟏𝟏. The value of lim
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 2
2
𝑎 𝑒 𝑏 𝑒 −2 𝑐 𝑒6 𝑑 𝑁𝑜𝑡

𝑥
𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 3
𝟏𝟐. 𝐼𝑓 𝑓 𝑥 = , 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 lim 𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑠
𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 2 𝑥→0

𝑎 𝑒4 𝑏 𝑒3 𝑐 𝑒2 𝑑 𝑁𝑜𝑡

1/𝑥
1+𝑥 −𝑒
𝟏𝟑. lim is equal to
𝑥 𝑥
𝑎 𝜋 2 𝑏 0 𝑐 2 𝑒 𝑑 −𝑒 2

𝟏𝟒. Suppose f: R → R is a differentiable function on and f 1 = 4 then the value of

𝑓 𝑥 2𝑡
lim𝑥→1 ∫4 𝑑𝑡 𝑖𝑠
𝑥−1
𝑎 8 𝑓′ 1 𝑏 4𝑓 ′ 1 𝑐 2 𝑓′ 1 𝑑 𝑓′ 1

1 − cos 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
𝟏𝟓. Let α and β the roots of 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 lim 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜
𝑥→𝛼 𝑥−𝛼 2
2
𝑎 0 𝑏 1 2 𝛼−𝛽 𝑐 𝑎2 2 𝛼 − 𝛽 2 𝑑 − 𝑎2 2 𝛼 − 𝛽 2

𝟏𝟔. lim 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜

𝑥→∞

𝑎 0 𝑏 1 2 𝑐 1 𝑑 2

𝟏𝟕. The value of constant a and b so that

𝑥2 + 1
lim − 𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏 = 0 𝑎𝑟𝑒
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 + 1

𝑎 𝑎 = 0, 𝑏 = 0 𝑏 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = −1 𝑐 𝑎 = −1, 𝑏 = 1 𝑑 𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = −1

𝟏𝟖. If x denotes the greatest integer less than or equal to x , then the value of
lim 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 1 + 1 − 𝑥 𝑖𝑠
𝑥→0
𝑎 0 𝑏 1 𝑐 −1 𝑑 𝑁𝑜𝑡

Page 72
 sin 𝜋 cos 2 𝑥
𝟏𝟗. lim 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜
𝑥→0 𝑥2
𝑎 −𝜋 𝑏 𝜋 𝑐 𝜋 2 𝑑 1

𝑏/𝑥
𝟐𝟎. 𝐼𝑓 lim 1 + 𝑎𝑥 = e2 where a, b ϵ N, such that a + b = 3, then the value a, b is equal to
𝑥→0
𝑎 16,8 𝑏 4,8 𝑐 2,1 𝑑 1,2

𝑥 + 𝑥2 + … … + 𝑥𝑛 − 𝑛
𝟐𝟏. 𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 lim 𝑖𝑠
𝑥→1 𝑥−1
𝑎 𝑛 𝑏 𝑛+1 2 𝑐 𝑛 𝑛+1 2 𝑑 𝑛 𝑛−1 2

sin cos 𝑥
𝟐𝟐. lim = . dotes the greatest integer function
𝑥→0 1 + cos 𝑥
𝑎 =1 𝑏 =0 𝑐 𝐷𝑁𝐸 𝑑 𝑁𝑜𝑡

𝟐𝟑. lim 𝑥 1 1−𝑥

+ 𝑏 = 𝑒 −1 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 ≥ 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 ≥, 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑛 𝑎, 𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜
𝑥→1
𝑎 1, 𝑒 −1 𝑏 2, 𝑒 −1 𝑐 1,0 𝑑 𝑁𝑜𝑡

𝜋
𝟐𝟒. lim 1 − 1 + 𝑥 tan 𝑥−1 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜
𝑥→0 2
𝑎 0

Answer

1. 𝑑
4. 𝑑
7. 𝑐
10. 𝑐
13. 𝑑
16. 𝑐
19. 𝑐
22. 𝑏

Page 73
 Chapter Continuity and
3 Differentiability
Day 1

Continuity of a function
A function f(x) is a said to be continuous at x=a; where adomain of f(x)
If
lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
Graphical View
(i) lim𝑥→𝑎 − 𝑓 𝑥 and lim𝑥→𝑎 + 𝑓 𝑥 exists but are
not equal.
Here,
lim𝑥→𝑎 − 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑙1
lim𝑥→𝑎 + 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑙2
∴ lim𝑥→𝑎 − 𝑓 𝑥 and limx→a + 𝑓 𝑥 exists but are not
equal.
Thus, f(x) is discontinuous at x = a.
It does not matter whether f(a) exists or not.

Illustration
2𝑥 + 3, 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑥 < 0
If 𝑓 𝑥 = 0, 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 0. 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑢𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦.
𝑥 2 + 3, 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑥 > 0
Solution
Here,
2𝑥 + 3, 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑥 < 0
𝑓 𝑥 = 0, 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 0
𝑥 2 + 3, 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑥 > 0
 RHL at x = 0, let x = 0 + h
i.e.,
2
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = lim 𝑓 0 + 𝑕 = lim 0 + 𝑕 +3 =3
𝑥→0+ 𝑕 →0 𝑕 →0
⇒ lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = 3
𝑥→0
Again, LHL at x = 0,
Let x = 0-h
i.e.,

Page 74
 lim 𝑓 𝑥 = lim 𝑓 0 − 𝑕 = lim 2 0 − 𝑕 + 3 = 3
𝑥→0− 𝑕 →0 𝑕 →0
⇒ lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = 3
𝑥→0
But f(0) = 0
Therefore,
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = 3 ≠ 𝑓 0
𝑥→0+ 𝑥→0
Thus, f(x) is discontinuous at 𝑥 → 0

Graphically:-
Here,
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 3
𝑥→0−
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 3
𝑥→0+
𝑓 𝑥 =0
Thus,
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = 3 ≠ 𝑓 0
𝑥→0− 𝑥→0
Hence, f(x) is discontinuous at x = 0

Illustration
𝑥 2 −1
𝐼𝑓 𝑓 𝑥 = . Discuss the continuity 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 → 1.
𝑥−1
Solution
Here,
𝑥 2 −1
𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥−1
𝑥 2 −1 𝑥−1 𝑥+1
lim𝑥→1 𝑓 𝑥 = lim𝑥→1 = lim𝑥→1 = lim𝑥→1 𝑥 + 1 = 2
𝑥−1 𝑥−1
But f(1) = 0/0 (in determined form)
 f(1) is not defined at x = 1
Hence, f(x) is discontinuous at x = 1
Graphically
Which shows,
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 2
𝑥→1
But f(1) is not defined.
So, f(x) is discontinuous at x = 1.

Illustration
Discuss the continuity of 𝑓 𝑥 = tan−1 𝑥 .
Solution

Page 75
 We know 𝑦 = tan−1 𝑥 could be plotted
as;

Thus, 𝑓 𝑥 = tan−1 𝑥 could b plotted

as;

Which clearly represents graph is breaked at

{- tan 1, 0, tan 1}
 f(x) is not continuous when 𝑥 ∈ − tan 1, 0, tan 1

Continuity at end points

Let a function 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 is defined on [a, b].
Then the function f(x) is said to be continuous at the left end x = a if
𝑓 𝑎 = lim+ 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥→𝑎
𝑛
If f(x) is said to be continuous at the right end x = b if,
𝑓 𝑏 = lim− 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥→𝑏
𝑛
Kinds of Discontinuity
Let the point x = a be the limit point in the domain of definition of y = f(x).
Discontinuity of 1st kind: In this kind of discontinuity the RHL and LHL of the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
are existent (i.e. are finite and definite) at x = a and if
(i) lim𝑕→0 𝑓 𝑎 − 𝑕 = lim𝑕→0 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑕 ≠ 𝑓 𝑎 Then f(x) is said to have first kind
removable discontinuity. This kind of discontinuity can be removed by putting
𝑓 𝑎 = lim 𝑓 𝑥 .
𝑥→𝑎
(ii) lim𝑕→0 𝑓 𝑎 − 𝑕 ≠ lim𝑕→0 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑕 Then f(x) is said to have find kind non-removable discontinuity.
The value lim𝑕→0 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑕 − lim𝑕→0 𝑓 𝑎 − 𝑕 is called jump discontinuity of f(x) at
x = a.
Discontinuity of 2nd kind: If at least one of lim𝑕→0 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑕 and lim𝑕→0 𝑓 𝑎 − 𝑕 is
non –existent or infinite then f(x) is said to have discontinuity of 2nd kind at x = a.
Illustration
Show the function,
𝑒1 𝑥
−1
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒1 𝑥
, 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑥 ≠ 0
+1
0, 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 0
has non-removable discontinuity at x = 0.

Page 76
Solution
We have,
𝑒1 𝑥
−1
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒1 𝑥
, 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑥 ≠ 0
+1
0, 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 0
 RHL at x = 0, let x = 0 + h
1
𝑒 0+𝑕 − 1 𝑒1 𝑕
−1
⇒ lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = lim 𝑓 0 + 𝑕 = lim 1 = lim
𝑥→0 𝑕 →0 𝑕 →0 𝑕 →0 𝑒 1 𝑕 +1
𝑒 0+𝑕 +1
1
1−
⇒ lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = lim 𝑒1 𝑕
𝑥→0 𝑕 →0 1
1+ 1 𝑕
𝑒
1−0 1 1
⇒ lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = = 1 𝑎𝑠 𝑕 → 0; → ∞ ⇒ 𝑒 1 𝑕
→ ∞; →0
𝑥→0 1+0 𝑕 𝑒1 𝑕
∴ lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = 1
𝑥→0
Again, LHL at x = 0, let x = 0-h
𝑒 −1 𝑕
−1 0−1
⇒ lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = lim 𝑓 0 − 𝑕 = lim = = −1
𝑥→0 𝑕 →0 𝑕 →0 𝑒 −1 𝑕 +1 0+1

⇒ lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = −1
𝑥→0
⇒ lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 ≠ lim− 𝑓 𝑥 .
𝑥→0 𝑥 →0
Thus, f(x) has non-removable discontinuity.

Illustration
1
𝑆𝑕𝑜𝑤 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥
has discontinuity of second kind at x = 0.
Solution
Here,
1
𝑓 𝑥 = =∞
𝑥
Which shows function has discontinuity
of second kind.

Graphically
Here, the graph is broken at x = 0 as 𝑥 → 0 ⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 → ∞
Therefore, f(x) has discontinuity of second kind.

Jump discontinuity

Page 77
 A function f(x) is said to have a jump discontinuity at a point x = a if,
lim− 𝑓 𝑥 ≠ lim+ 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
And f(a) may be equal to either of previous limits.
Illustration
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 ; [ ] denotes greatest integer has jump discontinuity at all integer values.

Properties of continuity function

Theorem (i): If the functions f(x) and g(x) are continuous at a point x = a then the sum
∅ = 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔 𝑥 is also continuous at that point x = a.
Proof : Since f(x) and g(x) are continuous at a point x = a we can write
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
Now
lim ∅ 𝑥 = lim 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔 𝑥
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
⇒ lim 𝑓 𝑥 + lim 𝑔 𝑥
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡
⇒𝑓 𝑎 +𝑔 𝑎 =∅ 𝑎
Thus, the function ∅ 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔 𝑥 is continuous.
Similarly, we can prove the following theorems
Theorem (ii): The product to two continuous functions is a continuous function.
Theorem (iii): The ratio of two continuous functions is a continuous function, provided the
denominator does not vanish at the point under consideration.
Theorem (iv): If u = g(x) is continuous at x = a and f(u) is continuous at the point u0=g(a), then
the composite function f{g(x)} is continuous at the point x = a.

Illustration
Discuss the continuity of the function,
ln 2 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 2𝑛 sin 𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 = lim 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 1.
𝑛→∞ 1 + 𝑥 2𝑛
Solution
We have,
ln 3 − sin 1 1
𝑓 1 = lim = ln 3 − sin 1 …. 𝑖
𝑛 →∞ 2 2
We know that,
0, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 2 < 1
lim 𝑥 2𝑛 =
𝑛→∞ ∞, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 2 > 1
2
 for 𝑥 < 1, we have
ln 2 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 2𝑛 sin 𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 = lim → ln 2 + 𝑥 = ln 3
𝑛→∞ 1 + 𝑥 2𝑛

Page 78
 Again for 𝑥 2 > 1, we have
𝑥1 2𝑛
ln 2 + 𝑥 − sin 𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 = lim → − sin 𝑥
𝑛→∞ 1
1 + 2𝑛
𝑥
Here, as 𝑥 → 1
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = ln 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = − sin 1
𝑥→1− 𝑥→1
So,
lim 𝑓 𝑥 ≠ lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 .
𝑥→1− 𝑥→1
Therefore, f(x) is not continuous at x = 1.
Illustration
Let
𝑎
1 + sin 𝑥 ; −𝜋 6 < 𝑥 < 0
sin 𝑥

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑏; 𝑥 = 0
𝑡𝑎𝑛 2𝑥
𝑒 tan 3𝑥 ; 0 < 𝑥 < 𝜋 6
Determine a and b such that f(x) is continuous at x = 0.
Solution
Since f is continuous at x = 0.
Therefore, RHL = LHL = f(0)
RHL at x = 0
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = lim 𝑓 0 + 𝑕 = lim 𝑒 tan 2𝑕 / tan 3𝑕
𝑥→0+ 𝑕 →0 𝑕 →0
tan 2𝑕 3𝑕 2
⇒ lim 𝑒 2𝑕 .tan 3𝑕 .3 = 𝑒2 3
…. 𝑖
𝑕 →0
Again LHL at x = 0:
𝑎/ sin 0−𝑕
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = lim 𝑓 0 − 𝑕 = lim 1 + sin 0 − 𝑕
𝑥→0− 𝑕 →0 𝑕 →0
𝑎 / sin 𝑕
⇒ lim 1 + sin 𝑕
𝑕 →0
𝑎
lim sin 𝑕 .
⇒ 𝑒 𝑕 →0 sin 𝑕 = 𝑒𝑎 … . 𝑖𝑖
And
𝑓 0 = 𝑏. … . 𝑖𝑖𝑖
Thus,
𝑒2 3
= 𝑒 𝑎 = 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑎 = 2 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 𝑒 2/3

Illustration
Find the points of discontinuity of
1
𝑦= 2
𝑢 +𝑢−2
1
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑢 =
𝑥−1
Solution
Page 79
 1
The function 𝑢 = 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥−1 is discontinuous at the point x = 1. …(i)
The function
1 1
𝑦=𝑔 𝑥 = =
𝑢2 +𝑢−2 𝑢+2 𝑢−1
is discontinuous at 𝑢 = −2 and 𝑢 = 1.
When
1
𝑢 = −2, = 𝑢 = −2
𝑥−1
1 1
⇒𝑥−1=− ⇒𝑥 = … 𝑖𝑖
2 2
When
1
𝑢 = 1, =𝑢=1
𝑥−1
⇒𝑥−1=1
⇒𝑥=2 … 𝑖𝑖𝑖
Hence, the composite function 𝑦 = 𝑔 𝑓 𝑥 is discontinuous at three points 𝑥 = 1 2 , 1, 2.
A list of continuous functions
Function f(x) Interval in which f(x) is continuous
1. 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐 −∞, ∞
2. 𝑥 𝑛 , 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 ≥ 0 −∞, ∞
3. 𝑥 −𝑛 , 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 −∞, ∞ − 0
4. 𝑥 − 𝑎 −∞, ∞
5. 𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 −∞, ∞
𝑝 𝑥
6. 𝑞 , 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑝 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 𝑥 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 −∞, ∞ − 𝑥: 𝑞 𝑥 = 0
𝑥
7. sin 𝑥 −∞, ∞
8. cos 𝑥 −∞, ∞
9. tan 𝑥 −∞, ∞ − 2𝑛 + 1 𝜋 2 : 𝑛 ∈ 𝐼
10. cot 𝑥 −∞, ∞ − 𝑛𝜋: 𝑛 ∈ 𝐼
11. sec 𝑥 −∞, ∞ − 2𝑛 + 1 𝜋 2 : 𝑛 ∈ 𝐼
12. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 −∞, ∞ − 𝑛𝜋: 𝑛 ∈ 𝐼
13. 𝑒 𝑥 −∞, ∞
14. log 𝑒 𝑥 0, ∞ 0

Differentiability
Before introducing the concept and condition of differentiability, it is important to know differentiation and the conce
Differential coefficient of a function y=f(x) is
written as
𝑑
𝑓 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑓 1 𝑥 𝑎𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦
𝑑𝑥

Page 80
 𝑓 𝑥+𝑕 −𝑓 𝑥
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = limh→0 𝑕
f‟(x) represents nothing but ratio by which
f(x) changes for small change is x and can be
understood as
∆𝑦 𝑦
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = lim =
∆x→0 ∆𝑥 𝑥

Then f‟(x) represents slope of the tangent drawn at point „x‟ of the curve f(x) .
Let us understand the geometrical meaning of differentiation:
Slope of PQ
𝑦𝑄 − 𝑦𝑃
𝑃𝑄 =
𝑥𝑄 − 𝑥𝑃
𝑦 + ∆y − 𝑦 𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 𝑓 𝑥
⇒ 𝑜𝑟
𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 𝑥
∆𝑦 𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 𝑓 𝑥
⇒ =
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥
Let point Q approach point P , along the curve =y=f(x) i.e. ∆𝑥 → 0 . Then, we observe graphically that the
slope of chord PQ becomes the slope of the tangent at the point P, which is written as
𝑑𝑦
𝑜𝑟 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 +
𝑑𝑥
Since, point Q is approaching point P from the Right Hand side, we obtain f‟(x) as follows:
𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 𝑓 𝑥
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = lim
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥
(Right hand derivative)
Similarly,
𝑓 𝑥 − ∆𝑥 − 𝑓 𝑥
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 − = lim , ∆𝑥 > 0
∆𝑥→0 −∆𝑥
(Left hand derivative)
Note: For a function to be differentiable at x=a, we should have 𝑓 ′ 𝑎− = 𝑓 ′ 𝑎+ i.e.
𝑓 𝑎−𝑕 −𝑓 𝑎 𝑓 𝑎+𝑕 −𝑓 𝑎
lim = lim
𝑕 →0 −𝑕 h→0 𝑕

From the above graphs m one must not infer that

a curve is non-differentiable only at points
discontinuity. Non differentiability conditions
also arise when the curve is continuous and the
curve suddenly changes direction. The easiest
example of a curve being continuous and non-
differentiable is
𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0. However when there is a

Page 81
 smooth change or gradual change in slope or
trajectory of curve the derivative exists.

Few more illustrations are given below:

Refer to the following graphs:

Fig. (I)

Fig (II) Fig (III)

Fig (VI)
Fig (V)

In figure (i), f‟(a) exists and is finite. In figure (ii) both 𝑓’ 𝑎− 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 ′ 𝑎+ exist but they are not
equal. Hence f(a) does not exist. Figure (iii) and (iv) have infinite derivatives, i.e.
𝑓 ′ 𝑎 = +∝ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 ′ 𝑎 = −∝ respectivly. In case of figure (v) we have
𝑓 ′ 𝑎− = +∝ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 ′ 𝑎+ = −∝ f‟(a) does not exist.

Illustration
Let [.] denotes the greatest integer function and 𝑓 𝑥 = tan2 𝑥 , then
𝑎 lim 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑏 𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0
𝑥 →0

Page 82
 𝑐 𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0 𝑑 𝑓′ 0 = 1
Solution
Here [.] denotes the greatest integral function, thus
As
−45𝑜 < 𝑥 < 45𝑜
⇒ tan −45𝑜 < tan 𝑥 < tan 450
⇒ −1 < tan 𝑥 < 1
⇒ 0 < tan2 𝑥 < 1
Hence
𝑓 𝑥 = tan2 𝑥 = 0
Hence, 𝑓 𝑥 is zero for all values of x from −45𝑜 to 45𝑜 .Thus, 𝑓 𝑥 exists when x0 and
also it is continuous at x =0, f (x) is differentiable at x = 0 and has a value 0.

Illustration
1
𝑥 2 sin , 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 0
Show that the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 is differentiable at x=0 and f‟(0)=0
0 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 0
Solution
We have,
𝑓 𝑥 −𝑓 0
𝐿𝐻𝐷 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→0−
𝑥−0
𝑓 0−𝑕 −𝑓 0
⇒ lim
𝑕 →0 0−𝑕−0
𝑓 −𝑕 − 𝑓 0
⇒ lim
𝑕 →0 −𝑕
2 1
−𝑕 sin −𝑕 − 0
⇒ lim
𝑕 →0 −𝑕
1
⇒ lim 𝑕 sin
𝑕 →0 𝑕
⇒ 0 × 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 − 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1
⇒0
𝑓 𝑥 −𝑓 0
𝑅𝐻𝐷 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→0+
𝑥−0
𝑓 0−𝑕 −𝑓 0
⇒ lim
𝑕 →0 0+𝑕−0
𝑓 −𝑕 − 𝑓 0
⇒ lim
𝑕 →0 𝑕
2 1
𝑕 sin −𝑕 − 0
⇒ lim
𝑕 →0 𝑕

Page 83
 1
⇒ lim 𝑕 sin
𝑕 →0 𝑕
⇒ 0 × 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 − 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1
⇒0
∴ 𝐿𝐻𝐷 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0 = 𝑅𝐻𝐷 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0 = 0 .
𝑆𝑜 , 𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 ′ 0 = 0

Illustration
Discuss the differentiability of
1 1
𝑥𝑒 − +
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑥 , 𝑥 ≠ 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0
0 ,𝑥 = 0
Solution
1 1
𝑥𝑒 − + 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑒 −2/𝑥 , 𝑥 ≥ 0
𝑥
We have,𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑒 −
−1 1
+ 𝑥 = 𝑥 ,𝑥 < 0
𝑥
0 ,𝑥 = 0
Now,
𝑓 𝑥 −𝑓 0
𝐿𝐻𝐷 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0 = lim−
𝑥→0 𝑥−0
𝑥−0
⇒ lim = 1 ∵ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 0 = 0
𝑥→0 𝑥 −0
And
𝑓 𝑥 −𝑓 0
𝑅𝐻𝐷 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0 = lim+
𝑥→0 𝑥−0
𝑥𝑒 −2/𝑥 − 0
⇒ lim = 1 ∵ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑒 −2/𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 0 = 0
𝑥→0 𝑥
⇒ lim 𝑒 −2/𝑥 = 0
𝑥→0
∴ 𝐿𝐻𝐷 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0 ≠ 𝑅𝐻𝐷 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0
𝑠𝑜 , 𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0

Page 84
 Day 2

Differentiability in a set
(i) A function f(x) on an open interval (a,b) is said to be differentiable in open interval (a,b) if it is
differentiable at each point of(a,b).
(ii) A function f(x) defined on [a,b] is said to be differentiable or derivable at the end points a and
b if it is differentiable from the right at a and from the left at b. In other words
𝑓 𝑥 −𝑓 𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 −𝑓 𝑏
lim 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim− 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑕 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡.
𝑥→𝑎 + 𝑥−𝑎 𝑥→𝑏 𝑥−𝑏
“If f is derivable in the open interval (a,b) and also at the end points a and b, then f is said to be derivable
in the closed interval[a,b]”. For checking differentiability on a closed interval [a,b] , we say,
“A function f is said to be a differentiable function if it is differentiable at every point of its domain.”

Illustration
Discuss the continuity and differentiability of
1−𝑥 ,𝑥 < 1
𝑓 𝑥 = 1−𝑥 2−𝑥 ,1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2
3−𝑥 ,𝑥 > 2
Solution
When x<1, we have f(x) = 1-x. we know that a polynomial function is everywhere continuous
and differentiable. So, f(x) is continuous and differentiable for all x<1. Similarly, f(x) is
continuous and differentiable for all 𝑥 𝜖 1,2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 > 2. Thus, the possible points where we have to
check the continuity and differentiability of f(x) are x=1 and x=2 Continuity at x=1
We have,
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→1− 𝑓 𝑥 = lim− 1 − 𝑥
x→1
∵ 𝑓 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < 1
⇒1−1 =0

lim 𝑓 𝑥 = lim 1 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 = 0
𝑥→1+ 𝑥→1
∵ 𝑓 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2
And,
𝑓 1 = 1−1 2−1 = 0
⇒ lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = lim+ 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥→1 𝑥 →1
⇒𝑓 1
So, f(x) is continuous at x=1.
Continuity at x =2
We have
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥→2− = lim
+
1−𝑥 2−𝑥
𝑥→2

Page 85
 ∵ 𝑓 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2
⇒ 2−1 2−2
⇒0
lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = lim 3 − 𝑥 = 3 − 2 = 1
𝑥→2 𝑥→2
∵
⇒ lim− 𝑓 𝑥 ≠ lim 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥→2 x→2
So, f(x) is not continuous at x = 2.
Differentiability at x =1
We have,
𝑓 𝑥 −𝑓 1
𝐿𝐻𝐷 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 1 = lim−
𝑥→1 𝑥−1
1−𝑥 −0
⇒ lim
𝑥→1 𝑥−1
𝑥−1
⇒ − lim = −1
𝑥→1 𝑥 − 1
𝑓 𝑥 −𝑓 1
𝑅𝐻𝐷 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 1 = lim+
𝑥−1
𝑥→1
1−𝑥 2−𝑥 −0
⇒ lim
𝑥→1 𝑥−1
1−𝑥 2−𝑥
⇒ − lim
𝑥→1 𝑥−1
⇒ lim 𝑥 − 2 = 1 − 2
𝑥→1
⇒ −1
⇒ 𝐿𝐻𝐷 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 1 ≠ 𝑅𝐻𝐷 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 1
So, f(x) is not differentiability at x = 2.
Differentiability at x =2
Since f(x) is not continuous at x =2. So, it is not differentiable at x=2.
Some standard results on differentiability
Functions f(x) Intervals in which f(x) is differentiable
1Polynomial −∞ ∞
2Exponental 𝑎 𝑥 , 𝑎 > 0 −∞ ∞
3Constant −∞ ∞
4Logarithmic Each point in its domain
5Trigonometric Each point in its domain
6Inverse trigonometric Each point in its domain
Note (i) sum, difference, product and quotient of two differentiable functions is differentiable.
(ii)The composition of differentiable function is also a differentiable function.
Illustration
Discuss the continuity and differentiability of the function

Page 86
 2+ 1 − 𝑥2 , 𝑥 ≥1
𝑓 𝑥 =
1−𝑥 2
2𝑒 , 𝑥 >1
Solution
Redefine the function when x= +ive or x = -ive then consider continuity and differentiability at x =1, x=-1.
𝑥 = +𝑖𝑣𝑒
∴ 𝑥 =𝑥
2+ 1 − 𝑥2 , 𝑥 ≥1
𝑓 𝑥 =
1−𝑥 2
2𝑒 , 𝑥 >1
𝑓 1 = 2,
2
lim 𝑓 1 + 𝑕 = lim 2𝑒 𝑕
𝑕 →0 𝑕 →0
⇒2
⇒ lim 𝑓 1 − 𝑕 = lim 2 + 1−𝑕 2
𝑕
⇒2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅 = 𝐿 = 𝑉 ∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠.
Differentiability at x =1.
𝑓 1+𝑕 −𝑓 1
𝑅′ = lim
𝑕→0 𝑕
2
2𝑒 𝑕 − 2
⇒ lim
𝑕 →0 𝑕
h4
2 1 + h2 + 2! + ⋯ … − 1
⇒ lim
𝑕
h3
⇒ lim h + + ⋯ . . . = 0
2!
You can also say
2
𝑒𝑕 − 1
lim 2 . 𝑕 = 2 ln 𝑒 .0 = 0
h→0 𝑕2
2+ 1− 1−𝑕 2−2
𝐿′ = lim
𝑕 →0 −𝑕
2𝑕 − 𝑕2 2
lim = lim — − 1 = −∞ .
h→0 −𝑕 h→0 𝑕
Since 𝑅′ ≠ 𝐿′ 𝑕𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
X= -ive |x|= -x
∴ 𝑥 ≤ 1 ⇒ −𝑥 ≤ 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ −1
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 > 1 ⇒ −𝑥 > 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < −1
1−𝑥 2
∴ 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑒 , 𝑥 < −1
⇒ 2 + 1 − 𝑥2 , 𝑥 ≥ −1

Page 87
 Show as above that 𝐿 = 2𝑒 4 , 𝑅 = 2 hence not continuous and consequently not differentiable also.
Illustration
𝑥
𝐼𝑓 𝑓 𝑥 = , 𝑥 ≠ 0, 𝑓 0 = 0, 𝑠𝑕𝑜𝑤 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0
1 + 𝑒 1/𝑥
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡.
Solution
We have
0+h
𝑓 0 + 0 = lim
𝑕→0 1 + 𝑒 1 0+𝑕
𝑕
⇒ lim =0
h→0 1 + 𝑒 1/𝑕
Similarly
−𝑕
𝑓 0 − 0 = lim =0
h→0 1 + 𝑒 −1/𝑕
Since
𝑓 0−0 = 𝑓 0 = 𝑓 0−0
The function continuous at x =0
We now proceed to find the derivative of f(x) at x=0 .
we have ,
𝑕 1 + 𝑒 1/𝑕 − 0
𝑅𝑓 ′ 0 = lim
𝑕→0 𝑕
1 1
⇒ lim = =0
𝑕 1 + 𝑒 1/𝑕 1 + 𝑒∞
And
−𝑕 1 + 𝑒 −1/𝑕 − 0
𝐿𝑓 ′ 0 = lim
𝑕 →0 −𝑕
1 1
⇒ lim = =1
𝑕 1 + 𝑒 −1/𝑕 1 + 𝑒 −∞
Since
𝑅𝑓 ′ 0 ≠ 𝐿𝑓 ′ 0 ,
The derivative of f at x=0 does not exist.

Illustration
Prove that the function 𝑓 𝑥 = sin 𝜋 𝑥 is continuous at x = 0 but is not differentiable there.
Solution
− sin 𝜋𝑥, 𝑥 < 0
𝑓 𝑥 = 0, 𝑥 = 0
sin 𝜋𝑥, 𝑥 > 0
For continuity, L = R = V = 0
For differentiability 𝐿′ = 𝑅′ at x = 0

Page 88
 𝑓 0−𝑕 −𝑓 0
𝐿′ = 𝐿𝑡𝑕 →0
−𝑕
− sin 𝜋 −𝑕 − 0 sin 𝜋𝑕 𝜋𝑕
𝐿𝑡𝑕→0 = 𝐿𝑡𝑕→0 = 𝐿𝑡𝑕 →0 = −𝜋
−𝑕 −𝑕 −𝑕
𝑅′ = 𝜋 as above
Since 𝐿′ ≠ 𝑅′ at x = 0 therefore function is not differentiable at x = 0.

Illustration
Discuss the differentiability of
𝑖 sin 𝜋 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜋 𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 – 𝜋 2 , 𝜋 2 .
Solution
Because of [x] divide the given interval – 𝜋 2 , 𝜋 2 into four intervals as shown in fig. and redefine the f
intervals
(i)
𝑓 𝑥 = sin 𝜋 𝑥
sin −2𝜋 = 0 𝑖𝑛 𝑖
sin −𝜋 = 0 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑖
𝑓 𝑥 =
sin 0 = 0 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑖𝑖
sin 𝜋 = 0 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑣
f(x) = 0 throughout and hence it is differentiable.
(ii)
𝑓 𝑥 = sin 𝜋 𝑥 − 𝑥
sin 𝜋 𝑥 + 2 = sin 2𝜋 + 𝜋𝑥 = sin 𝜋𝑥 , (𝑖)
sin 𝜋 𝑥 + 1 = sin 𝜋 + 𝜋𝑥 = −sin 𝜋𝑥 , (𝑖𝑖)
𝑓 𝑥 =
sin 𝜋 𝑥 − 0 = sin 𝜋𝑥 − 0 = sin 𝜋𝑥 , (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
sin 𝜋 𝑥 − 1 = − sin 𝜋 − 𝜋𝑥 = − sin 𝜋𝑥 , (𝑖𝑣)
Consider x = 1, x = -1
sin 𝜋 1 − 𝑕 − 0 sin 𝜋𝑕
𝐿′ 1 = = = −𝜋, (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
−𝑕 −𝑕
− sin 𝜋 1 + 𝑕 − 0 sin 𝜋𝑕
𝑅′ 1 = = = 𝜋, (𝑖𝑣)
𝑕 𝑕
Since 𝐿′ 1 ≠ 𝑅′ 1
 function is not differentiable at x = 1.
Similarly it can be shown that
𝐿′ −1 = −𝜋, 𝑅′ −1 = 𝜋
Hence not differentiable at x = -1 also.

Page 89
Illustration
If f is twice differentiable function such that
𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = −𝑓 𝑥 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑥 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑕 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 2
+ 𝑔 𝑥 2
,
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑕 10 𝑖𝑓 𝑕 5 = 11
Solution
Differentiating the given relation
2 2
𝑕 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔 𝑥 ,
With respect to x ,
We get
𝑕′ 𝑥 = 2𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 + 2𝑔 𝑥 𝑔′ 𝑥 … … … (𝑖)
But we are given f‟‟( x)= -f( x)
𝑓′ 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑥
So that
𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = 𝑔′ 𝑥
Then (i) may be re-written as
𝑕′ 𝑥 = −2𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 + 2𝑓 ′ 𝑥 𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = 0.
Thus
𝑕′ 𝑥 = 0

Hence by integrating,
𝑕 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑐,
Hence h(x)=c ,for all x
In particular,
𝑕 5 = 𝑐.
But we are given
𝑕 5 = 5.
It follow that 𝑐 = 11 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑒 𝑕𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑕 𝑥 = 11 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥.
Therefore
𝑕 10 = 11.

Illustration
Let R be the set of real numbers and 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑕 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙
X and y in 𝑅, 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑓 𝑦 ≤ 𝑥 − 𝑦 3 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Solution
We are given that f is a function from R to R such that
𝑓 𝑥 −𝑓 𝑦 ≤ 𝑥 − 𝑦 3 … … … . (𝑖)

Where (i) holds for all real numbers x and y. Let x be any real number and y be chosen arbitrarily

Page 90
 close to x but not equal to x. Then writing (i) as
𝑓 𝑥 −𝑓 𝑦
≤ 𝑥−𝑦 2
𝑥−𝑦
And letting 𝑦 → 𝑥, 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡
𝑓 𝑥 −𝑓 𝑦 2
lim ≤ lim 𝑥 − 𝑦 ≤ 0 … … . (𝑖𝑖)
𝑦→𝑥 𝑥−𝑦 𝑦→𝑥

Since
𝑓 𝑥 −𝑓 𝑦
lim = 𝑓′ 𝑥 ≤ 0
𝑦→𝑥 𝑥−𝑦
We see from (ii)
𝑓′ 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑓′ 𝑥 = 0

Hence f (x) is constant

Illustration
Let f(x) be a continuous function and g(x) be a discontinuous function. Prove that f (x) + g(x) is a
discontinuous function.
Solution
Let F(x) = f(x) + g(x) where f(x) is continuous and g(x) is discontinuous. Let us suppose that F(x)
be continuous so that F(x)-f (x) is also continuous i.e. g(x) is also continuous but g(x) is
discontinuous function F(x) is discontinuous function.

Question Practice Online

Page 91
 Day 3
2
4−x
i The function f x = is
4x − x 3

a Discontinuous at only one point b Discontinuous exactly at two points

c Discontinuous exactly at three points d none of these
ii The function f x = sin−1 cos x is
a Discontinuous at x = 0 b continuous at x = 0
c Differentiable at x = 0 d none of these

iii The set of points where the function f x = x x is differentiable is

𝑎 −∞, ∞ 𝑏 −∞, 0 ∪ 0, ∞
𝑐 0, ∞ 𝑑 0, ∞

iv Let f x = x + x x , . Then for all x

a f if is continuous b f is differentiable for some x
c f′ is conntinuous d f ′′ is continuous

v The function f x = e− x is
a continuous everywhere but not differentiable at x b continuous differentiable everywhere
=0
c not continuous at x = 0 d none of these

vi The function f x = cos x is

a everywhere continuous and differentiable
b everywhere continuous but not differentiable at 2n + 1 π/2, nϵZ
c f′ is conntinuous d none of these

vii Iff x = sin x + be x + c x 3 and f x is differentiable at x = 0, then

a a=b=c=0 b a = 0, b =; c ϵ R
c b = c = 0 , aϵR d c = 0, a = 0, b ϵ R

viii If f x = x − a Φ x , where Φ x is continuous function then,

a f ′ a+ = ϕ a b f ′ a− = −ϕ a
c f ′ a+ = f′ a− d none of these

36x − 9x − 4x + 1
, x≠ 0
ix If f x = 2 − 1 + cos x is continuous at x = 0 then k equals
k, x=0

Page 92
 a 16 2 log 2 log 3 b 16 2 ln 6
c 16 2 ln 2 ln 3 d none of these

sin 2x , 0 < 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋/6

x Let f x = . If f x and f ′ x are cotinuous, then
ax + b, π/6 < 𝑥 < 1
1 π 1 1
a a = 1, b = + b a= ,b =
2 6 2 2
3 π d none of these
c a = 1, b = −
2 6
x

5 + 1 − t dt , if x>2
xi Let f x = , then
0
5x + 1, if x≤2
a f x is continuous at x = 2
b f x is continuous but not differentiable at x = 2
c f x is everywhere differentiable conntinuous
d The right derivative of f x at x = 2 does not exist

xii The set of points where the f x = x − 1 ex is differentiable is

a R b R− 1
c R − −1 d R− 0

cot x
xiii If f x = x + 1 be continuous at x = 0, then f x is equal to
a 0 b 1/e
c e d none of these

π
mx + 1, x≤
xiv If f x = 2 is continuous at x = π , then
π 2
sin x + n , x>
2
a m = 1, n = 0 nπ
b m= +1
2
c n = mπ 2 d m=n=π 2

xv Let f x = lim sin x 2n , then f is

n→∞
π π
a continuous at x = b discontinuous at x =
2 2
π d discontinuous at infinite number of points
c discontinuous at x = −
2
xvi If f x = x 3 sgn x, then
a f if is derivable at x = 0 b f is continuous but not derivable at x = 0

Page 93
 c LHD at x = 0 is 1 d RHD at x = 0 is 0

tan π x − π
xvii The function f x = , where x denotes the greatest integer less than
1+ x 2
or equal to x, is
a discontinuous at some x
b cotinuous at all x, but f ′ x does not exist for some x
c f ′ x exist for all x, but f ′′ x does not existst d f ′ exist for all x.

xviii Let f x be defined on R such that f 1 = 2, f 2 = 8 and f u + v = f u + kuv − 2v 2 for

all u, v ϵ R k is fixed constant . Then
a f ′ x = 8x b f x = 8x
′
c f x =x d none of these

xix If f x = x − x0 Φ x and Φ x is continuous at x = x0 . Then f ′ x0 is equal to

a ϕ′ x0 b ϕ(x0 )
c x0 ϕ(x0 ) d none ofthese

xx If f x + y = f x f y for all x, y ϵR, f 5 = 2, f ′ 0 = 3. Then f ′ 5 equals

a 6 b 3
c 5 d none of these

xxi Let f x + y = f x f y and f x = 1 + sin 2x g x where g x is continuous. Then f ′ x is equal to

a f x g 0 b 2f x g 0
c 2g x d none of these

xxii If for a continuous function f, f 0 = f 1 , f ′ 1 = 2 and y x = f ex ef x

then y ′ 0 is equal to
a 1 b 2
c 0 d none of these

xxiii Let f x be function satisfying f x + y = f x f y for all x, y ϵR,

f x = 1 + xg x 3 where lim g x = 1. Then f ′ x is equal to
x→0
a g′ x b g x
c f x d none of these

x
xxiv If f x = t dt, x ≥ −1, then
−1

Page 94
 a f and f ′ are continuous for x + 1 > 0 b f is continuous but f ′ is not so for x + 1 > 0
c f and f ′ are continuous at x = 0 d f is continuous at x = 0 but f ′ is not so.

xf a − af x
xxv If f ′ a = 2 and f a = 4, then lim equals
x→a x−a
a 2a − 4 b 4 − 2a
c 2a + 4 d none of these

Answer

𝑖 𝑐 𝑖𝑖 𝑏 𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎

𝑖𝑣 𝑐 𝑣 𝑎 𝑣𝑖 𝑏

𝑣𝑖𝑖 𝑏 𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 𝑖𝑥 𝑐

𝑥 𝑐 𝑥𝑖 𝑐 𝑥𝑖𝑖 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑

𝑥𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑏 𝑥𝑖𝑣 𝑐 𝑥𝑣 𝑏, 𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑

𝑥𝑣𝑖 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑 𝑥𝑣𝑖𝑖 𝑑 𝑥𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑖 a

𝑥𝑖𝑥 𝑏 𝑥𝑥 𝑎 𝑥𝑥𝑖 𝑐

𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 𝑏 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑏 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑣 𝑎

𝑥𝑥𝑣 𝑏

Page 95
 Chapter
4 Differentiation
Day 1

Introduction
Consider a function 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥
Now if x is incremented by a value ∆ x then the value of y also changes by ∆ y.
∴ 𝑦 + ∆𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥
Thus the change in value of y, is,
∆𝑦 = 𝑦 + ∆𝑦 − 𝑦
∆𝑦 𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 𝑓 𝑥
∴ =
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥
The derivative of function 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 at a point (x, y) is the slope of the tangent of the function at
that point.
𝑑𝑦 ∆𝑦 𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 𝑓 𝑥
∴ = lim = lim
𝑑𝑥 ∆x→0 ∆𝑥 ∆x→0 ∆𝑥
Hence the derivative of the function 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 is found by the above method
The fundamental method to find derivatives of a function 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 with respect to x is called the
First principle to find derivatives of a function
Note:
This method is also known as:
1. differentiation by definition
2. differentiation y abinitio

Illustration
Differentiation of cos x from first principles
Solution
Let
𝑓 𝑥 = cos 𝑥
Then
𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑕 = cos 𝑥 + 𝑕
𝑑 𝑓 𝑥+𝑕 −𝑓 𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 = limh→0
𝑑𝑥 𝑕
cos 𝑥+𝑕 −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
⇒ limh→0 𝑕
2𝑥 +𝑕 𝑕
−2 sin 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2 2
⇒ limh→0 𝑕

Page 96
 𝐶+𝐷 𝐶−𝐷
∵ cos 𝐶 − cos 𝐷 = −2 sin . sin
2 2
𝑕 2
⇒ − limh→0 sin 𝑥 + 𝑕 2 . limh→0 sin = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 . 1
𝑕 2
sin 𝑕/2
∵ limh→0 =1
𝑕 /2
⇒ −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
Illustration
Differentiation of cot x from first principles
Solution
Let
𝑓 𝑥 = cot 𝑥
Then
𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑕 = cot 𝑥 + 𝑕
𝑑 𝑓 𝑥+𝑕 −𝑓 𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 = limh→0
𝑑𝑥 𝑕
cot 𝑥+𝑕 −𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥
⇒ limh→0 𝑕
cos 𝑥+𝑕 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
−
sin 𝑥 +𝑕 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
⇒ limh→0 𝑕
sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥+𝑕 −cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥+𝑕
⇒ limh→0 𝑕𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 sin 𝑥+𝑕
sin 𝑥− 𝑥+𝑕
⇒ limh→0 𝑕 sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥+𝑕
∵ sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 − cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵 = sin 𝐴 − 𝐵
sin 𝑕 1
⇒ − limh→0 . limh→0 sin 𝑥 sin
𝑕 𝑥+𝑕
∵ sin −𝑕 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑕
1
⇒ −1 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑕
∵ limh→0 𝑕 = 1
𝑑 𝑑
𝑓 𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥, 𝑑𝑥 cot 𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥.
𝑑𝑥

Illustration
𝑥 tan−1 𝑥
Solution
𝑑𝑦 𝑓 𝑥+𝑕 −𝑓 𝑥
= limh→0
𝑑𝑥 𝑕
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 = tan−1 𝑥
𝑥+𝑕 tan −1 𝑥+𝑕 −𝑥 tan −1 𝑥
⇒ lim
h→0 𝑕
𝑥 tan −1 𝑥+𝑕 −tan −1 𝑥 +𝑕 tan −1 𝑥+𝑕
⇒ limh→0
𝑕
𝑥 −1 𝑥+𝑕 −𝑥 𝑕 tan −1 𝑥+𝑕
⇒ limh→0 𝑕 tan + limh→0
1+ 𝑕+𝑥 𝑥 𝑕

Page 97
 𝑕
𝑥 1+𝑥 2 +𝑕 𝑥
⇒ limh→0 1+𝑥 2 +𝑕𝑥 . limh→0 tan−1 𝑕 + tan−1 𝑥
1+𝑥 2 +𝑕 𝑥
𝑥
⇒ 1+𝑥 2 . 1 + tan−1 𝑥
tan −1 𝑥
∵ limx→0 =1
𝑥
𝑥
⇒ tan−1 𝑥 + 1+𝑥 2

Illustration
cos 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥
Solution
𝑓 𝑥+𝑕 −𝑓 𝑥
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = lim
h→0 𝑕
cos 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑕 − cos 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥
⇒ lim
h→0 𝑕
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑕 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 − log 𝑥 + 𝑕
2 sin . sin
2 2
⇒ lim
h→0 𝑕
𝑥
log 𝑥 + 𝑕 𝑥 sin 1 2 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑕
⇒ lim sin .
h→0 2 𝑕 2
𝑥 +𝑕
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 2 sin − 1 2 log
⇒ sin lim 𝑥
2 h→0 𝑕 2
𝑕
sin − 1 2 𝑕 𝑥 − 2 + ⋯
⇒ sin 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 lim 2𝑥
h→0 𝑕 2
1 𝑕
sin 𝑕/2 𝑥 − 2 + ⋯
⇒ −sin 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 lim 2𝑥
h→0 𝑕 2
sin 𝑕/2 1 𝑥 − 𝑕 2𝑥 2 + ⋯
⇒ −sin 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 lim lim 1 𝑥 − 𝑕 2𝑥 2 + ⋯
h→0 𝑕 2 1 𝑥 − 𝑕 2𝑥 2 + ⋯ h→0
1
⇒ − sin log 𝑥 .1
𝑥
sin 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥
⇒−
𝑥

Illustration
Find the derivative of sin 𝑥 by first priciple
3

Solution
𝑓 𝑥 = sin 𝑥
3

Page 98
 𝑑 𝑓 𝑥+𝑕 +𝑓 𝑥
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 = limh→0 𝑕
3 3
sin 𝑥+𝑕 − sin 𝑥
⇒ limh→0 𝑕
3 3 3 3
sin 𝑥+𝑕 − sin 𝑥
⇒ limh→0 2 2 1 1
𝑕 sin 3 𝑥+𝑕 +sin 3 𝑥+sin 3 𝑥+𝑕 sin 3 𝑥

𝑎 3 −𝑏 3
∵ 𝑎 − 𝑏 = 𝑎 2 +𝑎𝑏 +𝑏 2
sin 𝑥+𝑕 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 1
⇒ limh→0 × sin 2/3
𝑕 𝑥+𝑕 +sin 2/3 𝑥+sin 1/3 𝑥+𝑕
1/3
sin 𝑥
sin 𝑕/2 cos 𝑥 + 𝑕/2 1
⇒ lim lim 2/3
h→0 𝑕/2 h→0 sin 𝑥 + 𝑕 + sin 𝑥 + sin1/3 𝑥 + 𝑕 sin1/3 𝑥
2/3

1
⇒ cos 𝑥. 2/3 2/3
sin 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 + sin1/3 𝑥. sin1/3 𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
⇒
3 sin2/3 𝑥

Question Practice Online

Page 99
 Day 2

Derivative of standards functions

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 0 𝑖𝑖 𝑘. 𝛿 𝑥 = 𝑘. 𝛿 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑛 𝑑 𝑥
𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑥 = 𝑛 . 𝑥 𝑛−1 ; 𝑥 𝜖 𝑅, 𝑛 𝜖 𝑅, 𝑥 > 0 𝑖𝑣 𝑒 = 𝑒𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑥 𝑑 1
𝑣 𝑎 = 𝑎 𝑥 . ln 𝑎 , 𝑎 > 0 𝑣𝑖 ln 𝑥 = , 𝑥 > 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥

𝑑 1 𝑑
𝑣𝑖𝑖 loga 𝑥 = 𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑖 sin 𝑥 = cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 log 𝑒 𝑎 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑
𝑖𝑥 cos 𝑥 = − sin 𝑥 𝑥 tan 𝑥 = sec 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑
𝑥𝑖 sec 𝑥 = sec 𝑥 . tan 𝑥 𝑥𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 . cot 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑
𝑥𝑖𝑖 cot 𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

Rule (i)
If f (x) and g(x) are differentiable functions, then show that 𝑓 𝑥 ± 𝑔 𝑥 are also differentiable
such that
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝑓 𝑥 ±𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 ± 𝑔 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
That is the derivative of the sum or difference of two functions is the sum or difference of their
derivatives.

Illustration
𝑥 x2 x3 𝑥𝑛 𝑑𝑦 𝑥𝑛
if 𝑦 = 1 + 1! + + + ⋯+ show that −𝑦+ =0
2! 3! 𝑛! 𝑑𝑥 𝑛!
Solution
We have
𝑥 x2 x3 𝑥𝑛
𝑦 = 1 + 1! + + + ⋯+
2! 3! 𝑛!
𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑑 𝑥 𝑑 𝑥2 𝑑 𝑥3
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥
1! 2! 3!

Page 100
 𝑑 𝑥𝑛
+ ⋯ + 𝑑𝑥 𝑛!
𝑑𝑦 𝑑 1 𝑑 1 𝑑 2 1 𝑑 3
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 1 + 1! 𝑥 + 2! 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 + 3! 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 +⋯
𝑑𝑥
1 𝑑
+ 𝑛! 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑛
𝑑𝑦 1 1 1 1
⇒ =0+ + 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥 1! 2! 3! 𝑛!
𝑑𝑦 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑛 −1
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 1 + 1! + 2! + ⋯ + 𝑛−1 !
𝑑𝑦 𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥 𝑛 −1 𝑥𝑛 𝑥𝑛
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 1 + 1! + +⋯+ + −
2! 𝑛−1 ! 𝑛! 𝑛!
𝑑𝑦 𝑥𝑛
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑦 − 𝑛!
𝑑𝑦 𝑥𝑛
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑦 + = 0.
𝑛!

Rule (ii) ( Product Rule)

If f (x) and g(x) are two differentiable functions, show that f (x).g(x) is also differentiable such that
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝑓 𝑥 .𝑔 𝑥 =𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 . 𝑔 𝑥 .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
That is,
Derivative of the product of two functions=[(First function) × (derivative of second function) +
(second function ) × (derivative of first function)]

Illustration
Differentiate the function with respect to x
𝑒 𝑥 𝑥 + log 𝑥
Solution
𝑑
𝑒 𝑥 𝑥 + log 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
⇒ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 + log 𝑥 + 𝑥 + log 𝑥 𝑒𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
⇒ 𝑒𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 log 𝑥 + 𝑥 + log 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
1
⇒ 𝑒 𝑥 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + log 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥
1
⇒ 𝑒 𝑥 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + log 𝑥 .

Generalization of the product rule

Let f (x), g(x), h(x) be three differentiable functions. Then
𝑑
𝑓 𝑥 .𝑔 𝑥 .𝑕 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
= 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 .𝑕 𝑥 + 𝑓 𝑥 . 𝑔 𝑥 𝑕 𝑥 +𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 . 𝑕(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Illustration

Page 101
 Differentiate the function with respect to x
𝑥 3 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥
Solution
d
𝑥 3 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥
dx
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
⇒ 𝑥3 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 + 𝑥 3 𝑒𝑥 sin 𝑥 + 𝑥 3 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

⇒ 3𝑥 𝑒 sin 𝑥 + 𝑥 3 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 + 𝑥 3 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥

2 𝑥

⇒ 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 3 sin 𝑥 + 𝑥 sin 𝑥 + 𝑥 cos 𝑥

Rule (iii) (Quotient rule)

If f (x) and g(x) are two differentiable functions and g(x) ≠ 0, then show that
𝑓 𝑥
is also differentiable such that
𝑔 𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
𝑑 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 −𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥
= 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 2

Illustration
Differentiate the function with respect to x
1+tan 𝑥
1−tan 𝑥
Solution
𝑑 1+tan 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 1−tan 𝑥
d d
1−tanx 1+tan x − 1+tan x 1−tan x
⇒ dx dx
1−tan x 𝟐
1−tan 𝑥 0+sec 2 𝑥 − 1+tan 𝑥 0−sec 2 𝑥
⇒ 1−tan 𝑥 2
2 sec 2 𝑥
⇒ 1−tan x 2
2
⇒ cos 𝑥−sin 𝑥 𝟐
2
⇒ 1−𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥

Differentiation of a function of a function

Chain rule
If f (x) and g(x) are differentiable functions, then fog is also differentiable and
𝑓𝑜𝑔 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑓 ′ 𝑔 𝑥 . 𝑔′ 𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
or 𝑓𝑜𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑑𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑔 𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥 𝑔 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

Remark
The above rule can also be restated as follows

Page 102
 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦
if 𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑦 and 𝑦 = 𝑔 𝑥 , then 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑦 . 𝑑𝑥
or
Derivative of z w.r.t.x = (Derivative of z w.r.t.y)  (Derivative of y w.r.t.x)
Remark 2 This rule can be extended further.
Derivative of z w.r.t.x = (Derivative of z w.r.t.u)  (Derivative of u w.r.t.v)  (Derivative of v w.r.t.x)

Illustration
Differentiate the following functions w.r.t.x.
2
sin ex
Solution
2
Let 𝑦 = sin 𝑒 𝑥
Putting
2
𝑥 2 = 𝑣, 𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑣
We get
𝑦 = sin 𝑢, 𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
∴ 𝑑𝑥 = cos 𝑢 , 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑥
Now,
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
= 𝑑𝑢 . 𝑑𝑣 . 𝑑𝑥 = cos 𝑢 . 𝑒 𝑣 2𝑥 = cos 𝑒 𝑣 𝑒 𝑣 2𝑥1
𝑑𝑥
and du/dx ∵ 𝑢 = 𝑒𝑣
2 2
cos 𝑒 𝑥 . 𝑒 𝑥 .2𝑥 ∵ 𝑣 = 𝑥 2
Illustration
Differentiate the following functions w.r.t.x.
𝑎 +𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
sin−1 ,𝑏 > 𝑎
𝑏+acos 𝑥
Solution
𝑎 +𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
Let 𝑦 = sin−1 𝑏+acos 𝑥
𝑎 +𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
Putting 𝑢 = 𝑏+acos 𝑥
𝑎+𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
We get𝑦 = sin−1 𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢 =
𝑏+acos 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 1
∴ 𝑑𝑥 =
1−𝑢 2
𝑑𝑢
and 𝑑𝑥 ⇒
𝑏+𝑎 cos 𝑥 0−𝑏 sin 𝑥 − 𝑎+𝑏 cos 𝑥 0−𝑎 sin 𝑥
⇒ 𝑏+𝑎 cos 𝑥 2
𝑎 2 − 𝑏 2 sin 𝑥
⇒ 𝑏+𝑎 cos 𝑥 2
now,
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢 . 𝑑𝑥

Page 103
 𝑑𝑦 1 𝑎 2 −𝑏 2 sin 𝑥
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = .
1−𝑢 2 𝑏+𝑎 cos 𝑥 2
1 𝑎 2 −𝑏 2 sin 𝑥
⇒ .
𝑎 +𝑏 cos 𝑥 2 𝑏+𝑎 cos 𝑥 2
1−
𝑏 +𝑎 cos 𝑥
𝑏+𝑎 𝑐𝑠𝑜 𝑥 𝑎 2 −𝑏 2 sin 𝑥
⇒
𝑏+𝑎 cos 𝑥 2 − 𝑎+𝑏 cos 𝑥 2 𝑏+𝑎 cos 𝑥 2
𝑎 2 −𝑏 2 sin 𝑥 1
⇒ .
𝑏 2 1−cos 2 𝑥 −𝑎 2 1−cos 2 𝑥 𝑏+𝑎 cos 𝑥
𝑎 2 −𝑏 2 sin 𝑥 1
⇒ . 𝑏+𝑎 cos 𝑥
𝑎 2 −𝑏 2 sin 2 𝑥
𝑏 2 −𝑎 2 sin 𝑥 1
⇒− .
𝑏 2 −𝑎 2 sin 𝑥 𝑏+𝑎 cos 𝑥
− 𝑏 2 −𝑎 2
⇒ 𝑏 +𝑎 cos 𝑥
Differentiation by using trigonometrical transformations
2 tan 𝑥
i sin 2𝑥 = 1+tan 2 𝑥
1−tan 2 𝑥
ii cos 2𝑥 = 1+tan 2 𝑥
Some important substitutions useful in finding derivatives
𝑬𝒙𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑺𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 𝑥 = 𝑎 tan 𝜃 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 cot 𝜃
𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑥 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 cos 𝜃
𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 𝑥 = 𝑎 sec 𝜃 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 cosec 𝜃
𝑎−𝑥 𝑎+𝑥 𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 2𝜃
or
𝑎+𝑥 𝑎−𝑥

𝑎 2 −𝑥 2 𝑎 2 +𝑥 2 𝑥 2 = 𝑎2 cos 2𝜃
𝑜𝑟
𝑎 2 +𝑥 2 𝑎 2 −𝑥 2

Illustration
𝑥 2 +1
Differentiate the function with respect to 𝑥 sec −1 𝑥 2 −1
Solution
Let
𝑥 2 +1
𝑦 = sec −1 .
𝑥 2 −1
then
𝑥 2 −1
𝑦 = cos −1 𝑥 2 +1
1
∵ sec −1 𝑥 = cos −1 𝑥
1−𝑥 2
or 𝑦 = cos −1 − 1+𝑥 2
1−𝑥 2
or 𝑦 = 𝜋 − cos −1 1+𝑥 2
∵ cos −1 −𝑥 = 𝜋 − cos −1 𝑥

Page 104
 Putting
𝑥 = tan 𝜃 ,
We get ,
1−tan 2 𝜃
𝑦 = 𝜋 − cos −1 ⇒ 𝜋 − cos −1 cos 2 𝜃
1+tan 2 𝜃
⇒ 𝜋 − 2𝜃 or 𝑦 = 𝜋 − 2 tan−1 𝑥.
So,
𝑑𝑦 1 2
= 0 − 2 . 1+𝑥 2 ⇒ − 1+𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
Illustration
3𝑎 2 𝑥−𝑥 3
Differentiate the function with respect to 𝑥 tan− 𝑎 3 −3𝑎𝑥 2
Solution
Let
3𝑎 2 𝑥−𝑥 3
𝑦 = tan− 𝑎 3 −3𝑎 𝑥 2
Putting
𝑥 = 𝑎 tan 𝜃
3 tan 𝜃−tan 3 𝜃
⇒ 𝑦 = tan− 1−3 tan 2 𝜃
⇒ tan− tan 3𝜃 = 3𝜃
𝑥
⇒ 3 tan−1 𝑎
𝑥 𝑥
∵ 𝑥 = tan 𝜃 ∴ tan 𝜃 = 𝑎 ⇒ 𝜃 = tan− 𝑎
𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑 𝑥 3𝑎 2 1 3𝑎
⇒∴ 𝑑𝑥 = 3 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
. ⇒ 𝑎 2 +𝑥 2 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑎 2 +𝑥 2
1+ 𝑎
𝑎

Illustration
𝑑𝑦
𝑓 𝑦 = sin−1 𝑥 1 − 𝑥 − 𝑥 1 − 𝑥 2 , 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑥
Solution
𝑦 = sin−1 𝑥 1 − 𝑥 − 𝑥 1 − 𝑥 2
2
⇒ sin−1 𝑥 1 − 𝑥 − 𝑥 1 − 𝑥2

⇒ 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = sin−1 𝑥 − sin−1 𝑥
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 sin−1 𝑥 − sin−1 𝑦 = sin−1 𝑥 1 − 𝑦 2 − 𝑦 1 − 𝑥 2
Differentiating with respect to x
𝑑𝑦 1 1 𝑑
= − 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 1−𝑥 2 2 𝑑𝑥
1− 𝑥
1 1 1
⇒ −
1−𝑥 2 1−𝑥 2 𝑥

Question Practice Online

Page 105
 Day 3

Differentiation of implicit functions

dy
To find dx in such a case , we differentiate both sides of the given relation with respect to x
𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑦
sin 𝑦 = cos 𝑦 . 𝑑𝑥 ′ 𝑑𝑥 𝑦 2 = 2𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

Illustration
𝑑𝑦 1
If 𝑥 1 + 𝑦 + 𝑦 1 + 𝑥 = 0 , prove that =−
𝑑𝑥 𝑥+1 2
Solution
𝑥 1+𝑦+𝑦 1+𝑥 = 0
⇒ 𝑥 1 + 𝑦 = −𝑦 1 + 𝑥
⇒ 𝑥2 1 + 𝑦 = 𝑦2 1 + 𝑥
⇒ 𝑥 2 − 𝑦2 = 𝑦2𝑥 − 𝑥 2𝑦 ⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑥 − 𝑦
⇒ 𝑥𝑦 𝑥 − 𝑦
⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑦 = −𝑥𝑦
∵ 𝑥 − 𝑦 ≠ 0. Because
𝑥 = 𝑦 does not satisfy the given equation
𝑥
⇒ 𝑥 = −𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 ⇒ 𝑦 1 + 𝑥 = −𝑥 ⇒ 𝑦 = − 1+𝑥
𝑑𝑦 1+𝑥 .1−𝑥 0+1
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = − 1+𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦 1
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = − 1+𝑥 2

Illustration
𝑥 2 −𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 𝑦
If cos −1 = tan−1 𝑎 , prove that 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
Solution
𝑥 2 −𝑦 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 = tan−1 𝑎
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
𝑥 2 −𝑦 2
⇒ 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 = cos tan−1 𝑎 = 𝜆
⇒ 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 = 𝜆 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
Differentiating both sides with respect to x
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝑥 2 − 𝑑𝑥 𝑦 2 = 𝜆 𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑥 𝑦 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
⇒ 2𝑥 − 2𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜆 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
⇒ 2𝑥 − 2𝜆𝑥 = 2𝜆𝑦 + 2𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
⇒ 2𝑥 1 − 𝜆 = 2𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝜆 + 1

Page 106
 𝑥 2 −𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 𝑥 2 −𝑦 2
⇒ 2𝑥 1 − 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 = 2𝑦 𝑑𝑥 +1
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
𝑥 2 −𝑦 2
∵ 𝜆 = 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
2𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 2𝑥 2
⇒ 2𝑥 = 2𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑦
⇒ 4𝑥𝑦 2 = 4𝑥 2 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥
Illustration
1 1
If 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑡 − 𝑡 and 𝑥 4 + 𝑦 4 = 𝑡 2 + 𝑡 2 , then prove that
𝑑𝑦 1
= 𝑥 3𝑦
𝑑𝑥
Solution
we have ,
1
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑡 − 𝑡
1 2
⇒ 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 2
= 𝑡−𝑡
1
⇒ 𝑥 4 + 𝑦 4 + 2𝑥 2 𝑦 2 = 𝑡 2 + 𝑡 2 − 2
⇒ 𝑥 4 + 𝑦 4 + 2𝑥 2 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 4 + 𝑦 4 − 2
1
∵ 𝑥4 + 𝑦4 = 𝑡2 + 𝑡2
1
⇒ 2𝑥 2 𝑦 2 = −2 ⇒ 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 − 1 ⇒ 𝑦 2 = − 𝑥 2
⇒ 𝑦 2 = −𝑥 −2
Differentiating w.r.t x, we get
𝑑𝑦
2𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = − −2 𝑥 −3
𝑑𝑦 1
⇒ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 3
𝑑𝑦 1
⇒ =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 3𝑦

Logarithmic Differentiation
Let 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 .
Taking logarithm of both the sides, we have
ln 𝑦 = 𝑔 𝑥 ln 𝑓 𝑥
Differentiating with respect to x, we get
1 𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑔 𝑥
= 𝑔 𝑥 .𝑓 + ln 𝑓 𝑥 .
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑔 𝑥 𝑑𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑔 𝑥
∴ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑦 . + ln 𝑓 𝑥 . .
𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Alternatively, we may write
𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑔 𝑥 ln 𝑓 𝑥
Differentiating with respect to x , we get

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 𝑑𝑦 𝑔 𝑥 𝑑𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑔 𝑥
= 𝑒𝑔 𝑥 ln 𝑓 𝑥
. + ln 𝑓 𝑥 .
𝑑𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑔 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 𝑑𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑔 𝑥
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 . + ln 𝑓 𝑥 .
𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Illustration
Differentiate the following function with respect to x
sin 𝑥 ln 𝑥
Solution
Let
𝑦 = sin 𝑥 ln 𝑥 , then
𝑦 = 𝑒 ln 𝑥.ln sin 𝑥
𝑏
∵ 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑒 ln 𝑎 = 𝑒 𝑏𝑙𝑛 𝑎
On differentiating both sides with respect to x,
𝑑𝑦 𝑑
= 𝑒 ln 𝑥.ln sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ln 𝑥ln sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
⇒ (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)ln 𝑥 ln 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ln 𝑥 + ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 lnsin 𝑥
ln 𝑥 ln sin 𝑥 1
⇒ sin 𝑥 + ln 𝑥. sin 𝑥 . cos 𝑥
𝑥
ln 𝑥 ln sin 𝑥
⇒ sin 𝑥 + cot 𝑥. ln 𝑥
𝑥

Illustration
Differentiate the following function with respect to x
𝑥
𝑥
Solution
Let
𝑥
𝑦=𝑥 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛
𝑥 ln 𝑥
𝑦=𝑒
On differentiating both sides with respect to x, we get
𝑑𝑦 𝑥 ln 𝑥 𝑑
=𝑥 𝑥 ln 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑑 𝑑
⇒𝑥 ln 𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ln 𝑥
𝑥 1 1
⇒𝑥 ln 𝑥 . 2 + 𝑥. 𝑥
𝑥
𝑥 ln 𝑥 1
⇒𝑥 +
2 𝑥 𝑥

Illustration
Differentiate the following function with respect to x
cos −1 𝑥
sin 𝑥

Page 108
Solution
Let
cos −1 𝑥
𝑦 = sin 𝑥 . 𝑇𝑕𝑒𝑛
cos −1 𝑥 ln 𝑥
⇒𝑦=𝑒
On differentiating both sides with respect to x, we get
𝑑𝑦 −1 𝑥 ln 𝑥 𝑑
= 𝑒 cos cos −1 𝑥 ln 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
cos −1 𝑥 𝑑 𝑑
⇒ sin 𝑥 cos −1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ln sin 𝑥 + ln sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 cos −1 𝑥
cos −1 𝑥 1 1
⇒ sin 𝑥 cos −1 𝑥 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 + ln sin 𝑥. −
1−𝑥 2

cos −1 𝑥 ln sin 𝑥
⇒ sin 𝑥 cos −1 𝑥 . cot 𝑥 −
1−𝑥 2

Illustration
Differentiate the following function with respect to x
ln 𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑥 ln 𝑥
Solution
Let
𝑥 ln 𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑒 ln ln 𝑥 + 𝑒 ln 𝑥
⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 ln ln 𝑥 + 𝑒 ln 𝑥 ln 𝑥
On differentiating both sides with respect to x, we get
𝑑𝑦 𝑑 ln 𝑥 2 𝑑
= 𝑒 𝑥𝑙𝑛 ln 𝑥
. 𝑑𝑥 𝑥𝑙𝑛 ln 𝑥 + +𝑒 ln 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑑 𝑑
⇒ ln 𝑥 ln ln 𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 ln ln 𝑥
𝑑
+𝑥 ln 𝑥 2 ln 𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥 ln 𝑥
𝑥 1 1 1
⇒ ln 𝑥 ln ln 𝑥 + 𝑥 . ln 𝑥 . 𝑥 + 𝑥 ln 𝑥 2 ln 𝑥. 𝑥
𝑥 1 2 ln 𝑥
⇒ ln 𝑥 ln ln 𝑥 + ln 𝑥 + 𝑥 ln 𝑥 𝑥

Illustration
𝑥𝑥
Differentiate the following function with respect to x 𝑥
Solution
Let
𝑥𝑥
𝑦= 𝑥 . 𝑇𝑕𝑒𝑛
𝑥
⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 ln 𝑥
On differentiating both sides with respect to x, we get
𝑑𝑦 𝑥 𝑑
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥𝑙𝑛 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 . ln 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑥 𝑑
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥𝑙𝑛 𝑥 . ln 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

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 𝑥 𝑑 𝑑
⇒𝑥𝑥 ln 𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥 𝑒 𝑥𝑙𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥𝑙𝑛 𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥 ln 𝑥
𝑥 𝑑 1
⇒ 𝑥𝑥 ln 𝑥 . 𝑒 𝑥𝑙𝑛 𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 ln 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥𝑙𝑛 𝑥 . 𝑥
𝑥 1 1
⇒ 𝑥𝑥 ln 𝑥 . 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥. 𝑥 + ln 𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑥 . 𝑥
𝑥 𝑥𝑥
⇒ 𝑥𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 1 + ln 𝑥 . ln 𝑥 + 𝑥
𝑥 1
⇒ 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 1 + ln 𝑥 . ln 𝑥 + 𝑥

Illustration
Differentiate the following function with respect to x 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

Solution
Let
𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑥
. Then
2
⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑥.𝑥

On differentiating both sides with respect to x, we get

𝑑𝑦 2 .ln 𝑥 𝑑
= 𝑒𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 2 . ln 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
2 .ln 𝑥 𝑑 𝑑
⇒ 𝑒𝑥 ln 𝑥 . 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2. ln 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 ln 𝑥 𝑥2
∵𝑒 =𝑥
𝑥2 1
⇒𝑥 ln 𝑥 .2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 . 𝑥
2
⇒ 𝑥 𝑥 2x. ln 𝑥 + 𝑥
2
⇒ 𝑥. 𝑥 𝑥 2 ln 𝑥 + 1

Illustration
𝑦 𝑑𝑦
If cos 𝑥 = sin 𝑦 𝑥 , find 𝑑𝑥
Solution
We have
cos 𝑥 𝑦 = sin 𝑦 𝑥 . Takingln g on both sides, we get
𝑦 ln cos 𝑥 = 𝑥 ln sin 𝑦
On differentiating both sides with respect to x, we get
𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 ln cos 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 . ln cos 𝑥 = 𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 ln sin 𝑦 + ln sin 𝑦 1
𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑥 𝑑𝑦
⇒ − cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 ln cos 𝑥 = sin 𝑦 cos 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + ln sin 𝑦
𝑑𝑦
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 ln cos 𝑥 − 𝑥 cot 𝑦 = ln sin 𝑦 + 𝑦 tan 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 ln sin 𝑦+𝑦 tan 𝑥
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = ln cos 𝑥−𝑥 cot 𝑦

Page 110
Illustration
….∞
𝑎𝑥
If 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑦 2 ln 𝑦
Prove tha𝑡 =𝑥
𝑑𝑥 1−𝑦 ln 𝑥 ln 𝑦
Solution
We have
𝑦
𝑦=𝑎𝑥
⇒ ln 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑦 ln 𝑎
⇒ ln ln 𝑦 = 𝑦 ln 𝑥 + ln ln 𝑎
On differentiating both sides with respect to x, we get
1 1 𝑑𝑦 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
⇒ . = + ln 𝑥
ln 𝑦 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 1 𝑦
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 – ln 𝑥 = 𝑥
𝑦 ln 𝑦
𝑑𝑦 1−𝑦 ln 𝑦 ln 𝑥 𝑦
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 =𝑥
𝑦 ln 𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑦 2 ln 𝑦
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 1−𝑦 ln 𝑦 ln 𝑥
Differentiation of parametric functions
x and y are given as function of a single variable, e.g. 𝑥 = 𝜙 𝑡 , 𝑦 = Ψ 𝑡 are two functions and t
is variable. In such case x and y are called parametric functions.
And t is called the parameter
In such case
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 /𝑑𝑡
= 𝑑𝑥 /𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥

Illustration
𝑑𝑦
Find 𝑑𝑥 in the following cases
1 𝑡
𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 𝑡 + 2 ln tan2 2 and 𝑦 = 𝑎 sin 𝑡
Solution
1 𝑡
𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 𝑡 + 2 ln tan2 2 and 𝑦 = 𝑎 sin 𝑡
1 𝑡
⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 𝑡 + 2 . 2 ln tan 2 and 𝑦 = 𝑎 sin 𝑡
𝑡
⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 𝑡 + ln tan 2 and 𝑦 = 𝑎 sin 𝑡
Differentiating with respect to x
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑡 1 𝑑𝑦
⇒ = 𝑎 − sin 𝑡 + 𝑡 sec 2 2 . 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑡 = acos 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 tan
2
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑦
⇒ = 𝑎 − sin 𝑡 + 2 sin 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑎 cos 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑡/2 cos 𝑡/2
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑦
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 − sin 𝑡 + sin 𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 𝑡

Page 111
 𝑑𝑥 sin 2 𝑡+1 𝑑𝑦
⇒ =𝑎 − 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑎 cos 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 sin 𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑎 cos 2 𝑡 𝑑𝑦
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑎 cos 𝑡
sin 𝑡
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝑎
⇒∴ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 = acos 2 t
= tan 𝑡
𝑑𝑡
sin 𝑡

Differentiation of a function with respect to another function

Let 𝑢 = 𝑓 𝑥 and 𝑣 = 𝑔 𝑥 be two functions of 𝑥. Then to find the derivative of 𝑓 𝑥
𝑑𝑢
w. r. t. g 𝑥 𝑖. 𝑒. , to find 𝑑𝑣 we use the following formula
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢 /𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑣 /𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑣

Illustration
1+𝑥 2 −1
Differentiate tan−1 with respect to tan−1 𝑥
𝑥

Solution
Let
1+𝑥 2 −1
𝑢 = tan−1 and 𝑣 = tan−1 𝑥
𝑥
Putting
𝑥 = tan 𝜃
1+𝑥 2 −1
We get⇒ 𝑢 = tan−1 𝑥
sec 𝜃−1 1−cos 𝜃
⇒= tan−1 = tan−1
tan 𝜃 sin 𝜃
2 sin 2 𝜃/2
⇒ 𝑢 = tan−1 2 sin 𝜃/2 cos 𝜃/2
−1 𝜃 1
⇒ tan tan = 𝜃
2 2
1 −1
⇒ 2 tan 𝑥
−1
Now,⇒ 𝑢 = tan 𝑥
𝑑𝑢 1 1
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 2 1+𝑥 2
Now,⇒ 𝑣 = tan−1 𝑥
𝑑𝑣 1
⇒ =
𝑑𝑥 1+𝑥 2
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢 /𝑑𝑥 1 1
∴ = 𝑑𝑣 /𝑑𝑥 = 2 . 1 + 𝑥2 = 2
𝑑𝑣 1+𝑥 2

Illustration
Differentiate xx with respect to x ln x
Solution
Let
𝑢 = 𝑥 𝑥 and 𝑣 = 𝑥 ln 𝑥. Then
𝑥
𝑢 = 𝑥 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑢 = 𝑒 ln 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥𝑙𝑛 𝑥

Page 112
 𝑑𝑢 𝑑
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥𝑙𝑛 𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 ln 𝑥
𝑑𝑢
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑥 1 + ln 𝑥
Now,
𝑑𝑣 1
⇒ 𝑣 = 𝑥 ln 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥. 𝑥 + ln 𝑥 = 1 + ln 𝑥
𝑑𝑢 /𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 1+ln 𝑥
∴ = = 𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑣 /𝑑𝑥 1+ln 𝑥
Illustration
1−𝑥 2
Differentiate tan−1 with respect to cos−1 2𝑥 1 − 𝑥 2
𝑥

Solution
Let
1−𝑥 2
𝑢 = tan−1 𝑥
And
𝑣 = cos−1 2𝑥 1 − 𝑥 2
Putting
𝑥 = cos 𝜃 in 𝑢 and 𝑣 ,
We get
sin 𝜃
⇒ 𝑢 = tan−1 cos 𝜃
⇒ tan−1 tan 𝜃 = 𝜃
⇒ cos −1 𝑥
And
𝑣 = cos−1 2 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
𝜋
⇒ cos −1 sin 2𝜃 = cos −1 cos − 2𝜃
2
𝜋 𝜋 𝑑𝑢 1 𝑑𝑣 1
⇒ 𝑣 = 2 − 2𝜃 = 2 − 2 cos −1 𝑥 ∴ =− and 𝑑𝑥 = 0 − 2 −
𝑑𝑥 1−𝑥 2 1−𝑥 2
2
⇒
1−𝑥 2
So,
𝑑𝑢 1 1
=− = −2
𝑑𝑣 1−𝑥 2
2
1−𝑥 2

Differentiation of determinants
𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 𝑔′ 𝑥 𝑑 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥
∆ 𝑥 = , then + ′∆ 𝑥 =
𝑢 𝑥 𝑣 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑢 𝑥 𝑣 𝑥 𝑢 𝑥 𝑣′ 𝑥
𝑑 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 𝑔′ 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔′ 𝑥
Also ∆ 𝑥 = +
𝑑𝑥 𝑢′ 𝑥 𝑣 𝑥 𝑢 𝑥 𝑣′ 𝑥
Similar results hold for the differentiation of determinants of higher order
Question Practice Online

Page 113
 Day 4

Advance Level
Illustration
𝑥𝑥
if 𝑦 = 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑥 1
Prove that = 𝑥 𝑥+𝑥 + 1 + ln 𝑥 ln 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
Solution
𝑥
𝑦=𝑥 𝑥
ln 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑥 ln 𝑥 … … . i
Take ln again
ln ln 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 𝑥 ln 𝑥
⇒ ln 𝑥 𝑥 + ln ln 𝑥
⇒ 𝑥 ln 𝑥 + ln ln 𝑥
Differentiate both sides w.r.t.x
1 1 𝑑𝑦 1 1 1
⇒ ln 𝑦 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑥 + 1 ln 𝑥 + ln 𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑦
⇒∴ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑦 ln 𝑦 1 + ln 𝑥 + 1/(𝑥 ln 𝑥)
𝑥𝑥 1
⇒𝑥 . 𝑥 𝑥 ln 𝑥 1 + ln 𝑥 + 𝑥 ln 𝑥
𝑥 𝑥 +𝑥 1
⇒𝑥 ln 𝑥 1 + ln 𝑥 + 𝑥

Illustration
𝑒𝑥 𝑒𝑥 𝑥𝑒 𝑑𝑦
if 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑒 + 𝑒 𝑥 find the value of 𝑑𝑥
𝑒𝑥 𝑒𝑥 𝑥𝑒
Solution 𝑦 = 𝑒𝑥 + 𝑥𝑒 + 𝑒𝑥
⇒ 𝑢 + 𝑣 + 𝑤.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑤
= + 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑒𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 ⇒ ln 𝑢 = 𝑥 𝑒 . ln 𝑒 = 𝑥 𝑒
∴ln (ln u ) = ex ln x. Differentiate
1 1 𝑑𝑢 1
⇒ ln 𝑢 . 𝑢 . 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 . 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 ln 𝑥
𝑑𝑢 𝑒𝑥
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢 ln 𝑢 + 𝑒 𝑥 ln 𝑥
𝑥
similarly
𝑑𝑣 𝑒𝑥 𝑥 1
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑒 . 𝑒 𝑒 + 𝑒 𝑥 ln 𝑥
𝑥
and
𝑑𝑤 𝑥𝑒 𝑒
= 𝑒 𝑥 . 𝑥 𝑥 . 𝑥 𝑒−1 1 + 𝑒 ln 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Putting the values, we get the value of 𝑑𝑥

Page 114
Illustration
if 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑥 𝑒 𝑦 𝑥
= 𝑥 , show that
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2
𝑥 3 𝑑 𝑥 2 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑦
Solution
𝑦
= ln 𝑥 − ln 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑥
𝑥
Differentiate
𝑑𝑦
𝑥 −𝑦 1 1 𝑎
𝑥
= 𝑥 − 𝑎+𝑏𝑥 𝑏 = 𝑥
𝑥2 𝑎 +𝑏𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑎𝑥
∴ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑦 = 𝑎+𝑏𝑥 … … … . . 𝑖
Differentiate again w.r.t.x
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑎 +𝑏𝑥 𝑎−𝑎𝑥 .𝑏
𝑥 𝑑 𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎+𝑏𝑥 2
or
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑎2
𝑥 𝑑𝑥2 = 𝑎 +𝑏𝑥 2
𝑑2𝑦 𝑎 2𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 2
∴ 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 2 = = 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑦 𝑏𝑦 𝑖
𝑎+𝑏𝑥 2

Illustration
dy 𝑑2𝑦
if y = 1 + x + x 2 + x 3 −1
find the value of dx and 𝑑𝑥 2 at 𝑥 = 0
Solution
𝑦 = 1 + x + x2 + x3 −1

𝑑𝑦
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = − 1 + x + x 2 + x 3 −2
1 + 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦
⇒∴ 𝑑𝑥 = −1 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0
𝑑2𝑦
⇒ 𝑑𝑥2 = 2 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 −3
1 + 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 2

− 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 −2
. 2 + 6𝑥
𝑑2𝑦
∴ =2−2 =0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑥=0

Illustration
𝑥 2 ln 1+x 2 +x 2
if 𝑦 = 2 tan−1 1−𝑥 2 + ln 1+x 2 −x 2
𝑑𝑦 4 2
then 𝑑𝑥 = 1+𝑥 4

Solution
𝑥 2
y = ln 1 + x 2 + x 2 − ln 1 + x 2 − x 2 + 2 tan−1 1−𝑥 2

Page 115
 dy 2x+ 2 2𝑥 − 2
∴ dx = 1+x 2 +x − 1+x 2 −x +
2 2
1 x 2
2. 2𝑥 d. c. of 1−x 2
1+ 2
1−𝑥 2

2𝑥 −2 2𝑥 + 2 .2 1+𝑥 2 2 1−𝑥 2 2 1+𝑥 2

⇒ + .
1+𝑥 2 2 −2𝑥 2 1+𝑥 4 1−𝑥 2 2
2 2 1−𝑥 2 2 2 1+𝑥 2 4 2
⇒ + = 1+𝑥 4
1+𝑥 4 1+𝑥 4

Illustration
1 1
If 𝑦 = tan−1 𝑥 2 +𝑥+1 + tan−1 𝑥 2 +3𝑥+3
1
+ tan−1 𝑥 2 +5𝑥+7 + ⋯
to n terms, show that
𝑑𝑦 1 1
= − 𝑥 2 +1
𝑑𝑥 𝑥+𝑛 2 +1
Solution
1 1
𝑦 = tan−1 𝑥 2 +𝑥+1 + tan−1 𝑥 2 +3𝑥+3
1
+ tan−1 𝑥 2 +5𝑥+7 + ⋯ to n terms
1 1
⇒ tan−1 + tan−1 +
1+𝑥 𝑥+1 1+ 𝑥+1 𝑥+2
1 1
tan−1 + … . + tan−1
1+ 𝑥+2 𝑥+3 1+ 𝑥+ 𝑛−1 𝑥+𝑛
−1 𝑥+1 −𝑥 −1 𝑥+2 − 𝑥+1
⇒ tan + tan +
1+ 𝑥+1 𝑥 1+ 𝑥+2 𝑥+1
𝑥+3 − 𝑥+2 𝑥+𝑛 − 𝑥+𝑛 −1
tan−1 + … . + tan −1
1+ 𝑥+3 𝑥+2 1+ 𝑥+𝑛 𝑥+𝑛 −1
𝑦 = tan 𝑥 + 1 − tan−1 𝑥
−1

+ tan−1 𝑥 + 2 − tan−1 𝑥 + 1 +
tan−1 𝑥 + 3 − tan−1 𝑥 + 2 + … … … + tan−1 𝑥 + 𝑛 − tan−1 𝑥 + 𝑛 − 1
⇒ 𝑦 = tan−1 𝑥 + 𝑛 − tan−1 𝑥
on differentiating both sides w.r.t.x ,
we get
𝑑𝑦 1 1
= 1+ 𝑥+𝑛 2 − 1+𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥

Illustration
x dy
if y = 3 𝑥 find dx
x+ 3 𝑥
𝑥+ 3
𝑥 + 𝑥 + ……………𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦

Solution

Page 116
 x
y= 3 𝑥
x+ 3 𝑥
𝑥+
𝑥 + 3 𝑥 + ……………𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦
x
⇒y= x 𝑥 −2 /3
x+ 3 𝑥 .
𝑥+ 3
𝑥 + 𝑥 + ……………𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑥+𝑦.𝑥 −2/3
⇒ 𝑦 𝑥 5/3 + 𝑦 = 𝑥 5/3
𝑥 5/3 𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 5/3
Differenting both sides w.r.t.x
𝑑𝑦 5 𝑑𝑦 5
⇒ 𝑥 5/3 𝑑𝑥 + 3 𝑥 2/3 𝑦 + 2𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 3 𝑥 2/3
𝑑𝑦 5 5
𝑥 5/3 + 2𝑦 = 3 𝑥 2/3 − 3 𝑥 2/3 𝑦
𝑑𝑥
5
𝑑𝑦 𝑥 2/3 1−𝑦
= 3 𝑥 5/3 +2𝑦
𝑑𝑥

Illustration
Let f be twice differentiable such that 𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = −𝑓 𝑥 and
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑥 . If 𝑕 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 2 + 𝑔 𝑥 2 ,
where h(5) = 11, Find h(10).
Solution
𝑕 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 2+ 𝑔 𝑥 2
On differentiating both sides w.r.t. x,
𝑕′ 𝑥 = 2𝑓 𝑥 . 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 + 2𝑔 𝑥 . 𝑔′ 𝑥 … … … … … 𝑖
Now
f ' (x) = g(x)
Then
𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = 𝑔′ 𝑥 ⇒ −𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑔′ 𝑥 … … … … … … … … . 𝑖𝑖
∵ 𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = −𝑓 𝑥 , given
From (i) and (ii) we get,
𝑕′ 𝑥 = 2𝑓 𝑥 . 𝑔 𝑥 + 2𝑔 𝑥 . −𝑓 𝑥
using 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑥 and 𝑔′ 𝑥 = −𝑓 𝑥
∴ 𝑕′ 𝑥 = 0
𝑑
so, h (x) must be constant as 𝑑𝑥 constant = 0
but h (5) = 11 so, h (x) = 11
hence ,
h (10) = 11

Illustration

Page 117
 If
𝑥+𝑦 𝑓 𝑥 +𝑓 𝑦
𝑓 = and 𝑓 ′ 0 = 𝑎 and 𝑓 0 = 𝑏.
2 2
Find f ''(x) .(where y is independent of x), when f (x) is differentiable.
Solution
𝑥+𝑦 𝑓 𝑥 +𝑓 𝑦
𝑓 = , this holds any real x. y and y is
2 2
𝑑𝑦
independent of 𝑥, 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑑𝑥 = 0
On differentiating w.r.t.x
𝑥+𝑦 1 𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑦
⇒ 𝑓′ . 2 1 + 𝑑𝑥 = 2 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 + 𝑓 ′ 𝑦 . 𝑑𝑥
2
1 𝑥+𝑦 1
⇒ ∴ 2 𝑓′ = 2 𝑓′ 𝑥
2
𝑑𝑦
𝑎𝑠 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑥+𝑦
𝑓′ = 𝑓′ 𝑥 … … … … … … … 𝑖
2
Or
taking x = 0 and y = x in (i)
0+𝑥
⇒ 𝑓′ = 𝑓′ 0
2
𝑥
⇒ 𝑓′ =𝑎
2
which shows
𝑥 𝑥
𝑓 =𝑎 +𝑐
2 2
∴ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑥 = 0
𝑓 0 = 𝑏 = 𝑎. 0 + 𝑐
⇒𝑏=𝑐
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
On differenting
𝑓′ 𝑥 = 𝑎
and
𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = 0

Objective Questions-14

1.Let f be a twice differentiable function such tha 𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = −𝑓 𝑥 and 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑥

if 𝑕′ 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 2 + 𝑔 𝑥 2 , 𝑕 1 = 8 and 𝑕 0 = 2 , then 𝑕 2 =
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) none of these

′ 1
𝑓′ 1 𝑓 ′′ 1 𝑓 ′′ 𝑓𝑛 1
2. 2. If 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑛 , then the calue of 𝑓 1 + + + + …..+ is
1! 2! 3! 𝑛!

Page 118
(𝑎) 𝑛 (𝑏)2𝑛 (𝑐) 2𝑛−1 𝑑
𝑛 𝑛+1
2

3. Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑛 , 𝑛 being a non − negative integer. The value of n for which the equality
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 + 𝑓 ′ 𝑦 is valid for all 𝑥, 𝑦 > 0 is
(a)0 (b)1 (c) 2 (d) none of these

𝜋
4. If 𝑓 𝑥 = sin 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 for 2 < 𝑥 < 3 and 𝑥 denotes the greatest integer less then or
3
equal to 𝑥, then 𝑓 ′ 𝜋/3 is equal to
𝑎 𝜋/3 𝑏 − 𝜋/3 𝑐 − 𝜋 𝑑 none of these

𝑥 𝑥 −𝑥 −𝑥
5. If 𝑓 𝑥 = cot −1 , then 𝑓 ′ 1 equals
2
(a) –1 (b) 1 (c) ln 2 (d) – ln 2

𝑑 𝑥3
6. Let 𝑓 𝑡 = ln 𝑡 . Then 𝑑𝑥 ∫𝑥 2 ln 𝑡 dt
(a) has a value 0 when x = 0 (b) has a value 0 when x = 1 and x = 4/9
(c) has a value 9 e2 – 4e when x = e (d) has a differential coefficient 27e – 8 for x = e

sin 𝑥 𝜋
7 If 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 , then 𝑓 ′ − 4 equals
𝜋 1/ 2 2 4 2 2 𝜋 1/ 2 2 4 2 2
𝑎 ln 𝜋 + 𝑏 ln 𝜋 +
4 2 𝜋 4 2 𝜋
𝜋 1/ 2 2 𝜋 2 2 𝜋 1/ 2 2 𝜋 2 2
(𝑐) ln 4 − 𝑑 ln 4 +
4 2 𝜋 4 2 𝜋

1 𝑥
8. if 𝐹 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 ∫4 4𝑡 2 − 2𝐹 ′ 𝑡 dt, then 𝐹 ′ 4 equals
(a) 32⁄9 (b) 64⁄3 (c) 64⁄9 (d)none of these

𝑑 𝑑2𝑦
9. If 𝑦 2 = 𝑃 𝑥 is a polynomial of degree 3, then 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑦 3 𝑑 𝑥 2 is equal to
(a) P(x) + P'' (x) (b) P(x) (c) P(x) P'' (x) (d) a constant

𝑑𝑦
10. If 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 2𝑥+𝑦 , then the value of at 𝑥 = 𝑦 = 1 is
𝑑𝑥
(a)0 (b)-1 (c)1 (d)2

1 1
11. The derivative of sec −1 with respect to 1 − 𝑥 2 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 2 is
2𝑥 2 −1
(a) 2 (b) 4 (c) 1 (d) -2

Page 119
 𝑑2𝑦
12. If 𝑦 2 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are constants , then 𝑦 3 𝑑 𝑥 2 is equal to
(a) a constant (b) a function of x (c) a function of y (d) a function of x and y

𝑑3𝑦
13. If 𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = 𝑏 sin 𝜃 , then 𝑑 𝑥 3 is equal to
3𝑏 3𝑏
𝑎 − 𝑎 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 4 𝜃 cot 4 𝜃 𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 4 𝜃 cot 𝜃
𝑎3
3𝑏 𝑑 none of these
𝑐 − 𝑎 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 4 𝜃 cot 𝜃

2 1
14 . If 𝑓 𝑥 = 3 𝑒 𝑥 , then 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 − 2𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 + 3 𝑓 0 − 𝑓 ′ 0 is equal to
7 2
𝑎 0 𝑏 1 𝑐 𝑒𝑥 𝑑 none of these
3
15. If 𝑦 = cos 2𝑥 cos 3𝑥, then 𝑦𝑛 is equal to
𝑛𝑥 𝑛𝑥 3𝑥+𝑛𝜋
𝑎 6𝑛 cos 2𝑥 + 𝑏 6𝑛 sin 2𝑥 + cos
2 2 2

𝑐
1 𝑛
5 sin 5𝑥 +
𝑛𝑥 𝜋
+ sin 𝑥 + 2 𝑑 none of these
2 2

Answer

(1) d (2) b (3) b and c

(4) b (5) a (6) b, c and d
(7) a (8) a (9) c
(10) b (11) b (12) a
(13) c (14) b (15) d

Page 120
 Chapter
Application and Derivatives
5
Day 1

Derivative as a rate measurer

Derivative as the time rate of change
If a variable quantity u is some function of time 𝑢 = 𝑓 𝑡 , then a small change in time ∆𝑡 will
have a corresponding change ∆𝑢 in u. Thus, the average rate of change is ∆𝑢 ∆𝑡. When limit
∆𝑡 → 0 is applied, the rate of change becomes instantaneous and we get the rate of change with
respect to time at the instant t
∆𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑖. 𝑒. lim∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 = Hence, it is clear that the rate of change of any variable quantity is its
𝑑𝑡
derivative with
respect to time.
The d. c. of y with respect to x i.e. 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 is nothing but the rate of increase of y relative to x.
Related rates
In many practical problems, it has been found that several variables are related by an expression.
The time rate of change of certain variables are known and the time rates of change of others are
to be found. In such cases first of all a relation between the variables is established. Then we
differentiable the relation with respect to time. On differentiation we get a resulting equation
containing known and unknown rates. The value of known rates are substituted and thus we obtain
unknown rate.

Illustration
If the radius of a circle be increasing at a uniform rate of 2 cm/sec, find the rate of increase of area,
at the instant when the radius is 20 cm.
Solution
Given
𝑑𝑟
= 2 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑑𝑡
𝑟 → 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
Now, area of a circle is given by 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2
Differentiating w. r. to time t we get
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑟
∴ = 2𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐴
⇒ = 2𝜋 20 2 = 80 𝑐𝑚2 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑑𝑡

Page 121
Illustration
If r be the radius S the surface and V the volume of a spherical bubble, prove that
(i)
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑟
= 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
(ii)
𝑑𝑆
∝𝑟
𝑑𝑡
Solution
4
(i)Since 𝑉 = 3 𝜋𝑟 3
𝑑𝑉 4 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
∴ = 3 𝜋. 3𝑟 2 𝑑𝑡 = 4𝜋. 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑆 𝑑𝑟
(ii)𝑆 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 ⇒ = 8𝜋. 𝑟 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Thus,
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑡 1
= = 2.𝑟
𝑑𝑆 𝑑𝑆 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉
∝𝑟
𝑑𝑆

Illustration
Water is dripping out from a conical funnel of semi-vertical angle /4 at the uniform rate of 2
cm2/sec in its surface area through a tiny hole at the vertex in the bottom. When the slant height of
the water is 4 cm, find the rate of decrease of the slant height of the water.
Solution
Let VAB be a conical funnel of semi-vertical angle /4.At any time t the water in the cone also
forms a cone. Let r be its radius, l be the slant height and S be the surface area.
Then,
𝑉𝐴′ = 𝑙, 𝑂′ 𝐴′ = 𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝐴′ 𝑉𝑂′ = 𝜋 4.
In ∆𝑉𝑂′ 𝐴′ , we have
𝜋 𝑉𝑂 ′ 𝑉𝑂 ′ 𝜋 𝑂 ′ 𝐴′ 𝑂 ′ 𝐴′
cos 4 = 𝑉𝐴′ = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 sin 4 = = .
𝑙 𝑉𝐴′ 𝑙
𝜋 𝜋
∴ 𝑉𝑂′ = 𝑙 cos 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑂′ 𝐴′ = 𝑙 sin 4 .

The surface area S is given by

𝑆 = 𝜋 𝑂′ 𝐴′ 𝑉𝐴′
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆 = 𝜋𝑟𝑙
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝑙2 𝑑𝑆 2 𝜋 𝑙 𝑑𝑙
𝑆 = 𝜋𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛 4 . 𝑙 = 𝜋𝑙 2 sin 4 = ⇒ 𝑑𝑡 =
2 2 𝑑𝑡
It is given that
𝑑𝑆
= 2 𝑐𝑚2 𝑠𝑒𝑐.
𝑑𝑡

Page 122
 2𝜋𝑙 𝑑𝑙 𝑑𝑙 2
∴2= ⇒ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜋 𝑙
2 𝑑𝑡
Putting l = 4, we get
𝑑𝑙 2
= 4 𝜋 𝑐𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑐 .
𝑑𝑡
Thus, the rate of decrease of the slant height is 2 4𝜋 cm/sec.

Illustration
A man 1.6m high walks at the rate of 30metres per minute away from a lamp which is 4m above
the ground. How fast is the man‟s shadow lengthening.
Solution
Let PQ = 4m be the height of the pole and AB = 1.6m be the height of the man.
Let the end of the shadow is R and it is a distance of l form A when the man is at a distance x
from
PQ at some instant.
Since ∆𝑃𝑄𝑅 & ∆𝐴𝐵𝑅 are similar
We have,
𝑃𝑄 𝑃𝑅
= 𝐴𝑅
𝐴𝐵
4 𝑥+𝑙 𝑥
⇒ 1.6 = = 𝑙 +1
𝑙
𝑥 2 2
⇒𝑙 =3⇒𝑙=3 𝑥

𝑑𝑙 2 𝑑𝑥 2
∴ 𝑑𝑡 = 3 𝑑𝑡 = 3 . 30
𝑑𝑙
⇒ 𝑑𝑡 = 20 𝑚 𝑚𝑖𝑛.

Illustration
A man is moving away from a tower 41.6m high at the rate of 2m/sec. Find the rate at which the
angle of elevation of the top of tower is changing, when he is at a distance of 30m from the foot of
the tower. Assume that the eye level of the man is 1.6m from the ground.

Solution
Let AB be the tower. Let at any time t, the man be at a distance of x meters from the tower AB and
let  be the angle of elevation at that time.
Then,
𝐵𝐶 40
tan 𝜃 = 𝑃𝐶 ⇒ tan 𝜃 = 𝑥
⇒ 𝑥 = 40 cot 𝜃 …. 𝑖
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝜃
⇒ = −40 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
We are given that dx/dt = 2m/sec. Therefore

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 𝑑𝜃
2 = −40 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜃 1
⇒ = − 20 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑐 2 𝜃 … 𝑖𝑖
𝑑𝑡
When x = 30, from (i) we have

30 3
cot 𝜃 = 40 = 4
So,
9 25
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 = 1 + cot 2 𝜃 = 1 + 16 = 16
Substituting cosec2  = 25/16 in (ii), we get
𝑑𝜃 1 4
=− 25 = − 125 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑑𝑡 20×
16
Thus, the angle of elevation of the top of tower is changing at the rate of 4/125 radians/sec.

Question Practice Online

Page 124
Differentials, Errors and Approximations
Remark-1
𝑑𝑦
∆𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥 . ∆𝑥
Remark-2
Let 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 be a function of x, and let ∆𝑥 be a small change in x. let ∆𝑦 be the corresponding
change in y. then
∆𝑦 𝑑𝑦
lim∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓 ′ 𝑥
∆𝑦
⇒ ∆𝑥 = 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 + 𝜀, where 𝜀 → 0 𝑎𝑠 ∆𝑥 → 0
⇒ ∆𝑦 = 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 ∆𝑥 + 𝜀 ∆𝑥 ⇒ ∆𝑦 = 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 ∆𝑥, approximately
or,
𝑑𝑦
∆𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥, approximately
𝑑𝑦
∵ 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥
Some important terms
Absolute Error- the error ∆𝑥 in x is called the absolute error in x.
Relative Error- If ∆𝑥 is an error in x, then ∆𝑥 𝑥 is called the relative error in x.
Percentage Error-If ∆𝑥 is an error in x, then ∆𝑥 𝑥 × 100 is called percentage error in x.
Let 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 be a function of x, and let ∆𝑥 be a small change in x. let the corresponding change in
y be ∆𝑦. Then
𝑦 + ∆𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥
But,
𝑑𝑦
∆𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥 . ∆𝑥 = 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 ∆𝑥, 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑦
∴ 𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 = 𝑦 + ∆𝑦
⇒ 𝑦 + 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 . ∆𝑥, 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑦
𝑑𝑦
⇒ 𝑦 + 𝑑𝑥 . ∆𝑥, 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑦

Illustration
If 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 − 10 and if x changes from 2 to 1.99, what is the approximate change in y ?
Solution
Let 𝑥 = 2, 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 = 1.99. then ∆𝑥 = 1.99 − 2 = −0.01.
Let 𝑑𝑥 = ∆𝑥 = −0.01
We have,
𝑦 = 𝑥 4 − 10
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
∴ 𝑑𝑥 = 4𝑥 3 ⇒ =4 2 3
= 32
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=2
Now,
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥 ⇒ 𝑑𝑦 = 32 −0.01 = −0.32

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 We know that ∆𝑦 is approximately equal to dy.
∆𝑦 = −0.32 approximately
So, approximate change in 𝑦 = −0.32 .
When 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = 24 − 10 = 6.
So, changed value of
𝑦 = 𝑦 + ∆𝑦 = 6 + −0.32 = 5.68 .

Illustration
Find the percentage error in calculating the volume of a cubical box if an error of 1% is made in
measuring the length of edges of the cube.
Solution
Let x be the length of an edge of the cube and y be its volume. Then 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 . Let ∆𝑥 be the error in
x and ∆𝑦 be the corresponding error in y. Then
∆𝑥
× 100 = 1 given … 𝑖
𝑥
And we have to find
∆𝑦
= 100.
𝑦
Let ∆𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥. Then, form (i)
𝑑𝑥
× 100 = 1 … 𝑖𝑖
𝑥
Now,
𝑑𝑦
𝑦 = 𝑥 3 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 3𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 3𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥 ⇒ 𝑑𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 . 𝑑𝑥 ⇒ = 𝑑𝑥
𝑦 𝑦
𝑑𝑦 3𝑥 2
⇒ = 𝑑𝑥
𝑦 𝑥3
∵ 𝑦 = 𝑥3
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
⇒ =3 ⇒ × 100 = 3 × 100
𝑦 𝑥 𝑦 𝑥
𝑑𝑦
⇒ × 100 = 3 1 = 3
𝑦
Since ∆𝑦 is approximately equal to dy. Therefore,
𝑑𝑦 ∆𝑦
× 100 = 3 ⇒ × 100 = 3
𝑦 𝑦
So, there is 3% error in calculating the volume of the cube.

Illustration
Use differentials to find the approximate value of 0.037 .
Solution
Let 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥, 𝑥 = 0.040 and 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 = 0.037.
Then
∆𝑥 = 0.037 − 0.040 = −0.003 .

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 For x = 0.040, 𝑦 = 0.040 = 0.2
putting 𝑥 = 0.040 𝑖𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑥
Let 𝑑𝑥 = ∆𝑥 = 0.003 .
Now,
𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑦 1 1
𝑦= 𝑥⇒ = ⇒ = =
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥=0.040 2 0.040 0.4
𝑑𝑦 1 3
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥 ⇒ 0.4 −0.003 = − 400
Now, ∆𝑦 is approximately equal to dy. So
3
∆𝑦 = − 400 .
Hence,
3
0.037 = 𝑦 + ∆𝑦 = 0.2 − = 0.2 − 0.0075 = 0.1925 .
400
Illustration
Using differentials find the approximate value of tan 460 , if is being given that 10 = 0.01745
radians.
Solution
Let 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 = tan 𝑥 , 𝑥 = 450 = 𝜋 4 𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 = 460 .
Then ∆𝑥 = 10 = 0.01745 radians.
For
𝑥 = 𝜋 4 , 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝜋 4 = tan 𝜋 4 = 1
Let 𝑑𝑥 = ∆𝑥 = 0.01745
Now,
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑦 = tan 𝑥 ⇒ = sec 2 𝑥 ⇒ = sec 2 𝜋 4 = 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝜋 4
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥 ⇒ 𝑑𝑦 = 2 0.01745 = 0.03490 .
But ∆𝑦 is approximately equal to dy. So,
∆𝑦 = 𝑑𝑦 = 0.03490 .
Hence,
tan 460 = 𝑦 + ∆𝑦 = 1 + 0.03490 = 1.03490 .

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Rolle’s Theorem
Let f be a real valued function defined on the closed interval [a, b] such that,
(i). f(x) is continuous in the closed interval [a, b],
(ii). f(x) is differentiable in the open interval 𝑎, 𝑏 and
(iii). f(a) = f(b)
Then there is at least one value of c of x in open interval 𝑎, 𝑏 for which 𝑓 ′ 𝑐 = 0
Geometrical proof
Consider the portion AB of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 , lying between x = a and x = b, such that
(i). it goes continuously from A to B
(ii). it has tangent at every point between A and B and
(iii). ordinate of A = ordinate of B
From figure, it is clear that f(x) increases in the
interval AC1, which implies that 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 > 0 in this
region and decreases in the interval C1B which
implies 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 < 0 in this region. Now, since there is
unique tangent to ne drawn on the curve lying in
between A and B ad since each of them has a unique
slope i.e., unique value of 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 ,
Due to continuity and differentiability of the function
f(x) in the region A to B.
There is a point is x = c where 𝑓 ′ 𝑐 = 0 should be zero.
Hence, 𝑓 ′ 𝑐 = 0 where a < c < b.
The following results are very helpful in doing so.
(i) A polynomial function is every where continuous and differentiable.
(ii) The exponential function, sine and cosine functions are everywhere continuous and
differentiable.
(iii) Logarithmic functions is continuous and differentiable in its domain.
(iv) tan x is not continuous and differentiable at 𝑥 = ± 𝜋 2 , ± 3𝜋 2 , ± 5𝜋 2 , … … … ..
(v) |x| is not differentiable at x = 0.
(vi) if 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 tends to ±∞ as 𝑥 → 𝑘, then f(x) is not differentiable at x = k.

Illustration
Verify Rolle‟s theorem for the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 in the interval [0, 2],
Solution
Here we observe that
(a) f(x) is polynomial and since polynomial are always continuous, f(x) is continuous in the
interval [0, 2]
(b) 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 2 clearly exists for all 𝑥 ∈ 0, 2 . so f(x) is differentiable for all
𝑥 ∈ 0, 2 and

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 (c)
𝑓 0 = 0, 𝑓 2 = 23 − 3. 2 2 + 2 2 = 0
𝑓 0 =𝑓 2
Thus, all the condition of Rolle‟s theorem are satisfied.
So, there must exists some 𝑐 ∈ 0, 2 such that 𝑓 ′ 𝑐 = 0
⇒ 𝑓 ′ 𝑐 = 3𝑐 2 − 6𝑐 + 2 = 0
1
⇒𝑐 =1± 3
1
Where 𝑐 = 1 ± ∈ 0, 2 thus Rolle‟s theorem is verified.
3

Illustration
Discuss the applicability of Rolle‟s theorem for the following functions on the indicated intervals:
(i)
2
𝑓 𝑥 = 3+ 𝑥−2 3 𝑜𝑛 1, 3
(ii)
𝑓 𝑥 = tan 𝑥 𝑜𝑛 0, 𝜋
Solution
(i)
We have,
𝑓 𝑥 = 3 + 𝑥 − 2 2 3 , 𝑥 ∈ 2, 3
∴ 𝑓′ 𝑥 = 2 3 𝑥 − 2 1 3
′
Clearly, lim𝑥→2 𝑓 𝑥 = ∞. So, f(x) is not differentiable at 𝑥 = 2 ∈ 1, 3 .
Hence, Rolle‟s theorem is not applicable to 𝑓 𝑥 = 3 + 𝑥 − 2 2/3 on the interval [1, 3] .
(ii)
We have
𝑓 𝑥 = tan 𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ 0, 𝜋 .
Since 𝜋 2 ∈ 0, 𝜋 and f(x) is not continuous at 𝑥 = 𝜋 2.
So, the condition of continuity at each point of 0, 𝜋 is not satisfied.
Hence, Rolle‟s theorem is not applicable to 𝑓 𝑥 = tan 𝑥 on the interval [0, ].

Illustration
𝑚 𝑛
Verify Rolle‟s theorem for the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑎 . 𝑥−𝑏 on the interval [a, b], where
m, n are positive integers.
Solution
We have 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑚 𝑥 − 𝑏 𝑛 , where m, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁 On expanding 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑚 and 𝑥 − 𝑏 𝑛 by
binomial theorem and then taking the product, we find that f(x) is a polynomial of degree (m + n).
since a polynomial function is every where differentiable and so continuous also. therefore,
(i) f(x) is continuous on [a, b]
(ii) f(x) is derivable on (a, b).

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 Also, 𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑓 𝑏 = 0.
Thus, all the three conditions of Rolle‟s theorem are satisfied. Now we have to show that there
exists 𝑐 ∈ 𝑎, 𝑏 such that 𝑓 ′ 𝑐 = 0
We have
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥−𝑎 𝑚 𝑥−𝑏 𝑛
⇒ 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑚 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑚 −1 𝑥 − 𝑏 𝑛 + 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑚 𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑏 𝑛−1
⇒ 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑚 −1 𝑥 − 𝑏 𝑛−1 𝑚 𝑥 − 𝑏 + 𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑎
⇒ 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑚 −1 𝑥 − 𝑏 𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑚 + 𝑛 − 𝑚𝑏 + 𝑛𝑎
𝑓′ 𝑥 = 0
𝑚 −1 𝑛−1
⇒ 𝑥−𝑎 𝑥−𝑏 𝑥 𝑚 + 𝑛 − 𝑚𝑏 + 𝑛𝑎 = 0
⇒ 𝑥 − 𝑎 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 − 𝑏 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 𝑚 + 𝑛 − 𝑚𝑏 + 𝑛𝑎 = 0
𝑚𝑏 +𝑛𝑎
⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑏 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 𝑚 +𝑛
Since 𝑥 = 𝑚𝑏 + 𝑛𝑎 𝑚 + 𝑛 divides (a, b) into the ratio m:n, therefore 𝑚𝑏 + 𝑛𝑎 𝑚 + 𝑛 ∈ 𝑎, 𝑏 .
Thus, 𝑐 = 𝑚𝑏 + 𝑛𝑎 𝑚 + 𝑛 ∈ 𝑎, 𝑏 such that 𝑓 ′ 𝑐 = 0.
Hence, Rolle‟s theorem is verified.
Illustration
Verify Rolle‟s theorem for each of the following functions on the indicated intervals:
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥 𝑜𝑛 𝜋 4 , 5𝜋 4 .
Solution
Since an exponential function an sine and cosine functions are everywhere continuous and
differentiable, therefore f(x) is continuous on 𝜋 4 , 5𝜋 4 and differentiable on 𝜋 4 , 5𝜋 4 .
Also,
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 1 1
𝑓 = 𝑒𝜋 4
sin 4 − cos 4 = 𝑒 𝜋 4
− =0
4 2 2
5𝜋 5𝜋 5𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑓 = 𝑒 5𝜋 4
sin − cos = 𝑒 5𝜋 4
− sin 4 + cos 4
4 4 4
1 1
⇒ 𝑒 5𝜋 4
− + =0
2 2
𝜋 5𝜋
𝑓 =𝑓
4 4
Thus, f(x) satisfies all the three conditions of Rolle‟s theorem on 𝜋 4 , 5𝜋 4. Consequently there
exists 𝑐 ∈ (𝜋 4 , 5𝜋 4) such that 𝑓 ′ 𝑐 = 0.
Now,
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥
⇒ 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 = 2𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥
⇒ 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 2𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ sin 𝑥 = 0
𝑒𝑥 ≠ 0
⇒𝑥=𝜋
Thus, 𝑐 = 𝜋 ∈ 𝜋 4 , 5𝜋 4 such that 𝑓 ′ 𝑐 = 0.
Hence, Rolle‟s theorem is verified.
Question Practice Online
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Lagrange’s Theorem
Statement- let f(x) be a function defined on [a, b] such that
(i) it is continuous on [a, b],
(ii) it is differentiable on (a, b).
Then there exists a real number 𝑐 ∈ 𝑎, 𝑏 such that
𝑓 𝑏 −𝑓 𝑎
𝑓′ 𝑐 = 𝑏−𝑎
Geometrical interpretation
Let f(x) be a function defined on [a, b], and let APB be the curve represented by 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 . then
coordinates of A and B are (a, f(a)) and (b, f(b))
respectively. Suppose the chord AB makes an
angle  with the axis of x. Then from the triangle
ARB, we have
𝐵𝑅 𝑓 𝑏 −𝑓 𝑎
tan Ψ = 𝐴𝑅 ⇒ tan Ψ = 𝑏−𝑎
By Lagrange‟s mean value theorem, we have
𝑓 𝑏 −𝑓 𝑎
𝑓′ 𝑐 = ∴ tan Ψ = 𝑓 ′ 𝑐
𝑏−𝑎
Slope of the chord AB = slope of the tangent at (c, f(c))

Illustration
Verify Lagrange‟s mean value theorem for the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 3 𝑥 − 6 𝑥 − 9 on the
interval [3, 5].
Solution
We have,
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 3 𝑥 − 6 𝑥 − 9 = 𝑥 3 − 18𝑥 2 + 99𝑥 − 162.
Since a polynomial function is every where continuous and differentiable, therefore f(x) is
continuous on [3,5] and differentiable on (3,5).
Thus, both the condition of Lagrange‟ mean value theorem are satisfied. So, there must exist at
least one real number 𝑐 𝜖 3,5 such that
𝑓 5 −𝑓 3
𝑓′ 𝑐 = 5−3
Now,
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 18𝑥 2 + 99𝑥 − 162
⇒ 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 − 36𝑥 + 99
𝑓 5 = 5−3 5−9 = 8
And
𝑓 3 =0
𝑓 5 −𝑓 3
∴ 𝑓′ 𝑥 =
5−3
2 8−0
⇒ 3𝑥 − 36𝑥 + 99 = 5−3
⇒ 3𝑥 2 − 36𝑥 + 99 = 4
Page 131
 ⇒ 3𝑥 2 − 36𝑥 + 95 = 0
36± 1296 −1140 36±12.49
⇒𝑥= =
6 6
⇒ 8.8,4.8
Thus
𝑐 = 4.8 𝜖 3,5
Such that
𝑓 5 −𝑓 3
𝑓′ 𝑐 = 5−3
Hence, Lagrange‟s mean value theorem is verified.
Illustration
Using Lagrange‟s mean value theorem, find a point on the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 2 defined on the
interval [2, 3], where the tangent is parallel to the chord joining the end points of the curve.
Solution
Let𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 2 .since for each 𝑥 𝜖 2,3 , the function f(x) attains a unique definite value. So,
f(x) is continuous on [2,3].
Also,
1
𝑓′ 𝑥 = exists for all 𝑥 𝜖 2,3 . So, 𝑓 𝑥 is differentiable on 2,3 .
2 𝑥−2
Thus, both the condition of Lagrange‟s mean value theorem are satisfied.
Consequently there must exist some 𝑐 𝜖 2,3 such that
𝑓 3 −𝑓 2
𝑓′ 𝑐 = 3−2
Now,
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥−2
1
⇒ 𝑓′ 𝑥 = 2 𝑥−2
⇒ 𝑓 3 = 1 and 𝑓 2 = 0
𝑓 3 −𝑓 2
⇒∴ 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 3−2
1 1−0
⇒2 ⇒ 3−2
𝑥−2
1
⇒2 ⇒1
𝑥−2
⇒4 𝑥−2 =1
1
⇒𝑥−2=4
9
⇒𝑥=4
Thus,
9 𝑓 3 −𝑓 2
𝑐 = 4 𝜖 2,3 such that 𝑓 ′ 𝑐 = 3−2
Now,
9 1
𝑓 𝑐 = −2=2
4

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 Thus, (c,f(c)) i.e.(9/4,1/2) is a point on the curve
𝑦= 𝑥−2
Such that the tangent at it is parallel to the chord joining the end points of the curve.
Illustration
Verify Lagrange‟s mean value theorem for the functions on the indicated intervals.
𝑓 𝑥 = 2 sin 𝑥 + sin 2𝑥 on 0, 𝜋
Solution
Since sin x and sin 2x are everywhere continuous and differentiable, therefore f(x) is continuous
on 0, 𝜋 and differentiable on 0, 𝜋 . Thus, f(x) satisfies both the conditions of Lagrange‟s mean
value theorem. Consequently,
There exists at least one 𝑐 𝜖 0, 𝜋 such that
𝑓 𝜋 −𝑓 0
𝑓′ 𝑐 = 𝜋−0
Now,
𝑓 𝑥 = 2 sin 𝑥 + sin 2𝑥
⇒ 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 2 cos 𝑥 + 2 cos 2𝑥
⇒𝑓 0 =0
And
𝑓 𝜋 = 2 sin 𝜋 + sin 2𝜋 = 0
𝑓 𝜋 −𝑓 0
∴ 𝑓′ 𝑥 = 𝜋−0
0−0
⇒ 2 cos 𝑥 + 2 cos 2𝑥 = 𝜋−0
⇒ 2 cos 𝑥 + 2 cos 2𝑥 = 0
⇒ cos 𝑥 + cos 2𝑥 = 0
⇒ cos 2𝑥 = − cos 𝑥
⇒ cos 2𝑥 = cos 𝜋 − 𝑥
⇒ 2𝑥 = 𝜋 − 𝑥
⇒ 3𝑥 = 𝜋
𝜋
⇒𝑥=3
Thus,
𝜋
𝑐= 𝜖 0, 𝜋
3
Such that
𝑓 𝜋 −𝑓 0
𝑓′ 𝑐 = 𝜋−0
Hence, Lagrange‟s mean value theorem is verified.

Question Practice Online

Page 133
 Chapter
Tangents and Normals
6
Day 1

Basic definition
Slope (Gradient) of a line
The trigonometrical tangent of the angle that a line
makes with the positive direction of x-axis in
anticlockwise sense is called the slope or gradient of
the line .

Slope of a line in terms of coordinates of any two points on it

Let P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) be two points on a line. Then its slope m is given by
𝑦 −𝑦 Difference of ordinates
𝑚 = 𝑥2 −𝑥1 = Difference
2 1 of abscissae

Slope of a line when its equation is given

The slope of a line whose equation is ax+by+c= 0 is given by
𝑎 coeff .of 𝑥
𝑚=− =−
𝑏 coeff .of 𝑦
Angle between two lines
The angle θ between two lines having slopes m1 and m2 is given by
𝑚 1 −𝑚 2
tan 𝜃 = ± 1+𝑚 1 𝑚 2
When two line are parallel, their slopes are equal.
𝑚1 = 𝑚2
Two lines of slopes m1 and m2 are perpendicular, then
𝑚1 . 𝑚2 = −1
Equation of a straight line
The equation of a straight line passing through a point (x1, y1) and slope m is
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚 𝑥 − 𝑥1

𝑑𝑦
slope of tangent = = tan 𝜃
𝑑𝑥 𝑃
1
slope of normal = −
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑃

Page 134
Illustration
Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the parabola y2 = 4ax at the point (at2, 2at)
Solution
The equation of the given curve is
𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥 … … … . 𝑖
Differentiating (i) with respect to x, we get
𝑑𝑦
2𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 4𝑎
𝑑𝑦 2𝑎
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑦
𝑑𝑦 2𝑎
⇒ = 2𝑎𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑡 2 ,2𝑎𝑡
1
⇒
𝑡
So, that equation of the tangent at (at2,2at) is
𝑑𝑦
𝑦 − 2𝑎𝑡 = 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑡 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑡 2 ,2𝑎𝑡
1
or 𝑦 − 2𝑎𝑡 = 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑡 2
𝑡
or 𝑡𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑡 2
And, the equation of the normal at 𝑎𝑡 2 , 2𝑎𝑡 is
1
𝑦 − 2𝑎𝑡 = − 𝑑𝑦 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑡 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑎 𝑡 2 ,2𝑎𝑡
1
⇒ 𝑦 − 2𝑎𝑡 = − 1 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑡 2
𝑡

⇒ 𝑦 − 2𝑎𝑡 = −𝑡 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑡 2
⇒ 𝑦 + 𝑡𝑥 = 2𝑎𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 3

Illustration
Find the equation of the tangent and normal to 16x2 + 9y2 = 144 at the point (x1, y1) where x1 = 2
and y1 > 0
Solution
The equation of the given curve is
16𝑥 2 + 9𝑦 2 = 144 … … … … 𝑖
Since (x1, y1) lies on (i), therefore
16𝑥12 + 9𝑦12 = 144
⇒ 16 2 2 + 9𝑦12 = 144
80
⇒ 𝑦12 = 9
4 5
⇒ 𝑦1 = 3
∵ 𝑦1 > 0
So, the given point is

Page 135
 4 5
2, 3
Now,
16𝑥 2 + 9𝑦 2 = 144
𝑑𝑦
⇒ 32𝑥 + 18𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 0
[Differentiating with respect to x.]
𝑑𝑦 16𝑥
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = − 9𝑦
𝑑𝑦 16×2
⇒ 4 5 =− 4 5
𝑑𝑥 2, 9×
3 3
8
⇒ −3 5
So, the equation of the tangent at
4 5
2, 𝑖𝑠
3
4 5 𝑑𝑦
𝑦− = 4 5 𝑥−2
3 𝑑𝑥 2,
3
4 5 8
⇒𝑦− = −3 𝑥−2
3 5

⇒ 8𝑥 + 3 5𝑦 − 36 = 0
And, the equation of the normal at
4 5
2, 𝑖𝑠
3
4 5 1
𝑦− =− 𝑑𝑦 𝑥−2
3
𝑑𝑥 4 5
2, 3

4 5 −1
⇒𝑦− = 8 𝑥−2
3 −
3 5
4 5 3 5
⇒𝑦− = 𝑥−2
3 8
⇒ 9 5 𝑥 − 24𝑦 + 14 5 = 0

Illustration
Find the equation of the tangent line to y = 2x2 + 7 which is parallel to the line 4x – y + 3 = 0.
Solution
Let the point of contact of the required tangent line be (x1, y1)
The equation of the given curve is y = 2x2 + 7
Differentiating both sides with respect to x, we get
𝑑𝑦
= 4𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
⇒ = 4𝑥1
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 1 ,𝑦1
Since the line 4x – y + 3 = 0 is parallel to the tangent at (x1, y1).
∴ slope of the tangent at 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 = slope of the line 4𝑥 − 𝑦 + 3 = 0
Page 136
 𝑑𝑦 −4
⇒ = −1
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 1 ,𝑦1
coeff .of 𝑥
∵ slope = − coeff .of 𝑦
⇒ 4𝑥1 = 4
⇒ 𝑥1 = 1
Now,
𝑥1 , 𝑦1 lies on
𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 + 7.
∴ 𝑦1 = 2𝑥12 + 7
⇒ 𝑦1 = 2 + 7
⇒9
∵ 𝑥1 = 1
So, the coordinates of the point of contact are (1, 9). Hence, the required equation of the tangent
line is
𝑦−9 =4 𝑥−1
⇒ 4𝑥 − 𝑦 + 5 = 0

Illustration
Find the equation of tangent to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 + 6 which is perpendicular to the line x +
14y + 4 = 0.
Solution
Let the coordinates of the point of contact be (x1, y1).
Then
𝑦1 = 𝑥13 + 2𝑥1 + 6 … . . 𝑖
∵ 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 lies on line 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 + 6
The equation of the curve is
𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 + 6
Differentiating with respect to x, we get
𝑑𝑦
= 3𝑥 2 + 2
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
⇒ = 3𝑥12 + 2
𝑑𝑥𝑠 𝑥 1 ,𝑦1
Since the tangent at (x1, y1) is perpendicular to the line x + 14y + 4 = 0,
Therefore,
slope of the tangent at 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 × slope of the line = −1
𝑑𝑦 1
⇒ × − 14 = −1
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 1 ,𝑦1
1
⇒ 3𝑥12 + 2 − = −1
14
⇒ 3𝑥12 + 2 = 14
⇒ 𝑥1 = ±2

Page 137
 When
𝑥1 = 2, 𝑦1 = 23 + 2 × 2 + 6 = 18
When
𝑥1 = −2, 𝑦1 = (−2)3 + 2 × −2 + 6 = −6
So, the coordinates of the points of contact are (2, 18) and (-2, -6)
The equation of the tangent at (2, 18) is
𝑦 − 18 = 14 𝑥 − 2
⇒ 14𝑥 − 𝑦 − 10 = 0
𝑑𝑦
using 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑥 − 𝑥1
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 1 ,𝑦1
The equation of the tangent at (-2, -6) is
𝑦— 6 = 14 𝑥— 2
⇒ 14𝑥 − 𝑦 + 22 = 0
Illustration
Show that the curve 4𝑥 = 𝑦 2 and 4xy = k cut at right angles, if k2 = 512.
Solution
Curve are 4x = y2 …………….(i) and 4xy = k ………………………(ii)
Eliminating y we get,
𝑘 2
4𝑥 = 4𝑥
⇒ 64𝑥 = 𝑘 2 3

𝑘 2/3
⇒𝑥= 4
Put in (i)
𝑦 = 𝑘1/3 ,
Point of intersection is
𝑘 2/3
, 𝑘1/3
4
Differentiating (i) with respect to x, we get
𝑑𝑦
4 = 2𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 2
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑦
𝑑𝑦 2
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 𝑘 2/3 1/3 = 𝑘 1/3 … … … … . . 𝑖𝑖𝑖
,𝑘
4

Differentiating (ii) with respect to x, we get

𝑑𝑦
4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦 .1 = 0
𝑑𝑦 𝑦
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑘 1/3 ×4
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 𝑘 2/3 1/3 =−
,𝑘 𝑘 2/3
4

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 4
⇒ − 𝑘 1/3 … … … … … … . . 𝑖𝑣
As curves are at right angles from (iii) and (iv) ,we have
𝑚1 𝑚2 = −1
2 −4
× 𝑘 1/3 = −1
𝑘 1/3
⇒ 𝑘 2/3 = 8,
Cubing we get
𝑘 2 = 512.
Illustration
Show that the condition that the curves
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑦 2 = 1 … … … 𝑖 and 𝑎′ 𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑦 2 = 1 … … … … . . 𝑖𝑖
Should intersect orthogonally is that
1 1 1 1
− 𝑏 = 𝑎 ′ − 𝑏′
𝑎
Solution
Let (x1, y1) be the point of intersection of the curves. Then
𝑎𝑥12 + 𝑏𝑦12 = 1 … … … … 𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑎′ 𝑥12 + 𝑏𝑦12 = 1 … … … … 𝑖𝑣
Differentiating (i) with respect to x, we get
𝑑𝑦
2𝑎𝑥 + 2𝑏𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑎𝑥
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑏𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑎𝑥
⇒ 𝑚1 = = − 𝑏𝑦1 … … … . . 𝑣
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 1 ,𝑦1 1

Differentiating (ii) with respect to x, we get

𝑑𝑦
2𝑎′𝑥 + 2𝑏′𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑎′𝑥
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑏′𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑎′𝑥
⇒ 𝑚2 = = − 𝑏′𝑦1 … … … . . 𝑣𝑖
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 1 ,𝑦1 1

The two curves will intersect orthogonally, if

𝑎𝑥1 𝑎′ 𝑥1
𝑚1 𝑚2 = −1 × − ′ = −1⇒−
𝑏𝑦1 𝑏 𝑦1
⇒ 𝑎𝑎′ 𝑥12 = −𝑏𝑏′ 𝑦 2 … … … . . 𝑣𝑖𝑖
Subtracting (iv) from (iii), we obtain
𝑎 − 𝑎′ 𝑥12 = − 𝑏 − 𝑏′ 𝑦12 … … … 𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑖
Dividing (viii) by (vii) we get
𝑎 −𝑎 ′ 𝑏−𝑏 ′ 1 1 1 1
= ⇒ 𝑎 − 𝑏 = 𝑎′ − 𝑏′
𝑎𝑎 ′ 𝑏 𝑏′

Question Practice Online

Page 139
 Day 2

Advance Level
Illustration
Find the angle of intersection of the curves 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and 𝑦 = 4 − 𝑥 2
Solution
For intersection point of the given curves
𝑥2 = 4 − 𝑥2 ⇒ 𝑥 = ± 2
𝑑𝑦
at 𝑥 = 2; 𝑑𝑥 for the 1𝑠𝑡 curve = 2𝑥 = 2 2
While for the 2nd curve
𝑑𝑦
= −2𝑥 = −2 2
𝑑𝑥
Hence if  be the acute angle of intersection of the curves, then
2 2− −2 2
tan 𝜃 = 1+2 2 −2 2
4 2
⇒ 7
4 2
∴ 𝜃 = tan−1 7
The obtuse angle between the curves at 𝑥 = 2 is 𝜋 − tan−1 4 2 7
At 𝑥 = − 2, the angle of intersection will be same as at 𝑥 = 2 because both the functions are
even.

Illustration
Find the acute angles between the curves 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 1 and 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 3 at their points of
intersection.
Solution
For intersection point of the given curves
𝑥2 − 1 = 𝑥2 − 3
𝑥2 − 1 2 = 𝑥2 − 3 2
⇒ 𝑥 2 − 1 − 𝑥 2 + 3 𝑥2 − 1 + 𝑥 2 − 3
⇒0
⇒ 2𝑥 2 = 4
2
⇒ 𝑥 = ± 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = ± 2 −1 =1
Hence the points of intersection are ± 2, 1
Let us discuss at the point 2, 1
In the small vicinity of 2, 𝑥 − 1 > 0 and 𝑥 2 − 3 < 0
2

𝑦 = 𝑥2 − 1 = 𝑥2 − 1
while 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 3 = − 𝑥 2 − 3

Page 140
 For the first curve
𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑥 2,1 =2 2
𝑑𝑥 2,1
For the second curve
𝑑𝑦
= −2𝑥 2,1 = −2 2
𝑑𝑥 2,1

Hence, if  be the acute angle of intersection of the curve, then

2 2− −2 2
tan 𝜃 = 1+2 2 −2 2
4 2
⇒ 7
4 2
𝜃 = tan−1 7
Illustration
Find the equation of the tangents drawn to the curve 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 3 − 4𝑦 + 8 = 0 from the point (1, 2).
Solution
Let the drawn from (1, 2) meets the curve at 𝛼, 𝛽 .
Now,
2𝑦𝑦 ′ − 6𝑥 2 − 4𝑦 ′ = 0
3𝑥 2
⇒ 𝑦 ′ = 𝑦−2
3𝛼 2
∴ 𝑦′ 𝛼,𝛽 = 𝛽 −2 … … … … … … . 𝐴
Hence, the tangent at 𝛼, 𝛽 is given by
3𝛼 2
𝑦 − 𝛽 = 𝛽 −2 𝑥 − 𝛼 … … … … … . 𝑖
The tangent (i) passes through (1, 2)
3𝛼 2
∴ 2−𝛽 = 1−𝛼
𝛽 −2
𝑜𝑟 , 2 − 𝛽 = 3𝛼 2 1 − 𝛼
2

𝑜𝑟, 3𝛼 3 − 3𝛼 2 − 𝛽 2 + 4𝛽 − 4 = 0 … … … … … … . 𝑖𝑖
Also, 𝛼, 𝛽 lies on the given curve
Hence
𝛽 2 − 2𝛼 3 − 4𝛽 + 8 = 0 … … … … … … … … … … … . 𝑖𝑖𝑖
Adding (ii) and (iii) we get,
𝛼 3 − 2𝛼 2 + 4 = 0
⇒ 𝛼+1 𝛼−2 2 =0
⇒∴ 𝛼 = −1, 2
When
𝛼 = −1,
𝛽 2 − 4𝛽 + 10 = 0
⇒ β is imaginary

Page 141
 When
𝛼 = 2,
𝛽 2 − 4𝛽 − 8 = 0
⇒𝛽 =2±2 3
Thus the points are
2,2 + 2 3 and 2,2 − 2 3
And slopes are 2 3, −2 3 respectively
Equations of tangents are therefore
𝑦−2 1+ 3 =2 3 𝑥−2
And
𝑦 − 2 1 − 3 = −2 3 𝑥 − 2
Illustration
ax + by = 1 is a normal to the parabola y2 = 4px then prove that 𝑝𝑎3 + 2𝑎𝑝𝑏2 = 𝑏2
Solution
Let the normal is drawn at the point 𝛼, 𝛽 so that 𝛽 = 4𝑝𝛼
Now,
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2𝑝
2𝑦 = 4𝑝 ⇒ =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝛼,𝛽 𝛽

Hence, the equation of the normal is

−𝛽
𝑦−𝛽 = 𝑥−𝛼
2𝑝
−𝛽 𝛽2
⇒𝑦−𝛽= 𝑥 − 4𝑝
2𝑝
−𝛽 4𝑝𝑥 −𝛽 2
⇒𝑦−𝛽= 8𝑝 2
𝛽
∵ 𝛼 = 4𝑝
⇒ 4𝑝𝛽𝑥 + 8𝑝2 𝑦 = 𝛽 3 + 8𝑝2 𝛽 … … … … . . 𝑖
Comparing (1) with ax + by = 1we have
4𝑝𝛽 8𝑝 2 𝛽 3 +8𝑝 2 𝛽
= =
𝑎 𝑏 1
From first two expressions
2𝑎𝑝
𝛽= 𝑏

From first and second expressions

4𝑝
= 𝛽 2 + 8𝑝2
𝑎
4𝑝 4𝑎 2 𝑝 2
⇒ = + 8𝑝2
𝑎 𝑏2
4𝑝
⇒ = 4𝑎3 𝑝2 + 8𝑎𝑝2 𝑏2
𝑎
⇒ 𝑏 = 𝑎3 𝑝 + 2𝑎𝑝𝑏2
2

Page 142
Illustration
For the curve xy = c2, prove that the portion of the tangent intercepted between the co-ordinate
axes is divided at the point of contact.
Solution
Let the tangent is drawn at the point 𝛼, 𝛽 on the curve so that
𝛼𝛽 = 𝑐 2 ,
Now,
𝑑𝑦 𝑐 −𝛼𝛽 −𝛽
= − 𝛼2 = =
𝑑𝑥 𝛼,𝛽 𝛼2 𝛼

Thus the equation of tangent is

−𝛽
𝑦−𝛽 = 𝑥−𝛼
𝛼
⇒ 𝛼𝑦 − 𝛼𝛽 = −𝛽𝑥 + 𝛼𝛽
⇒ 𝛽𝑥 + 𝛼𝑦 = 2𝛼𝛽
𝑥 𝑦
⇒ 2𝛼 + 2𝛽 = 1
It is clear that the tangent line cuts x and y axes at A (2α, 0) and B(0, 2β) respectively and the point
(α, β) is mid-point of AB
Illustration
Prove that the segment of the tangent drawn to the curve 𝑥 2/3 + 𝑦 2/3 = 𝑐 2/3 intercepted between
the co-ordinate axes is of constant length.
Solution
Let the tangent is drawn at the point (α, β) on the curve so that

𝛼2 3
+ 𝛽2 3
= 𝑐2 3
……………….. 𝑖
Now,
2 2
𝑥 −1/3 + 3 𝑦 −1/3 = 0
3
⇒ 𝑦 ′ = − 𝑥 𝑦 −1/3 = − 𝑦 𝑥 1/3
∴ 𝑦 ′ 𝛼,𝛽 = − 𝛽 𝛼 1/3
Hence, the equation of the tangent is
𝑦−𝛽 =− 𝛽 𝛼 1 3 𝑥−𝛼
When
𝑦 = 0; 𝑥 = 𝛼 + 𝛼 1 3 . 𝛽 2/3 = 𝛼 1/3 𝛼 2/3 + 𝛽 2/3 = 𝛼 1 3 𝑐 2/3 = 𝑂𝐴
When
𝑥 = 0; 𝑦 = 𝛽 + 𝛽 1 3 . 𝛼 2/3 = 𝛽1/3 𝛽 2/3 + 𝛼 2/3 = 𝛽 1 3 𝑐 2/3 = 𝑂𝐵
∴ 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂𝐴2 + 𝑂𝐵2 = 𝑐 4/3 𝛼 2/3 + 𝛽 2/3 = 𝑐 4/3 𝑐 2/3
AB = C = constant.
Question Practice Online

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 Chapter
7 Monotonicity
Day 1

Monotonic function
Monotonous behavior i.e. in the sense of ascending (increasing) or descending (decreasing). There
are two types of monotonic function.
(i) Increasing function
It can be further studied under two subtopics
(i) Strictly increasing function-
A function f (x) is known as strictly increasing function in its domain if
𝑥1 < 𝑥2 ⇒ 𝑓 𝑥1 < 𝑓 𝑥2 i.e. for the smaller inprt we have smaller output and
for higher value of input we have higher output.
Nature of derivative of function
We know that
𝑓 𝑥+𝑕 −𝑓 𝑥
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = lim𝑕→0 𝑕
𝑥 < 𝑥+𝑕 𝑎𝑠 𝑕 > 0
Hence,
𝑓 𝑥 < 𝑓 𝑥+𝑕
𝑓 𝑥+𝑕 −𝑓 𝑥 >0
+𝑣𝑒
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = −𝑣𝑒 = +𝑣𝑒
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 > 0
′ 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 may also be zero but only at
finite number of points and not in an
interval.
(ii) Non decreasing function
A function f (x) is said to be non decreasing if for
𝑥1 < 𝑥2
It follows 𝑓 𝑥1 ≤ 𝑓 𝑥2
For AB & CD portions
𝑥1 < 𝑥2 ⇒ 𝑓 𝑥1 < 𝑓 𝑥2
And for BC, 𝑥1 < 𝑥2 ⇒ 𝑓 𝑥1 = 𝑓 𝑥2
Hence, as a whole we can say that for non
decreasing functions
𝑥1 < 𝑥2 ⇒ 𝑓 𝑥1 ≤ 𝑓 𝑥2 .

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 Obviously, for this 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 ≥ 0 where equality holds
for horizontal path of the graph i.e. in the interval
of BC.
(ii) Decreasing Function
(i)Strictly decreasing function
A function f (x) is said to be strictly decreasing in its domain if it follows
𝑥1 < 𝑥2 ⇒ 𝑓 𝑥1 > 𝑓 𝑥2 i.e. for smaller value of input we have higher output
and for
higher input we have smaller output.
Nature of derivative
We have,
𝑓 𝑥+𝑕 −𝑓 𝑥
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = lim𝑕→0 𝑕
𝑥 < 𝑥 + 𝑕 𝑎𝑠 𝑕 > 0
𝑓 𝑥 > 𝑓 𝑥+𝑕
⇒𝑓 𝑥+𝑕 −𝑓 𝑥 <0
−𝑣𝑒
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = +𝑣𝑒 = −𝑣𝑒.
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 < 0 for strictly decreasing
function. 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 may also be zero but
only at finite number of points.

(ii) Non increasing functions

A function 𝑓 𝑥 is called non-
increasing if for 𝑥1 < 𝑥2 ⇒
𝑓 𝑥1 ≥ 𝑥2 For AB & CD
portion 𝑥1 < 𝑥 2 ⇒ 𝑓 𝑥1 >
𝑓 𝑥2 while 𝑥1 < 𝑥2 ⇒ 𝑓 𝑥1 =
𝑓 𝑥2 for BC portion. It is
clear that 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 ≤ 0 for this
case.
Illustration
i 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 increases strictly in „R‟.

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 1
ii 𝑓 𝑥 = is strictly increasing in
𝑥
−∞, 0 and strictly decreasing in 0, ∞ .

iii 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 is strictly increasing in

„R‟

iv 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 is increasing but not

strictly increasing ( i.e. non decreasing)
in „R‟.

Illustration
Find the interval of increase or decrease of the following functions.
𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 1
Solution
(a)
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 6𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 12 = 6 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2
When 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2 = 0, 𝑥 = −2, 1
Since 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 < 0 in −2, 1
Hence the function decreases in the interval −2, 1 and increases when 𝑥 < −2 or 𝑥 >
1 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 > 0 in these intervals .

Illustration
Find the interval in which 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 + 20 is strictly increasing or strictly decreasing
Solution
Given,
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 + 20
⇒ 𝑓′ 𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 9
⇒ 𝑓′ 𝑥 = 3 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3
⇒ 𝑓′ 𝑥 =3 𝑥−3 𝑥+1
Using number line method,
⇒ 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 > 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 𝜖 −∞, −1 ∪ 3, ∞
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 < 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 𝜖 −1,3
Thus, f(x) is strictly increasing for 𝑥 𝜖 −∞, −1 ∪ 3, ∞ and strictly decreasing for 𝑥 𝜖 −1,3 .

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Illustration
3 3
Find the interval in which 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 1 𝑥−3 is increasing or decreasing.
Solution
We have
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥+1 3 𝑥−3 3
𝑓′ 𝑥 ⇒ 3 𝑥 + 1 2 𝑥 − 3 3 + 3 𝑥 + 1 3
𝑥−3 2

⇒ 3 𝑥+1 2 𝑥−3 2 𝑥+1+𝑥−3

⇒6 𝑥+1 2 𝑥−3 2 𝑥−1

For f (x) to be increasing, we must have

𝑓′ 𝑥 > 0 ⇒ 6 𝑥 + 1 2
𝑥−3 2
𝑥−1 >0
⇒𝑥−1>0
2 2
∵6 𝑥+1 𝑥−3 >0
⇒𝑥>1
⇒ 𝑥 𝜖 1, ∞
So, f (x) is increasing on 1, ∞
For f (x) to be decreasing, we must have
𝑓′ 𝑥 < 0 ⇒ 6 𝑥 + 1 2
𝑥−3 2
𝑥−1 <0
⇒𝑥−1<0
2 2
∵6 𝑥+1 𝑥−3 >0
⇒𝑥<1
⇒ 𝑥 𝜖 −∞, 1
So, f (x) is decreasing on (– ∞, 1)

Illustration
Find the interval in which the function
2𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 = ln 1 + 𝑥 − 2+𝑥 is increasing or decereasing.
Solution
We have
2𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 = ln 1 + 𝑥 −
2+𝑥
1 𝑑 2+𝑥 .2−2𝑥 0+1
⇒ 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 1+𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 + 1 – 2+𝑥 𝟐
1 4
⇒ 1+𝑥 − 2+𝑥 2
2+𝑥 𝟐 −4 1+𝑥 𝑥2
⇒ =
2+𝑥 2 1+𝑥 2+𝑥 2 1+𝑥
𝑥 2 1
⇒ 2+𝑥 𝑥+1
For f (x) to be increasing, we must have

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 𝑥 2 1
𝑓′ 𝑥 > 0 = >0
2+𝑥 𝑥+1
1
⇒ 𝑥+1 > 0
𝑥 2
∵ >0
2+𝑥

⇒𝑥+1>0
⇒ 𝑥 > −1
⇒ 𝑥 𝜖 −1, ∞
So, f (x) is increasing on −1, ∞
For f (x) to be decreasing, we must have
𝑥 2 1
𝑓′ 𝑥 < 0 = <0
2+𝑥 𝑥+1
1
⇒ 𝑥+1 < 0
𝑥 2
∵ >0
2+𝑥

⇒𝑥+1<0
⇒ 𝑥 < −1
but ln (1 + x) is defind function x < – 1 .
Hence function is only increasing function.

Illustration
Determine the value of x for which
𝑥−2
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥+1 , 𝑥 ≠ −1 is increasing or decreasing .
Solution
We have,
𝑥−2
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥+1 , 𝑥 ≠ −1
𝑥+1 1− 𝑥−2 .1
⇒ 𝑓′ 𝑥 = 𝑥+1 2
3
⇒ ,𝑥 ≠ −1
𝑥+1 2
Clearly,
3
𝑓′ 𝑥 = > 0 for all 𝑥 𝜖 𝑅 , except 𝑥 = −1
𝑥+1 2
So, f (x) is increasing on R – {–1}

Illustration
Separate 0, 𝜋/2 into subintervals in which 𝑓 𝑥 = sin 3𝑥 is increasing or decreasing.
Solution
We have
𝑓 𝑥 = sin 3𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 3 cos 3𝑥

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 Now,
𝜋
0<𝑥< ⇒ 0 < 3𝑥 < 3𝜋/2
2
Since cosine function is positive in first quadrant and negative in the second and third quadrants.
Therefore, we consider the following cases.
Case I
When
0 < 3𝑥 < 𝜋/2
𝜋
0 < 3𝑥 < 2 ⇒ cos 3𝑥 > 0
⇒ 3 cos 3𝑥 > 0 ⇒ 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 > 0
Thus,
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 > 0𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 < 3𝑥 < 𝜋/2𝑖. 𝑒. 0 < 𝑥 < 𝜋/6
So, f (x) is increasing on 0, 𝜋/6
Case II
When
𝜋/2 < 3𝑥 < 3𝜋/2
3𝜋
𝜋/2 < 3𝑥 < ⇒ cos 3𝑥 < 0
2
⇒ 3 cos 3𝑥 < 0 ⇒ 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 < 0
Thus,
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 < 0 for 𝜋/2 < 3𝑥 < 3𝜋/2𝑖. 𝑒. 𝜋/6 < 𝑥 < 𝜋/2
So, f (x) is decreasing on (π/6, π/2)
Hence, f (x) is increasing on (0, π/6) and decreasing on (π/6, π/2).

Illustration
Find the intervals in which
𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 = ln 𝑥 is increasing or decreasing.
Solution
Note the domain of f (x) is the set of all positive real numbers i.e. f (x) is defined for all 𝑥 ≠ 0.
Now,
𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 = ln 𝑥
ln 𝑥−1
⇒ ln 𝑥 2
For f(x) to be increasing, we must have
𝑓′ 𝑥 > 0
ln 𝑥−1
⇒ >0
ln 𝑥 2
⇒ ln 𝑥 − 1 > 0
∵ ln𝑎 𝑥 > 𝑁 ⇒ 𝑥 > 𝑎𝑁 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 0
⇒ ln 𝑥 > 1
⇒ 𝑥 > 𝑒1

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 ∵ ln𝑎 𝑥 > 𝑁 ⇒ 𝑥 > 𝑎𝑁 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 > 1
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑒 > 1 ∴ ln𝑒 𝑥 > 1 ⇒ 𝑥 > 𝑒 1
⇒ 𝑥 𝜖 𝑒, ∞ .

So, f (x) is increasing on (e, ∞)

For f (x) to be decreasing, we must have
𝑓′ 𝑥 < 0
ln 𝑥−1
⇒ ln 𝑥 2
<0
⇒ ln 𝑥 − 1 < 0
2
∵ ln 𝑥 > 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ⇒ 𝑥 > 0
⇒ ln 𝑥 < 1
⇒ 𝑥 < 𝑒1
∵ 𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 0
⇒ 𝑥 𝜖 0, 𝑒 − 1
So, f (x) is decreasing on 0, 𝑒 − 1

Illustration
Separate the interval [0, π/2] into subintervals in which 𝑓 𝑥 = sin4 𝑥 + cos 4 𝑥 is increasing or
decreasing.
Solution
We have
𝑓 𝑥 = sin4 𝑥 + cos4 𝑥
⇒ 𝑓′ 𝑥 = 4 sin3 𝑥 cos 4 − 4 cos 3 𝑥 sin 𝑥
⇒ 𝑓′ 𝑥 = −4 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 cos2 𝑥 − sin2 𝑥
⇒ 𝑓′ 𝑥 = −2 2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 cos 2𝑥
⇒ 𝑓′ 𝑥 = −2 sin 2𝑥 cos 2 𝑥
⇒ 𝑓′ 𝑥 = − sin 4𝑥
Now,
𝜋
0<𝑥< ⇒ 0 < 4𝑥 < 2𝜋
2
Since sine function is positive in first and second quadrant and negative in the third and fourth
quadrants. we consider the following cases.
Case I
When
0 < 4𝑥 < 𝜋 ⇒ sin 4𝑥 > 0
⇒ − sin 4𝑥 < 0
⇒ 𝑓′ 𝑥 < 0
∵ 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 < 0𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 < 4𝑥 < 𝜋 𝑖. 𝑒. 0 < 𝑥 < 𝜋/4
So, f (x) is decreasing on (0, π/4)

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 Case II
When
0 < 4𝑥 < 𝜋 ⇒ sin 4𝑥 > 0
⇒ − sin 4𝑥 > 0
⇒ 𝑓′ 𝑥 > 0
∵ 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 > 0𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 < 4𝑥 < 2𝜋 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝜋/4 < 𝑥 < 𝜋/2
So, f (x) is increasing on (π/4, π/2)
Illustration
Find the values „a‟ for which the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 + 2 𝑥 3 − 3𝑎𝑥 2 + 9𝑎𝑥 − 1 decrease for all
real values of x.
Solution
We have,
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎 + 2 𝑥 3 − 3𝑎𝑥 2 + 9𝑎𝑥 − 1
⇒ 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 3 𝑎 + 2 𝑥 2 − 6𝑎𝑥 + 9𝑎.
Since f (x) is decreasing for all real values of x.
Therefore,
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 < 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 𝜖 𝑅
⇒ 3 𝑎 + 2 𝑥 2 − 6𝑎𝑥 + 9𝑎 < 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 𝜖 𝑅
⇒ 𝑎 + 2 𝑥 2 − 2𝑎𝑥 + 3𝑎 < 0𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 𝜖 𝑅
⇒ 𝑎 + 2 < 0 and 4𝑎2 − 4 × 𝑎 + 2 × 3𝑎 < 0
∵ 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 < 0 for all 𝑥 𝜖 𝑅
⇒ 𝑎 < 0 and Disc < 0
⇒ 𝑎 < −2 and 𝑎2 − 3𝑎2 − 6𝑎 < 0
⇒ 𝑎 < −2 and − 2𝑎2 − 6𝑎 < 0
⇒ 𝑎 < −2 and − 2𝑎 𝑎 + 3 > 0
Now,
−2𝑎 𝑎 + 3 < 0 ⇒ 𝑎 𝑎 + 3 > 0
⇒ 𝑎 < −3 or 𝑎 > 0
⇒ 𝑎 𝜖 −∞, −3 ∪ 0, ∞
∴ 𝑎 < −2 and − 2𝑎 𝑎 + 3 < 0
⇒ 𝑎 < −2 and 𝑎 𝜖 −∞, −3 ∪ 0, ∞

⇒ 𝑎 𝜖 −∞, −3 .

Hence, f(x) decrease for all 𝑥 𝜖 𝑅, 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 𝜖 −∞, −3 .

Question Practice Online

Page 151
 Day 2

Advance level

Illustration
Find the interval of increase or decrease of the functions.
𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 ∫−1 𝑡 2 + 2𝑡 𝑡 2 − 1 𝑑𝑡
Solution
𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 = ∫−1 𝑡 2 + 2𝑡 𝑡 2 − 1 𝑑𝑡
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 𝑥 2 − 1
When
𝑓′ 𝑥 = 0
⇒ 𝑥 = 0, −2, −1, 1.
Sign scheme for 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 is as below

Clearly. 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 0
When
−∞ 𝑥 < −2
Or,
−1 < 𝑥 < 0

Or,
1<𝑥<∞
While
𝑓′ 𝑥 < 0
When
−2 < 𝑥 < −1
Or
0<𝑥<1
Hence
𝑓 (𝑥)increases
When
−∞ < 𝑥 < −2
Or
−1 < 𝑥 < 0
Or,
1<𝑥<∞
I.e. in the interval

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 −∞, −2 ∪ −1,0 ∪ 1, ∞
And decreases when
−2 < 𝑥 < −1
Or
0<𝑥<1
i. e. in the interval
−2, −1, ∪ 0,1

Illustration
Find the interval of increase or decrease of the functions.
𝑓 𝑥 = 3 cos 4 𝑥 + 10 cos 3 𝑥 + 6 cos 2 𝑥 − 3 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋
Solution
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 12 cos 3 𝑥 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 30 cos 2 𝑥 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 12𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
⇒ −3𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 2 cos 2 𝑥 + 5𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 2
⇒ −3𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 2
When
𝑓′ 𝑥 = 0
⇒ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 = 0

⇒ 𝑥 0, 2 , 𝜋
Or
2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 1 = 0
2𝜋
⇒𝑥= 3
As
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 2 ≠ 0.
Sign scheme for
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 in 0, 𝜋 is as below.
𝜋 2𝜋
𝑓 𝑥 decreases on 0, 2 ∪ ,𝜋
3
And increases on
𝜋 2𝜋
,
2 3

Page 153
Illustration
Show that 1 + 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 1 ≥ 1 + 𝑥 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ≥ 0.
Solution
Let
𝑓 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 1 − 1 + 𝑥 2
1 1
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 0 + 𝑥 1+ 2𝑥 +
𝑥+ 𝑥 2 +1 2 𝑥 2 +1
1
ln 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 1 . 1 − . 2𝑥
2 1+𝑥 2

𝑥 𝑥2 + 1 + 𝑥 𝑥
⇒ . + 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 1 −
𝑥+ 𝑥2 +1 𝑥2 +1 1 + 𝑥2
⇒ ln 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 1
Since,
𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 1 > 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 0
ln 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 1 > ln 1
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 > 0 for all 𝑥 > 0
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑓 𝑥 increases for 𝑥 > 0
∴𝑥≥0
⇒𝑓 𝑥 ≥𝑓 0
⇒ 1 + 𝑥 ln 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 1 − 1 + 𝑥 2 ≥ 0
⇒ 1 + 𝑥 ln 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 1 ≥ 1 + 𝑥 2
Illustration
𝑥
Show that 2sin𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 ≥ 3𝑥 when 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 2 .
Solution
Let
𝑓 𝑥 = 2 sin 𝑥 + tan 𝑥 − 3𝑥
Then
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 2 cos 𝑥 + sec 2 𝑥 − 3
1
⇒ 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜 𝑠 2 − 3
2 cos 3 𝑥−3 cos 2 𝑥+1
⇒ cos 2 𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 −1 2 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 +3
⇒ cos 2 𝑥
Which is non-negative for all x in 0 ≤ x < π⁄2
Hence
𝑓 𝑥 increases in [0, 𝜋 2]
∴𝑥≥0
⇒𝑓 𝑥 ≥𝑓 0

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 2 sin 𝑥 + tan 𝑥 − 3𝑥 ≥ 0
As
𝑓 0 =0
⇒ 2 sin 𝑥 + tan 𝑥 ≥ 3𝑥.

Illustration
𝑑
If 𝐻 𝑥0 = 0 for some 𝑥 = 𝑥0 and 𝑑𝑥 𝐻 𝑥 > 2𝑐𝑥 𝐻 𝑥 for all 𝑥 ≥ 𝑥0
where 𝑐 > 0, then prove that 𝐻 𝑥 cannot be zero for any 𝑥 > 𝑥0 .
Solution
Give that
𝑑
𝐻 𝑥 > 2𝑐𝑥 𝐻 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 𝐻 𝑥 − 2𝑐𝑥 𝐻 𝑥 > 0
𝑑 2 2
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 𝐻 𝑥 𝑒 −𝑐𝑥 − 2𝑐𝑥𝑒 −𝑐𝑥 . 𝐻 𝑥 > 0
𝑑 2 𝑑 2
⇒ 𝐻 𝑥 𝑒 −𝑐𝑥 − 𝐻 𝑥 𝑒 −𝑐𝑥 >0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 −𝑐𝑥 2
⇒ 𝐻 𝑥 .𝑒 >0
𝑑𝑥
−𝑐𝑥 2
∴𝐻 𝑥 𝑒 is an increasing function.
But,
2
𝐻 𝑥0 = 0 and 𝑒 −𝑐𝑥 is always positive.
⇒ 𝐻 𝑥0 > 0 for all 𝑥 > 𝑥0
⇒ 𝐻 𝑥 cannot be zero for any 𝑥 > 𝑥0 .

Properties of Monotonic Functions

if f (x)is strictly increasing function on [a, b]
𝑓 −1 𝑥 exists
⇒ −1
𝑓 𝑥 is also strictly increasing on 𝑎, 𝑏
f (x) and g(x) are two continuous and differentiable functions and fog (x) exists then,
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 > 0, 𝑔′ 𝑥 > 0 ⇒ 𝑓𝑜𝑔 ′ 𝑥 > 0𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔𝑜𝑓 ′ 𝑥 >0
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 > 0 𝑔′ 𝑥 < 0 ⇒ 𝑓𝑜𝑔 ′ 𝑥 < 0𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔𝑜𝑓 ′ 𝑥 <0
⇒
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 < 0, 𝑔′ 𝑥 > 0 ⇒ 𝑓𝑜𝑔 ′ 𝑥 < 0𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔𝑜𝑓 ′ 𝑥 <0
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 < 0, 𝑔′ 𝑥 < 0 ⇒ 𝑓𝑜𝑔 ′ 𝑥 > 0𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔𝑜𝑓 ′ 𝑥 >0
i.e. from above definition,
If f (x) and g(x) are both strictly increasing or strictly decreasing
⇒ 𝑓𝑜𝑔 𝑥 and 𝑔𝑜𝑓 𝑥 both are sztrictly increasing.
If amongst the two functions f (x) and g(x) one is strictly increasing and other is strictly
decreasing.
⇒ 𝑓𝑜𝑔 𝑥 and 𝑔𝑜𝑓 𝑥 both are strictly dexreasing

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 Note
𝑓′ 𝑥 𝑔′ 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑔 ′
𝑥 or 𝑔𝑜𝑓 ′
𝑥
+ + +
+ - -
- + -
- - +
Illustration
Let 𝛷 𝑥 = sin 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
then check it whether increasing or decreasing in [0, π⁄2]
Solution
Given,
𝛷 𝑥 = sin 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝛷′ 𝑥 = cos cos 𝑥 . − sin 𝑥
𝛷 ′ 𝑥 = − cos 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
Therefore, it is clearly decreasing for
𝑥 ∈ 0, 𝜋 2 𝑎𝑠 𝛷 ′ 𝑥 ≤ 0
Illustration
1 2 2𝑒 2
Prove that tan−1 𝑒 + < tan1 𝑒 2 +
𝑒 2 +1 𝑒 2 +1

Solution
Let us consider a function f (x)
2
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑓 𝑥 = tan−1 𝑥 2
+ for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅
𝑥 2 +1
2 tan −1 𝑥 2𝑥
∴ 𝑓′ 𝑥 = −
1+𝑥 2 𝑥 2 +1 3 2
2 𝑥
⇒ 1+𝑥 2 tan−1 𝑥 −
𝑥 2 +1
2 𝑥
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 1+𝑥 2 𝑔 𝑥 , where 𝑔 𝑥 = tan−1 𝑥 − … 𝑖
𝑥 2 +1
1 1 𝑥2
∴ 𝑔′ 𝑥 = 1+𝑥 2 − +
𝑥 2 +1 𝑥 2 +1 3 2
1 1
⇒ 1+𝑥 2 − 𝑥 2 +1 3 2
1 1
⇒ 1+𝑥 2 1 − > 0 for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅
(𝑥 2 +1)
⇒ 𝑔 ( 𝑥 is increasing for 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 ⇒ 𝑔 𝑥 > 𝑔 0 for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅
𝑥
⇒ tan−1 𝑥 − > 0 … … … . 𝑖𝑖
𝑥 2 +1
from (i) and (ii),
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 > 0 for all 𝑥 > 0
∴ 𝑓 𝑥 is increasing for all 𝑥 > 0
12 2𝑒 2
⇒𝑓 1 𝑒 <𝑓 𝑒 ⇒ tan−1 + < tan−1 𝑒 2
+
𝑒 𝑒2 + 1 𝑒2 +1
Page 156
 Day 3

(i) If the function f (x) = 2x2 – kx + 5 is increasing on [1, 2], then k lies in the interval.

𝑎 −∞, 4 𝑏 4, ∞
𝑐 −∞, 8 𝑑 8, ∞

(ii) Let f (x) = x3 + ax2 + bx + 5sin2x be an increasing function on the R. Then a and b satisfy

𝑎 𝑎2 − 3𝑏 − 15 > 0 𝑏 𝑎2 − 3𝑏 − 15 > 0
𝑐 𝑎2 − 3𝑏 + 15 < 0 𝑑 𝑎 > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 > 0

(iii) The function 𝑓 𝑥 = ln𝑒 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 6 + 1 is of the following types

(a) even (b) odd

(c) increasing (𝑑) decreasig

(iv) On which of the following intervals is the function 𝑥 100 + sin 𝑥 − 1 decreasing?

(a) (0,π/2) (b) (0,1)

(c) (π/2,π) (d) none of these

2𝑥
(v) The function 𝑓 𝑥 = ln 1 + 𝑥 − 2+𝑥 is increasing on

𝑎 0, ∞ 𝑏 −∞, 0
𝑐 −∞, ∞ 𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑠𝑒

𝐾𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥+2 cos 𝑥

(vi) If the function 𝑓 𝑥 = is increasing for all values of 𝑥, then
sin 𝑥+cos 𝑥

𝑎 𝐾<1 𝑏 𝐾>1
𝑐 𝐾<2 𝑑 𝐾>2

(vii) The values of „a‟ for which the function 𝑎 + 2 𝑥 3 − 3𝑎𝑥 2 + 9𝑎𝑥 − 1 decreases monotonically
throughout for all real x are
𝑎 𝑎 < −2 𝑏 𝑎 > −2
𝑐 −3<𝑎 <0 𝑑 − ∞ < 𝑎 ≤ −3

(viii) The value of a in order that 𝑓 𝑥 = sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 decreases for all real values of x, is given

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𝑎 𝑎≥ 2 𝑏 𝑎≥1
𝑐 𝑎< 2 𝑑 𝑎<1

(ix) The function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 is

(a)increasing on (–∞,-1)∪[1,∞] and decreasing on (–1,1)

(b)decreasing on(–∞,–1)∪[1,∞] and increasing on (–1,1)
(c)increasing on (0,∞,)and decreasing on (–∞,–1)
(d)decreasing on(0,∞,) and increasing on (–∞, 0)

(x) The function f defined by 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 2 𝑒 −𝑥 is

(a) decreasing for all x

(b) decreasing in(–∞, -1)∪[1, ∞] and increasing on (–1, ∞)
(c) increasing for all x
(d) decreasing in(–1, ∞,) and increasing in(–∞, 0)

Answer

(i) a (ii) c (iii) b, c

(iv) d (v) a (vi) d
(vii) d (viii) a (ix) a
(x) d

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 Chapter
8 Maxima Minima
Day 1

Definition
A function f (x) is said to have a maxima at 𝑥 = 𝑎 if f (a) is greatest of all values in the suitably small
neighbourhood of „a‟, where x = a is an interior point in the domain of f (x). Analytically this means
𝑓 𝑎 ≥ 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑕 &𝑓 𝑎 ≥ 𝑓 𝑎 − 𝑕 where h is sufficiently small quantity.
Similarly, a function y = f (x) is said to have a minimum at x = b if f (b) is smallest of all values in the
suitably small neighborhood of „b‟, where x = b is an interior point in the domain of f (x). Analytically
this means 𝑓 𝑏 ≤ 𝑓 𝑏 + 𝑕 &𝑓 𝑏 ≤ 𝑓 𝑏 − 𝑕 where h is sufficiently small.

Maxima and Minima at end point

Definition
Let a function 𝑓(𝑥) is defined on [a,b]. Then f(x) has a local maximum at 𝑥 = 𝑎(left end point) if
f(𝑎) > 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑕) and minimum at 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(𝑎) < 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑕).

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 Similarly, 𝑓(𝑥) has a local maximum at 𝑥 = 𝑏(right end point) if 𝑓(𝑏) > 𝑓(𝑏 − 𝑕) and minimum at
𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(𝑎) < 𝑓(𝑏 − 𝑕).
Method of finding extrema of continuous functions
At points of extrema the derivative f‟(x) either doesnot exits or if exist it is equal to zero. The points at
which f‟(x)=0 or doesnot exist are known as critical points.
1st derivative test
The following test applies to a continuous function in order to get the extrema.
(a)At a critical point 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟎
(i) If 𝑓’(𝑥) changes from positive to negative at x0 while moving from left to right,
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 > 0; 𝑥 < 𝑥0 and
𝑖. 𝑒.
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 < 0 ; 𝑥 > 𝑥0

𝑎 𝑓 ′ 𝑥0 = 0 𝑏 𝑓 ′ 𝑥0 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡

Then 𝑓 𝑥 has a local maximum value at 𝑥 = 𝑥0
(ii) If 𝑓’(𝑥) changes from negative to positive at 𝑥0 while moving from left to right,
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 < 0; 𝑥 < 𝑥0 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑖. 𝑒.
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 > 0 ; 𝑥 > 𝑥0

𝑎 𝑓 ′ 𝑥0 = 0 𝑏 𝑓 ′ 𝑥0 = 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡

Then 𝑓(𝑥 ) has a local maximum value at 𝑥 = 𝑥0
(iii) If sign of 𝑓’ 𝑥 does not change at x0 then 𝑓 𝑥 has neither a maximum or minimum at 𝑥0

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 𝑎 𝑓 ′ 𝑥0 = 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑏 𝑓 ′ 𝑥0 = 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡
(b)At a left end point a
If 𝑓(𝑥) is defined on [a,b].
If 𝑓’(𝑥) < 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 𝑎, then 𝑓(𝑥) has a local maximum and If 𝑓’(𝑥) > 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 𝑎, then 𝑓(𝑥)
has a local minimum at 𝑥 = 𝑎

At a right end point b

If 𝑓’ 𝑥 < 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < 𝑏, then 𝑓 𝑥 has a local maximum and If 𝑓’ 𝑥 > 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < 𝑏, then 𝑓 𝑥
has a local maximum at 𝑥 = 𝑏.

Remember that in a continuous function maximum and minimum values occur alternately i.e.
between two successive maxima there is one minimum and between two successive minima there
is one maximum.

Illustration
Find the local maxima or local minima, if any of the function
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑥, 0 < 𝑥 < 𝜋/2
Using the first derivative test.
Solution
We have,
𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑥
𝑑𝑦
=0
𝑑𝑥

Page 161
 𝑑𝑦
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 4 sin3 𝑥 cos 𝑥 − 4 cos 3 𝑥 sin 𝑥
⇒ −4 cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥 cos 2 𝑥 − sin2 𝑥
⇒ −2 sin 2𝑥 cos 2 𝑥
⇒ −𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝑥
For a local maximum or a local minimum, we have
𝑑𝑦
=0
𝑑𝑥
⇒ − sin 4𝑥 = 0
⇒ sin 4 𝑥 = 0
⇒ 4𝑥 = 𝜋
𝜋
∵0<𝑥< ∴ 0 < 4𝑥 > 2𝜋
2
𝜋
⇒𝑥= 4
𝜋
Consider 𝑥 = 4
𝜋
𝑥< 4
⇒ 4𝑥 < 𝜋
⇒ sin 4𝑥 > 0
⇒ − sin 4𝑥 < 0
𝑑𝑦
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 < 0
In the right nbd of
𝜋
𝑥= 4
𝜋
𝑥> 4
⇒ 4𝑥 > 𝜋
⇒ sin 4𝑥 < 0
⇒ − sin 4𝑥 > 0
𝑑𝑦
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 > 0
Thus dy/dx changes sign from negative to positive as x increases through
𝜋 𝜋
. so , 𝑥 = is a pint of local minimum.
4 4

The local minimum values is

𝜋 𝜋 4 𝜋 4 1
𝑓 = sin 4 + cos 4 =2
4
Illustration
Find the maxima and minimum value of function,
𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 8, 𝑥𝜖 𝑅
Solution
We have,
𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 8

Page 162
 ⇒ 3 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 + 5
⇒3 𝑥+1 2+5
∵ 3 𝑥 + 1 2 ≥ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 𝜖 𝑅
⇒ 3 𝑥 + 1 2 + 5 ≥ 5 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 𝜖 𝑅
⇒ 𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 5 for all 𝑥 𝜀 𝑅
Thus, 5 is the minimum value of f (x) which it attains at x = – 1.
Since f (x) can be made as large as we please, therefore the maximum value does not exist.

Question Practice Online

Page 163
Method of 2nd derivative
It must be remembered that this method is not applicable to those critical points where f '(x)
remains undefined.
First we find the root of 𝑓’(𝑥) = 0. Suppose x=a is one of the roots of f ‟(x) = 0.
Now find 𝑓’’(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑎.
(i) If 𝑓’’(𝑎) = negative; then 𝑓(𝑥) is maximum at 𝑥 = 𝑎.
(ii) If 𝑓’’(𝑎) = positive; then 𝑓(𝑎) is minimum at 𝑥 = 𝑎.
(ii) If 𝑓’’(𝑎) = zero;
Then we find 𝑓’’(𝑥) 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑎.
If 𝑓 ′′ 𝑎 ≠ 𝑜 then 𝑓 𝑥 has neither maximum nor minimum inflexion point .
At 𝑥 = 𝑎.
But if 𝑓’’(𝑎) = 0, then find 𝑓 𝑖𝑣 𝑎 ;
If 𝑓 𝑖𝑣 𝑎 = positive then 𝑓 𝑥 𝑖s minimum at 𝑥 = 𝑎
If 𝑓 𝑖𝑣 𝑎 = negative then 𝑓 𝑥 is maximum at 𝑥 = 𝑎
And so on, process is repeated till point is discussed.
Concept of Global Maximum / Minimum
Let y = f (x) be a given function with domain D.
Let [a, b], then global maximum / minimum of f (x) in [a, b] is basically the greatest / least value
of f (x) in [a, b].
Global maximum in [a, b] would always occur at critical points of f (x) with in [a, b] or at the end
points of the interval.
Global Maximum / Minimum in [a, b]
In order to find the global maximum and minimum of f (x) in [a, b], find out all critical points of f
(x) in [a, b] (i.e., all points at which f '(x) = 0).
Let 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 , … … … … , 𝑐𝑛 be the points at which 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 0.
And let 𝑓 𝑐1 , 𝑓 𝑐2 , … … . . , 𝑓 𝑐𝑛 be the values of the function at these points.
Then M1 → Global maximum or greatest value.
and M2 → Global minimum or lest vlaue.
Where,
𝑀1 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥. 𝑓 𝑎 , 𝑓 𝑐1 , 𝑓 𝑐2 , … … . , 𝑓 𝑐𝑛 , 𝑓 𝑏
And
𝑀2 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛. 𝑓 𝑎 , 𝑓 𝑐1 , 𝑓 𝑐2 , … … . , 𝑓 𝑐𝑛 , 𝑓 𝑏
Then M1 is the greatest value or global maximum in [a, b]
And M2 is the least value or global minimum in [a, b]
Global Maximum / Minimum in (a, b)
Method for obtaining the greatest and least values of f (x) in (a, b) is almost same as the method
Used for obtaining the greatest and lest values in [a, b],
However a caution may be taken;
Let

Page 164
 𝑀1 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥. 𝑓 𝑎 , 𝑓 𝑐1 , 𝑓 𝑐2 , … … . , 𝑓 𝑐𝑛 ,
And
𝑀2 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛. 𝑓 𝑎 , 𝑓 𝑐1 , 𝑓 𝑐2 , … … . , 𝑓 𝑐𝑛 ,
But if,
lim𝑥→𝑎 + 𝑓 𝑥 > 𝑀1
Or
lim 𝑓 𝑥 < 𝑀2
𝑥→𝑏 −
⇒ f (x) would not posses global maximum or global minimum in (a, b).
This means the limiting values at the end points are greater than M1 or less than M2, then
global maximum or global minimum does not exist in (a, b)

Page 165
 Day 2

Applied problems in maxima and minima

The following result will be useful for solving the applied problems in maxima and minima.
(1) For a square of side x
Area = x2, Perimeter = 4x
(2) For a rectangle of side x and y
Area = xy; Perimeter = 2(x + y)
(3) For a trapezium
1
Area = 2 sum of parallel sides × distance between them
(4)For a circle of a radius r
Area = πr2, circumference = 2 πr.
(5) For a sphere of a radius r
4
Valume = 3 𝜋𝑟 3 , Surface Area = 4𝜋𝑟 2 .
(6) For a right circular of base radius r and height h
Valume = 2πr2 h, Surface = 2πr h + 2πr2, Curved surface = 2πr h
(7) For a right circular cone of base radius r ,slant height l and height h
1
Valume = 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑕, Curved Surface = 𝜋𝑟𝑙 ,
3
total surface = πr2 + πr l
(8) For a cuboid of edges of lengths x,y and z
Valume = xyz, Surface = 2 (xy + yz + zx)
(9) For a cube of edge length x
Valume = x3, Surface area = 6x2
(10) Area of an equilateral triangle
3 2
side
4
Illustration
Find two positive number x and y such that their sum is 35 the product x2y5 is maximum.
Solution
Let
𝑝 = 𝑥 2𝑦5
It is given that
x + y = 35
∴ x = 35 – y………….(i)
Putting
x = 35 – y in P,
We get
𝑃 = 35 − 𝑦 2 𝑦 5

Page 166
 𝑑𝑃
⇒ 𝑑𝑦 = −2 35 − 𝑦 𝑦 5 + 5 35 − 𝑦 2 𝑦 4
⇒ 35 − 𝑦 𝑦 4 −2𝑦 + 5 35 − 𝑦
⇒ 𝑦 4 35 − 𝑦 175 − 7𝑦
⇒ 7𝑦 4 35 − 𝑦 25 − 𝑦
For maximum or minimum values of P, we must have
𝑑𝑃
=0
𝑑𝑦
Now
𝑑𝑃
=0
𝑑𝑦
⇒ 7𝑦 4 35 − 𝑦 25 − 𝑦 = 0
⇒ y = 0, 25, 35
But y = 0 and y = 35 are not possible. So, y = 25
Now,
𝑑2𝑃
= 28𝑦 3 35 − 𝑦 25 − 𝑦 − 7𝑦 4 25 − 𝑦
𝑑𝑦 2 𝑦=25

−7𝑦 4 35 − 𝑦
4
⇒ −7 25 35 − 20
⇒ −7 25 4 10 < 0
Thus, p has maximum when y = 25. From (i),
When,
y = 25
⇒ x = 35 – 25
⇒ 10
Hence
x = 10, y = 25

Illustration
Show that of all the rectangles of given area, the square has the smallest perimeter.
Solution
Let x and y the lengths of two sides of a rectangle of given area A, and let P be the perimeter.
Then,
𝐴 = 𝑥𝑦 … … … … . . 𝑖
𝑃 = 2 𝑥 + 𝑦 … … … 𝑖𝑖
Now,
A = xy
𝐴
⇒𝑦=𝑥
∴ P = 2 (x + y)
𝐴
⇒2 𝑥+𝑥

Page 167
 𝑑𝑃 𝐴
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 2 1 − 𝑥 2
And
𝑑2𝑃 4𝐴
= 𝑥3
𝑑𝑥2
From maximum or minimum, we have
𝑑𝑃
=0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑃
∴ =0
𝑑𝑥
𝐴
⇒ 1 1 − 𝑥2 = 0
𝐴
⇒ 1 − 𝑥2 = 0
⇒ 𝑥 2 = 𝑥𝑦
⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑦.
Now,
𝑑2𝑃 4𝐴
= 𝑥 3 > 0 for all positive value is a squre.
𝑑𝑥2
Hence, P is minimum when x = y i.e. the rectangle is a square.

Illustration
Prove that the area of right angled triangle of given hypotenuse is maximum when the triangle is
isosceles
Solution
Let h be the hypotenuse of the right angled triangle, and let x be its altitude.
Then,
the base of the triangle = 𝑕2 − 𝑥 2
Let A be the area of the triangle.

Then,
1
𝐴 = 2 𝑥 𝑕2 − 𝑥 2
𝑑𝐴 1 1 −1 2 𝑑
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 2 1. 𝑕2 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 𝑕2 − 𝑥 2 𝑕2 − 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
1 𝑥2
⇒2 𝑕2 − 𝑥 2 −
𝑕 2 −𝑥 2
1 𝑕 2 −2𝑥 2
⇒2
𝑕 2 −𝑥 2
For maximum or minimum,
We have
𝑑𝐴
= 0.
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝐴
∴ =0
𝑑𝑥

Page 168
 1 𝑕 2 −2𝑥 2
=0
2 𝑕 2 −𝑥 2

⇒ 𝑕2 = 2𝑥 2
𝑕
⇒𝑥= 2
Now,
𝑑2𝐴 1 1 1 3 2 𝑑
= 2 −4𝑥 + 𝑕2 − 2𝑥 2 −2 𝑕2 − 𝑥 2 𝑕2 − 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥2 𝑕 2 −𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
1 −4𝑥 𝑕 2 −2𝑥 2
⇒2 +𝑥
𝑕 2 −𝑥 2 𝑕 2 −𝑥 2 3 2
𝑑2𝐴
∴ = −2 < 0.
𝑑 𝑥 2 𝑥= 𝑕
2

Thus,
A is maximum when 𝑥 = 𝑕 2.
Base
𝑕2
⇒ 𝑕2 − 2
𝑕
⇒ 2
Hence, A is maximum when the triangle is isosceles.

Illustration
Find the volume of the largest cylinder that can be inscribed in a sphere of radius r cm.
Solution
Let h be height and R be the radius of the base of the inscribed cylinder.
Let V be the volume of the cylinder.
Then,
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑅2 𝑕
. . 𝑖 To be maximized 𝑓
From
∆OCA,
We have
𝑕 2
𝑟2 = + 𝑅2
2
⇒ 𝑅2 = 𝑟 2 − 𝑕2 4
𝑕2
∴ 𝑉 = 𝜋 𝑟2 − 𝑕
4
𝜋
⇒ 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑕 − 4 𝑕3
𝑑𝑣 3𝜋𝑕 2
⇒ 𝑑𝑕 = 𝜋𝑟 2 − 4
And

Page 169
 𝑑2𝑉 3𝜋𝑕
=−
𝑑𝑕 2 2
For maximum or minimum,
𝑑𝑉
=0
𝑑𝑕
𝑑𝑉
∴ 𝑑𝑕 = 0
3𝜋𝑕 2
⇒ 𝜋𝑟 2 − =0
4
4𝑟 2
⇒ 𝑕2 = 3
2
⇒𝑕= 𝑟
3
Now,
𝑑2𝑉 −𝜋𝑟
= < 0.
𝑑𝑕 2 𝑕 =2𝑟 3
3

Thus,
𝑉 is maximum
When
2𝑟
𝑕= .
3
Putting
2𝑟
𝑕= 𝑖𝑛 𝑅2
3
𝑕2
⇒ 𝑟2 − ,
4
We obtain
2
𝑅= 𝑟.
3
The maximum volume of the cylinder is given by
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑅2 𝑕
2 2𝑟
⇒𝜋 𝑟2
3 3
4𝜋𝑟 3
⇒ .
3 3
Illustration
Show that the volume of the greatest cylinder which can be inscribed in a come of height h and
semi-vertical angle  is
4
𝜋𝑕3 tan3 𝛼.
27
Solution
Let VAB be a given cone of height h, semi-vertical angle  and let x be the radius of the base of
the cylinder A‟B‟ DC which is inscribed in the cone VAB.
Then
𝑜𝑜′ = height of the cylinder
𝑉𝑜 − 𝑉𝑜′ = 𝑕 − 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡

Page 170
 Let V be the volume of the cylinder.
Then,
𝑣 = 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑕 − 𝑥 cot 𝛼 . . 𝑖
𝑑𝑉
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝜋𝑥𝑕 − 3𝜋𝑥 2 cot 𝛼
For maximum or minimum
𝑑𝑉
𝑉 𝑑𝑥 = 0

𝑑𝑉
⇒ 2𝜋𝑥𝑕 − 3𝜋𝑥 2 cot 𝛼 = 0
𝑑𝑥
Put
𝑑𝑉
=0
𝑑𝑥
2𝑕
⇒𝑥= tan
3
∴𝑥≠0
Now
𝑑2𝑉
= 2𝜋𝑕 − 6𝜋 𝑥 cot 𝛼
𝑑𝑥 2
When
2𝑕
⇒𝑥= tan,
3
We have
𝑑2𝑉
= 𝜋 2𝑕 − 4𝑕
𝑑𝑥′
⇒ −2𝜋𝑕 < 0.
Hence, V is maximum
When
2𝑕
𝑥= tan.
3
The maximum volume of the cylinder is
2𝑕 2 2𝑕
𝑉=𝜋 tan 𝛼 𝑕−
3 3
from 𝑖
4 3 2
⇒ 27 𝜋 𝑕 tan 𝛼.

Illustration
Find the point on the curve y2 = 4x which is nearest to the point (2, 1).
Solution
Let p(x, y) be a point on y2 = 4x and A (2, 1) be the given point.
Then
𝐴𝑝2 = 𝑥 − 2 2 + 𝑦 − 1 2

2
𝑦2 2
⇒ −2 + 𝑦−1
4

Page 171
 ∴ 𝑦 2 = 4𝑥 ∴ 𝑥 = 𝑦 2 4
Let
𝑍 = 𝐴𝑝2 .
Then Z is maximum or minimum according as AP is maximum or minimum.
Now,
2
𝑦2 2
𝑍= −2 + 𝑦−1
4
𝑑𝑍 𝑦2 2𝑦
⇒ 𝑑𝑦 = 2 4
−2 4
+2 𝑦−1
𝑦3
⇒ −2
4
And
𝑑2𝑍 3𝑦 2
=.
𝑑𝑦 2 4
For maximum or minimum,We have
𝑑𝑍
= 0.
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑍
∴ 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑦3
⇒ −2=0
4
⇒ 𝑦3 = 8
⇒𝑦=2
Now,
𝑑2𝑍 3 2 2
=
𝑑 𝑦 2 𝑦=2 4

⇒ 3 > 0.
Thus,
𝑍 is minimum when 𝑦 = 2.
Putting
𝑦 = 2 in 𝑦 2 = 4𝑥,
We obtain
𝑥 = 1.
Hence,
The point (1, 2) on y2 = 4x is nearest to the point (2, 1).

Page 172
 Day 3

Maxima and Minima in Discontinuous Function

1. Minimum of discontinuous functions
(i) From this figure, (ii)From this figure,
f (a) < f (a + h) f (a) < f (a + h)
f (a) < f (a – h) f (a) ≤ f (a – h)

iii From this figure, iv From this figure,

𝑓 𝑎 < 𝑓 𝑎+𝑕 𝑓 𝑎 ≤ 𝑓 𝑎+𝑕
𝑓 𝑎 < 𝑓 𝑎−𝑕 𝑓 𝑎 < 𝑓 𝑎−𝑕

2. Maximum of discontinuous functions

i From this figure, ii From this figure,
𝑓 𝑎 > 𝑓 𝑎+𝑕 𝑓 𝑎 > 𝑓 𝑎+𝑕
𝑓 𝑎 > 𝑓 𝑎−𝑕 𝑓 𝑎 > 𝑓 𝑎−𝑕

Page 173
 iii From this figure, iv From this figure,
𝑓 𝑎 > 𝑓 𝑎+𝑕 𝑓 𝑎 ≥ 𝑓 𝑎+𝑕
𝑓 𝑎 ≥ 𝑓 𝑎−𝑕 𝑓 𝑎 > 𝑓 𝑎−𝑕

Illustration
Find all the points of local maxima and minima and the corresponding maximum and
minimum values of the function
𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 2 − 21𝑥 2 + 36𝑥 − 20.
Solution
We have.
𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 3 − 21 𝑥 2 + 36𝑥 − 20
⇒ 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 6𝑥 2 − 42𝑥 + 36.
For local maximum or local minimum.
𝑓′ 𝑥 = 0
⇒ 6𝑥 2 − 42𝑥 + 36 = 0
⇒ 𝑥−1 𝑥−6 =0
⇒ 𝑥 = 1,6.
Thus, x = 1 and x = 6 are the possible points of local maxima or minima.
Now we test the function at each of these points.
We have,
𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = 12𝑥 − 42.
When
x=1
we have,
𝑓 ′′ 1 = 12 − 42 = −30 < 0.
So,
x = 1 is a point of local maximum
The local maximum value is
f (l) = 2 – 21 + 36 – 20
⇒ – 3.

Page 174
 When
x=6
We have,
𝑓 ′′ 6 = 12 6 − 42
= 30 > 0.
So
x = 6 is a point of local minimum
The local minimum value is
3 2
𝑓 6 =2 6 − 21 6 + 36 × 6 − 20
⇒ – 128.
Illustration
1
𝑓 𝑥 = sin𝑥 + 2 cos2𝑥, 2 where 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋 2
Solution
We have,
1 𝜋
𝑓 𝑥 = sin𝑥 + 2 cos2𝑥, where 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2
∴ 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = cos𝑥 − sin2𝑥.
For local maximum or minimum, we must have
𝑓′ 𝑥 = 0
⇒ cos𝑥 − sin2𝑥 = 0
⇒ cos 𝑥 − 2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 = 0
⇒ cos𝑥 1 − 2sin𝑥 = 0
⇒ cos = 0
⇒𝑥=𝜋 2
Or
1 − 2sin𝑥 = 0
⇒ cos𝑥 = 0
Or
1
sin 𝑥 ⇒ 2
𝜋
⇒𝑥= 6
Or
𝜋
𝑥 ⇒ 6.
𝜋
0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2
Thus,
𝜋 𝜋
𝑥 ⇒ 6 and 𝑥 ⇒ 2 are possible points of local maxima or local minima.
Now we test the function at each of these points.
We have,
𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 ⇒ −sin𝑥 − 2 cos2𝑥.

Page 175
 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛𝑥=𝜋 6
We have,
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑓 ′′ ⇒ − sin 6 − 2 cos 3
6
1
⇒ −1 2−2 × 2
3
⇒ − 2 < 0.
So,
𝜋
𝑥⇒ is the point of local maximum.
6
The local maximum value is
𝜋 𝜋 1 𝜋
𝑓 ⇒ sin 6 + 2 cos 3
6
1 1 1
⇒2+2 2
3
⇒ 4.
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛𝑥=𝜋 2
We have,
𝜋 𝜋
𝑓 ′′ ⇒ − sin 2 − 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋
2
⇒ −1 + 2
⇒ 1 > 0.
So,
𝜋
𝑥 = 2 is the point of local minimum.
The local minimum value is
𝜋 𝜋 1
𝑓 ⇒ sin 2 + 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋
2
1
⇒1−2
1
⇒ 2.
Illustration
𝑓 𝑥 ⇒ sin𝑥 − cos𝑥 where 0 < 𝑥 < 2𝜋
Solution
𝑓 𝑥 ⇒ sin𝑥 − cos𝑥,
Where
0 < 𝑥 < 2𝜋
∴ 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 ⇒ cos𝑥 + sin𝑥
For local maximum or minimum,
We have
𝑓′ 𝑥 ⇒ 0
⇒ cos𝑥 + sin𝑥 = 0
⇒ sin𝑥 = −cos𝑥

Page 176
 ⇒ tan𝑥 = −1
3𝜋
⇒𝑥= 4
Or
7𝜋
𝑥= 4
 0 < 𝑥 < 2𝜋
Thus,
3𝜋
𝑥= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥
4
7𝜋
= 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚.
4
Now we test the function at each of these points.
We have
𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = −sin𝑥 + cos𝑥
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛𝑥=3𝜋 4
We have
3𝜋 3𝜋 3𝜋
𝑓 ′′ = − sin + cos
4 4 4
1 1
⇒− −
2 2
2
⇒− < 0.
2
So
3𝜋
𝑥= is the point of local maximum.
4
The local maximum value is
3𝜋 3𝜋 3𝜋
𝑓′′ = sin − cos
4 4 4
1
⇒ 2
⇒ 2
When
𝑥 = 7𝜋 4
We have,
7𝜋 7𝜋 7𝜋
𝑓 ′′ = − sin + cos
4 4 4
1 1
⇒ +
2 2
2
⇒ > 0.
2
So the function attains a local minimum at
7𝜋
𝑥= .
4
The local minimum value is
7𝜋 7𝜋 7𝜋
𝑓 = sin − cos
4 4 4

Page 177
 1 1
⇒− −
2 2

⇒− 2

Method of finding the greatest and least values of a continuous function

Let f be a continous function defin f on [a, b].Then evaluate
'f ' at all critical points and f (a), f (b) And take the largest and smallest of these values.

Illustration
Find both the maximum and the minimum value of
3𝑥 4 − 8𝑥 3 + 12𝑥 2 − 48𝑥 + 1 on the interval 1,4 .
Solution
Let
𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 4 − 8𝑥 3 + 12𝑥 2 − 48𝑥 + 1. then
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 12𝑥 3 − 24𝑥 2 + 24𝑥 − 48
And
𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = 36𝑥 2 − 48𝑥 + 24
Now,
𝑓′ 𝑥 = 0
⇒ 12𝑥 3 − 24𝑥 2 + 24𝑥 − 48 = 0
⇒ 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 4 = 0
⇒ 𝑥2 𝑥 − 2 + 2 𝑥 − 2 = 0
⇒ 𝑥 − 2 𝑥2 + 2 = 0
⇒𝑥=2
 𝑥2 + 2 ≠ 0
For
2
𝑥 = 2, 𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = 36 2 − 48 2 + 24
⇒ 72 > 0
So
x = 2 is a point of local minimum.
Now
f (2) = – 59
f (1) = – 40
And
f (4) = 257.
So,
The minimum and maximum values of f (x) on [1, 4] are – 59 and 257 respectively

Illustration

Page 178
 Find the maximum and minimum values of
1 𝜋
𝑓 𝑥 = sin𝑥 + 2 cos2𝑥 in 0, 2 .
Solution
We have,
1
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥.
⇒ 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥.
For stationary points,
We have
𝑓′ 𝑥 = 0
⇒ cosx – 2 sinx cosx = 0
⇒ cosx = 0
Or
1
sin𝑥 = 2
𝜋
⇒𝑥= 2
And
𝜋
𝑥= 6
𝜋
∴0≤𝑥≤ 2
Now
1
𝑓 0 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛00 + 1 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠00 = 2,
𝜋 𝜋 1 𝜋
𝑓 = sin 6 + 2 cos 3
6
1 1 3
⇒2+4 =4
And
𝜋 𝜋 1
𝑓 = sin 2 + 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋
2
1
⇒1−
2
1
⇒ 2.
Thus maximum value is
3
⇒4
Minimum value is
1
⇒2
Which is attained
At
𝜋 𝜋
𝑥 = 6,2
Question Practice Online

Page 179
 Day 4

Advance level
(i) Let f (x) = (1 + b2) x2 + 2bx + 1 and let m (b) be the minimum value of f (x). As b varies, the
range of m(b) is
(a) [0, 1] (b) [0, 1⁄2] (c) [1⁄2, 1] (d) [0, 1]

𝑛 2
𝑖𝑖 If 𝑎𝑖 𝜖 𝑅 then the expression 𝑖=1 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑖 assumes its least value at x =
a 𝑎𝑖 𝑏 2 𝑎𝑖 𝑐 𝑛 𝑎𝑖 𝑑 1/𝑛 𝑎𝑖

(iii) xx has a stationary point at

(a) x = e (b) x = 1/e (c) x = 1 𝑑 𝑥 𝑒

(iv) Greatest value of (1⁄x)x is :-

(b) (e)^(1/e) (c) (1/e) (d) none of these

(v) The point (0, 5) is closer to the curve x2 = 2y at :

𝑎 2 2 ,0 (b) (0, 0) (c) (2, 2) (d) none of these

𝑣𝑖 The largest value of 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 5 𝑓𝑜𝑟 − 2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4 occurs at 𝑥 =

(a) 2 (b) – 1 (c) x = 1/2 (d) 4

(vii) The minimum value of ax + by where xy = c2 is

𝑎 2𝑐 𝑎𝑏 𝑏 2𝑎𝑏 𝑐 𝑐 − 2𝑐 𝑎𝑏 (d) none of these

(viii) The points on the curve 5x2 – 8xy + 5y2 = 4 whose distance from the origin is maximum
or mimimum are:
𝑎 2, 2 𝑏 − 2, − 2 𝑐 2 3 , − 2/3 𝑑 − 2 3 , 2/3

(ix) The maximum distance of the point (k, 0) from the curve 2x2 + y2 – 2x = 0 is equal to:
𝑎 1 + 2𝑘 − 𝑘 2 𝑏 1 − 2𝑘 + 2𝑘 2 𝑐 1 + 2𝑘 + 2𝑘 2 𝑑 1 − 2𝑘 + 2𝑘 2

𝑥 2 2
(x)The points of extremum of the function 𝑓 𝑥 = ∫1 𝑒 −𝑡 1 − 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒 ∶
(a) x = 0 (𝑏) 𝑥 = 1 (c) x = 1/2 (d) x = – 1

(xi) Find a point of the hyperbola x2⁄24 – y2⁄18 = 1 which is nearest to the line
3x + 2y + 1 = 0. Compute the distance between the point and the line:
(a) (6, – 3) (b) ( – 6,3) (c) (6, 3) (d) (–6, –)

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(xii) The coordinates of a point on the parabola y2 = 8x whose distance from the circle
x2 + (y + 6)2 = 1 is minimum is :
(a) (2, 4) (b) (2, – 4) (c) (18, –12) (d) (8, 8)
𝑥 3 2 2
𝑥𝑖𝑖𝑖 The function 𝑓 𝑥 = ∫1 2 𝑡 − 1 𝑡 − 2 +3 𝑡−1 𝑡−2 dt attains its maximum at 𝑥 =
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
𝑥𝑖𝑣 The maximum value of 𝑓 𝑥 = 3 − 𝑥 + 2 + 𝑥 + 5 − 𝑥 is ∶
(a) 7 (b) 10 (c) 8 (d) 0
3
𝑥 2 −3 +27
𝑥𝑣 The minimum value of 2 is ∶
(a) 227 (b) 2 (c) 1 (d) none of these

2
𝑥𝑣𝑖 The function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥−𝑥 has minimum at ∶
(a) – 1 (b) 1 (c) – 1⁄2 (d) 1/2
𝑥 for 0 < 𝑥 ≤ 2
𝑥𝑣𝑖𝑖 If 𝑓 𝑥 = then at 𝑥 = 0 𝑓 has ∶
1 for 𝑥 = 0
(a) a local maxima (b) no local maxima (c) a local minimum (d) No extremum
(xviii) The maximum and minimum value of
𝑎𝑏sin 𝑥 + 𝑏 1 − 𝑎2 cos 𝑥 + 𝑐 where 𝑎 > 1, 𝑏 > 0 lie in the interval:
𝑎 𝑏−𝑐 , 𝑏+𝑐 𝑏 𝑏 − 𝑐, 𝑏 + 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 − 𝑏, 𝑏 + 𝑐 𝑑 none of these
(xix) A wire of length 'a' is cut into two parts which are bent respectivly in the form of square and
a circle. The least value of the sum of the areas so formed is :
𝑎 𝑎2 / 𝜋 + 4 𝑏 𝑎/ 𝜋 + 4 𝑐 𝑎/4 𝜋 + 4 𝑑 𝑎2 /4 𝜋 + 4
(xx) The sides of the rectangle of the greatest area which can be inscibed in the ellipse
𝑥2 𝑦2
+ = 1 are given by ∶
8 4

Answer

(i) d (ii) d (iii) b

(iv) b (v) d (vi) d
(vii) a (viii) d (ix) b
(x) b (xi) a (xii)
(xiii) a (xiv) c (xv) c
(xvi) c (xvii) d (xviii) c
(xix) d (xx) a

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 Chapter
Graphical Transformation
9
Day 1

Some Standard Graphs

Straight Line
(a)
ax + by + c = 0
when x = 0, y = – c ⁄b
when y = 0, x = – c⁄a

(b)
y = mx + c 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥

Quadratic Parabola
The graph of y = ax2 + bx + c is symmetric about the vertical line x = – b⁄2a and it‟s vertex is given by
−𝑏 𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐 −𝑏 𝐷
,− 𝑖. 𝑒. ,
2𝑎 4𝑎 2𝑎 4𝑎
If a > 0, the parabola opens upward while.
If a < 0, the parabola opens downward.
Find x when y = 0,
−𝑏± 𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐
𝛼, 𝛽 = 2𝑎
(i) When roots are real and unequal (D > 0)

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(ii) When roots are equal (D = 0)

(iii) When roots are imaginary (D < 0)

Circle
(i) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 is a circle centred at (0,0)
Having radius = a
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑦 = 0, 𝑥 = ±𝑎𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = ±𝑎

(ii) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 is a circle

centred at (-g, -f)
𝑕𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 = 𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝑐

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Ellipse
𝑥2 𝑦2
+ =1
𝑎2 𝑏2
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = ±𝑏
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑦 = 0, 𝑥 = ±𝑏

Hyperbola
𝑥2 𝑦2
− =1
𝑎2 𝑏2
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 2 = −𝑏2

Rectangular Hyperbola
𝑥𝑦 = 𝑘

𝑥 2𝑦 = 𝑘

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Transformation of Graphs
(a)
𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 to transform 𝑓 𝑥 ± 𝑐
where c > 0

Illustration
Plot 𝑦 = 𝑥 , 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 2 and 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 2
Solution
We know
𝑦= 𝑥
(modulus function )
could be
plotted as

𝑦 = 𝑥 + 2 is shifted
upwards by
2 units

Also
𝑦 = 𝑥 − 2 is shifted
downwardsby 2 units.

(b)

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(i) f (x) transforms to f(x – a)
f (x) → f (x – a), a is positive
Shift the graph of f (x) through „a‟ towards right.
(ii) f (x) → f (x+a), a is positive.
Shift the graph of f(x) through „a‟ towards left.
Illustration
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 2
Solution
As discussed
𝑓 𝑥 →𝑓 𝑥−𝑎 ,
Shift the graph of 𝑓 𝑥 through
„a‟ towards right.
⇒𝑦= 𝑥−2
is shifted „2‟ units towards right.
(c)
𝒊 𝒇 𝒙 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝒕 𝒂𝒇 𝒙 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒂 > 1
𝒇 𝒙 → 𝒂𝒇 𝒙 , 𝒂 > 1
Stretch the graph of f(x) ‘a’ times along y-axis.
1
𝑖𝑖 𝑓 𝑥 → 𝑓 𝑥 , 𝑎 > 1
𝑎
Shrink the graph of f(x) ‘a’ times along y-axis.
Illustration
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑡 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 2 sin 𝑥
Solution

We know
𝑦 = sin 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑏𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠

Illustration
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑡 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 1/2 sin 𝑥.
Solution

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(d)
𝒊 𝒇 𝒙 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝒇 𝒂𝒙 , 𝒂 > 1.
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑓 𝑥 → 𝑓 𝑎𝑥 , 𝑎 > 1.
𝑠𝑕𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑘 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑥 ′ 𝒂′ 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈 𝒙 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔.
𝑥
𝑖𝑖 𝑓 𝑥 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑓 ,𝑎 > 1
𝑎
𝑥
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑓 𝑥 → 𝑓 ,𝑎 > 1
𝑎
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑐𝑕 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑥 ′ 𝑎′ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
Illustration
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑡 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 2
Solution
𝑤𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤, 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑏𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠;

(e)
𝑻𝒐 𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒘 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒚 = 𝒇 −𝒙 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒇 𝒙 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏:
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑓 𝑥 → 𝑓 −𝑥
𝑇𝑜 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤 𝑦 = 𝑓 −𝑥 , 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑟..

Page 187
(f)
𝑻𝒐 𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒘 𝒚 = −𝒇 𝒙 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒚 = 𝒇 𝒙 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑓 𝑥 → −𝑓 −𝑥
𝑇𝑜 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤 𝑦 = −𝑓 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑟.

(g)
𝒚= 𝒇 𝒙
𝑓 𝑥 =𝑓 𝑥 ,
𝑖𝑓 𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0
−𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑓 𝑥 < 0

(h)
𝑻𝒐 𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒘 𝒚 = 𝒇 𝒙 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒇 𝒙 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏
𝑓 𝑥 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0
𝑦=𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑓 −𝑥 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 0
𝑂𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑥 𝑎𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑕
𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑥
𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒. 𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
(i)
𝑻𝒐 𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒘 𝒚 = 𝒇 𝒙 , 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒚 = 𝒇 𝒙 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏
To draw = 𝑓 𝑥 , where [.] denotes greatest integral function. {i.e., now y can not be fraction}.
Here in order to draw 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 mark the integer on y-axis . Draw the horizontal lines through integers till
they intersect the graph. Draw vertical dotted lines from these intersection points.
Finally draw horizontal lines parallel to x- axis from any intersection point to the nearest vertical dotted line
with blank dot at right end in case 𝑓 𝑥 increases.
Illustration
𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑤 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑦 = 𝑥 3
Solution

Page 188
(a) Draw horizontal lines through integers till
they intersect the graph.
(b) Draw vertical dotted lines from these
intersection points.
Finally draw horizontal lines parallel to x-axis
from any intersection point to the nearest
vertical dotted line with blank dot at right
end.
(j)
𝑻𝒐 𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒘 𝒚 = 𝒇 𝒙 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒚 = 𝒇 𝒙 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏:
Mark the integers on the x-axis. Draw
vertical lines till they intersect the graph of
𝑓 𝑥 . From these intersection points draw
horizontal lines (parallel to x-axis) to meet
the nearest right vertical line with a blank
dot in each nearest right vertical line which
can be shown as in the figure.
(k)
𝑫𝒓𝒂𝒘 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒚 = 𝒇 𝒙
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛
𝑖 Remove the portion of the graph which lies
below x-axis. (the equation 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 is not
satisfied when f(x) is negative).
(ii) Plot the remaining portion of the graph and also
its mirror image in the x-axis (when 𝑓 𝑥 > 0 then
𝑦 = ±𝑓 𝑥 .

(l)
𝒊 𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒇 𝒙 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒈 𝒙 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅,
𝑕 𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥. 𝑓 𝑥 , 𝑔 𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 , 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑓 𝑥 > 𝑔 𝑥
𝑕 𝑥 =
𝑔 𝑥 , 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑓 𝑥 < 𝑔 𝑥
∴ sketch f x when its graph is above the graph of g x and sketch g
x and sketch g x when its graph is
Draw graph of y = max 2x, x 2 above the graph of f x .
Illustration
Draw graph for y = max. 2x, x 2 and discuss
the continuity and differentiability.
Solution

Page 189
 Here, to draw
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥. 2𝑥, 𝑥 2
Firstly plot𝑦 = 2𝑥 and 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 on graph and put
2𝑥 = 𝑥 2 ⇒ 𝑥 = 0, 2
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑖𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 .
Now since 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥. 2𝑥, 𝑥 2 we have to neglect the
curve below point of intersections thus, the required
graph is, as shown.

Thus, from the given graph 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥. 2𝑥, 𝑥 2

we can say 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥. 2𝑥, 𝑥 2 is continuous for all
𝑥 ∈ 𝑅.
But 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥. 2𝑥, 𝑥 2 is differentiable for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 −
0,2

Illustration
𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑤 𝑓 𝑥 = min 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥, cot 𝑥
Solution
First plot both 𝑓 𝑥 = tan 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 𝑥 = cot 𝑥 by a dotted curve as can be seen from the graph
and then darken those dotted lines for which 𝑓 𝑥 < 𝑔 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 𝑥 < 𝑓 𝑥 .
As from the graph we have,
………………………………..
…………………………………
𝜋 𝜋
tan 𝑥 , − <𝑥≤−
2 4
𝜋
cot 𝑥 , − ≤ 𝑥 < 0
𝑚𝑖𝑛. tan 𝑥 , cot 𝑥 = 4
𝜋
tan 𝑥 , 0≤𝑥≤
4
𝜋 𝜋
cot 𝑥 , ≤𝑥≤
… … … … … …4… … … …2… .
…………………………….

Page 190
How to draw graph of Polynomial
1. Factories the function, if possible
2. Find the roots i.e. put y = 0 and get the values of x.
3. Find point of local maxima/minima.
4.Finally find out lim𝑥→∞ 𝑦 & lim𝑥→−∞ 𝑦 & it would five rough sketch of polynomial.
Illustration
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑕 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 3 2
Solution
Step 1
𝑦=0
⇒ 𝑥 = 1, 𝑥 = 3
are roots of function where graphs cuts x-axis
𝑓 0 = −1 −3 2 = −9
hence graph cuts y-axis at pt 0, −9
Step 2
𝑑𝑦
=2 𝑥−1 𝑥−3 + 𝑥−3 2 =0
𝑑𝑥
⇒ 𝑥 − 3 2𝑥 − 2 + 𝑥 − 3 = 0
⇒ 𝑥 − 3 3𝑥 − 5 = 0
Critical pts are 𝑥 = 3, , 5 3
𝑑2𝑦
= 𝑥 − 3 . 3 + 3𝑥 − 5
𝑑𝑥 2
⇒ 6𝑥 − 14
𝑑2 𝑦
= +𝑣𝑒
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑥=3
hence local minima at 𝑥 = 3
𝑦𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0
𝑑2 𝑦
= −𝑣𝑒
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑥=5 3
hence local maxima at 𝑥 = 5/3
2 16 32
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = × =
3 9 27
Step 3
lim 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 3 2 = −∞
𝑥→−∞
From the above information we draw the graph as follows.
Illustration

Page 191
 2
𝑆𝑘𝑒𝑡𝑐𝑕 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑦 =
1 + 𝑥2
Solution
Step 1
Domain of the function is −∞, ∞
𝛿(0) = 2 and function is symmetrical about y-axis
Step 2
𝑑𝑦 −4𝑥
= =0
𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑥2 2
Critical pt is 𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑦
> 0 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟 𝑥 < 0 𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
< 0 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑥 > 0 𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑑𝑥
Point 𝑥 = 0is point of maxima.
𝑦 𝑥=0 = 2
Step 3
lim 𝑦 = 0
𝑥→−∞
lim 𝑦 = −0
𝑥→−∞
So graph of the function is

Draw the graph

𝒊 𝒚= 𝒙+𝟑 + 𝒙−𝟐
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥+3 + 𝑥−2
⇒− 𝑥+3 − 𝑥−2
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑥 < −3
⇒ − 2𝑥 + 1
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥+3 − 𝑥−2
−3≤𝑥 <2
⇒5
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥+3 + 𝑥−2
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑥 ≥ 2
⇒ 2𝑥 + 1
So,
= −2𝑥 − 1 𝑥 < −3
𝑓 𝑥 = 5 −3 ≤𝑥 < 2
= 2𝑥 + 1 𝑥≥2

Page 192
 𝒊𝒊 𝒚 = 𝒙 − 𝟏 𝒙 − 𝟑
∵ 𝑦 = 𝑥−1 𝑥−3
The graph must be same for +ve as well as –ve values of y.i.e.
If
𝑦=2
⇒ 𝑥−1 𝑥−3
and
⇒2
𝑦 = −2
Then
⇒ 𝑥−1 𝑥−3
⇒2
Which clearly shows that this graph will be symmetrical about x-
axis so we first draw graph of function 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 3 and
take image of this curve on x-axis (treating as minor)
But when < 𝑥 < 3
Then the expression (x-1)(x-3) will have –ve sign but 𝑦 can never be negative so there will be no portion
of graph lying in interval (1,3)
𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒚 = 𝒙 − 𝟏 𝒙 − 𝟑
Since we have already drawn the graph of
𝑦 = 𝑥−1 𝑥−3
So, graph of
𝑦 = 𝑥−1 𝑥−3
Will also contain the image of curve
𝑦 = 𝑥−1 𝑥−3
On the x-axis treating it as a mirror.

Illustration
𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑤 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑕 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 2 − 𝑥 − 1 .
Solution
Here 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 1 can be plotted

Page 193
⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 1 can be plotted

⇒ 𝑦 = − 𝑥 − 1 can be plotted

⇒ 𝑦 = 2 − 𝑥 − 1 can be plotted

Thus 𝑦 = 2 − 𝑥 − 1 can plotted

Note: From above figure we could say 𝑦 = 2 − 𝑥 − 1 is not differentiable at 𝑥 = −1,1,3 as sharp
edges t 𝑥 = −1,1,3.
Illustration
1
𝑆𝑘𝑒𝑡𝑐𝑕 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑕 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 𝑒 − 𝑥 − 2
Solution

Page 194
As we know the graph for 𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑥

1
𝑖 𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑥 → 𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑥 −
2

1 1
𝑖𝑖 𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑥 − → 𝑦 = 𝑒− 𝑥 −
2 2

1
𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑦 = 𝑒 − 𝑥 −
2

When 𝒇 𝒙 and 𝒈 𝒙 are two functions and are transformed to their sum.
𝑓 𝑥 ,𝑔 𝑥 → 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑕 𝑥
There is no direct approach, but we can use following steps.
Step1 : Check when 𝑔 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑕 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥
Step 2: When 𝑔 𝑥 > 0 then 𝑕 𝑥 > 𝑓 𝑥 i.e. the graph of 𝑕 𝑥 lies above the graph of 𝑓 𝑥 .
Step 3: When 𝑔 𝑥 < 0 then 𝑕 𝑥 < 𝑓 𝑥 the graph of 𝑕 𝑥 lies below the graph 𝑓 𝑥 .
Illustration
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑦 = 𝑥 + sin 𝑥
Solution

Page 195
 Here
𝑦 =𝑓 𝑥 +𝑔 𝑥
Where
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 𝑥 = sin 𝑥
Here
𝑔 𝑥 =0⇒𝑦=𝑥
𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛
𝑔 𝑥 > 0 ⇒ 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 > 𝑥
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛
𝑔 𝑥 < 0 ⇒ 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 < 𝑥

Draw the graph for 𝒚 = 𝒇 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒚 = 𝒇 𝒙 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏

Clearly
−𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 𝑓 𝑥 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 ≤ 𝑓 𝑥
𝑎𝑠 − 1 ≤ sin 𝑥 ≤ 1
Hence, graph for 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 . sin 𝑥 would be lying between the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 and 𝑦 = −𝑓 𝑥 . It
amounts to just drawing graph of sin x in between the graphs of 𝑦 = ±𝑓 𝑥 .
Illustration
𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑤 𝑔𝑟𝑝𝑎𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
Solution
Here
𝑦 = 𝑥 sin 𝑥
⇒ −𝑥 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝑥 𝑎𝑠 − 1 ≤ sin 𝑥 ≤ 1
Thus, it can be plotted as shown.

Illustration
Find the number of solutions of the equations
𝑦 = sin 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1.
Solution

Page 196
To Find the number of
solutions of two curves
we should find the point
of intersection of two
curves.
As the know

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1 is circle and 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 is the image of –ve values of 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 about x axis. Thus we can
plot them as.
Which shows the two curves intersects at two points.
Number of solutions is 2.
Plotting graph of 𝒇 𝒙 − 𝒙
Graph of 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑥 can be obtained from and the graph of 𝑓 𝑥 by following rule.
“Retain the graph of 𝑓 𝑥 for values of x lying between interval 0,1 . Now it can be repeated for rest of
points. New obtained function is periodic with period 1.”
Illustration
2𝑥
𝑆𝑘𝑒𝑡𝑐𝑕 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑦 = 𝑥
2
Solution
As we know 2x is exponential function and we want to
transform it to 2𝑥− 𝑥 , it retain the graph for 𝑥 ∈ 0,1
and repeat for rest points.

Here to retain graph between 𝑥 ∈ 0,1 , so we get.

Question Practice Online

Page 197
 Test Paper
𝑄𝑢𝑒𝑠. 1. 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑎 2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 3 + 𝑏 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 5 = 0,
𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑦 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 4, −3 𝑕𝑎𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒
𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠
a 4x + 11y − 15 = 0 b 7x + y − 8 = 0
c 4x + 3y − 7 = 0 d 3x − 4y + 1 = 0
𝑄𝑢𝑒𝑠. 2. 𝐼𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑤𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒 𝑥 −2 +𝑏 = 2 𝑕𝑎𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑏 𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛
a ln 2 , − ln 2 b ln 2 − 2 , ln 2
c −2, ln 2 d 0 , ln 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝜋
𝑄𝑢𝑒𝑠. 3. 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓 𝑥 = , 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 0 < 𝑥 < . 𝑇𝑕𝑒𝑛
𝑥 2
2
a sin x < 𝑥 sin sin x b sin2 x > 𝑥 sin sin x
c sin2 x > 1 + 𝑥 sin sin x d none of these
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑔𝑚 𝑥
𝑄𝑢𝑒𝑠. 4. 𝑙𝑖𝑚 , 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 . 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
𝑥 𝑠𝑔𝑚 𝑥
a 0 b 1
c −1 d does not exists.
𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑏𝑥
𝑄𝑢𝑒𝑠. 5. 𝐼𝑓 𝑓 𝑥 = , 𝑥 ≠ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 0 = 4 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡
𝑥2
𝑥 = 0 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛
𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑎, 𝑏 𝑖𝑠 ;
a ±1,3 b 1, ±3
c −1, −3 d 1, 3
𝑄𝑢𝑒𝑠. 6. 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 676 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑤𝑜
𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠, 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑕 𝑜𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜
a 100 b 50
c 25 d none of these
𝑠𝑖𝑛 5𝑥
𝑄𝑢𝑒𝑠. 7. 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓 𝑥 = , 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 . 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑥. 𝑇𝑕𝑒𝑛
2𝑥
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑠
𝑥→0
a 1 3 b 1 5
c 1 2 d none of these
𝑄𝑢𝑒𝑠. 8. 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 , 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠

Page 198
 a f x is continuous when xϵ −1,1 1,3
b f x is continuous when xϵ −1,1 ∪ 1,3
c f x is not differentiable at x = 0,1,3
d f x is not differentiable at x = 0,1

𝑄𝑢𝑒𝑠. 9. 𝐼𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 + 𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 = 𝑃 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒

𝑥 + 𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑐 2 , 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛
a 0<𝛼<π 2 b π < 𝛼 < 3𝜋/2
c π 2<𝛼<𝜋 d none of these
𝑄𝑢𝑒𝑠. 10. 𝑂𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑙 5𝜋 4 , 4𝜋 3 , 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑥

𝑓 𝑥 = 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 + 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑖𝑠
5𝜋/4
3 1 3 1
a + −2 3 b − +2 3
2 2 2 2
3 1 d none of these
c − −2 3
2 2
𝑄𝑢𝑒𝑠. 11. 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛,
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 , 𝑖𝑠
a π 4 b π/2
c π d 2π
𝑄𝑢𝑒𝑠. 12. 𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 ∀ 𝑥𝜖 −2𝜋, 2𝜋
a 5 b 6
c 7 d 8
𝑄𝑢𝑒𝑠. 13. 𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑖𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐴, 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴 = 1,2,3
𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑕 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑓 1 ≠ 3, 𝑓 2 ≠ 1, 𝑓 3 ≠ 2 𝑖𝑠
a 1 b 2
c 9 d none of these
𝑄𝑢𝑒𝑠. 14. 𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑕𝑖𝑐𝑕 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑒 𝑘𝑥 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠
a tan−1 k 2 b cot −1 k 2

Page 199
 c sin−1 1 1 + k4 d sec −1 1 + k4
𝑄𝑢𝑒𝑠. 15. 𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑠 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 2 = 4𝑏𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑕𝑜𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑃 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ≠ 0 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛
a b = a2 b b = a3
3 2
c b =a d none ofthese
𝑄𝑢𝑒𝑠. 16. 𝐼𝑓 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 2𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐,
𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑎𝑟𝑒
a 1 2 , 1, 1 2 b 1, 1 2 , 1 2
c 1 2,1 2,1 d none of these
𝑄𝑢𝑒𝑠. 17. 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 𝑏𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 𝑦 2 + 3 = 0. 𝐼𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦, 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 − 𝑏 𝑖𝑠
a 1 b 2
c 7 d 8
𝑄𝑢𝑒𝑠. 18. 𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓
6 − 3𝑥 𝑥−1
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑖𝑠
4 2
a 3, 10 3 b 2 3 , 10 3
c −∞, 1 ∪ 3, ∞ d none of these
𝑙𝑛 1 + 𝑥
𝑄𝑢𝑒𝑠. 19. 𝑙𝑖𝑚 , 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 . 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑥, 𝑖𝑠
𝑥→0 𝑥
a 1 b ln 2
c does not exist d none on these
𝑥
𝜋
𝑄𝑢𝑒𝑠. 20. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒𝑡 − 1 𝑡 − 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 , 𝑥 𝜖 – , 2𝜋
2
0
𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛
a −π/2,0 ∪ π/4,1 ∪ π, 5π/2
b −π/2, π/4 ∪ 1, π ∪ 5π 4 , 2π
c π 4,1 ∪ π, ∪ π, 5π 4
d 0, π 4, ∪ 1, π ∪ 5π 4 , 2π

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