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S I X T H ED IT ION

Essentials of
Educational Psychology
Big Ideas to Guide Effective Teaching

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod

University of Northern Colorado, Emerita

Brett D. Jones
Virginia Tech
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Ormrod, Jeanne Ellis, author. | Jones, Brett D., author.

Title: Essentials of educational psychology : big ideas to guide effective
teaching / Jeanne Ellis Ormrod, University of Northern Colorado,
Emerita, Brett D. Jones, Virginia Tech.
Description: Sixth edition. | Hoboken : Pearson, [2023] | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021042085 | ISBN 9780136817826 (paperback) | ISBN
9780136817628 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Educational psychology—Textbooks.
Classification: LCC LB1051 .O663 2023 | DDC 370.15—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021042085

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To Olivia, Miles, and Jack Fox (from Jeanne)

and
To Mia and Jack Jones (from Brett)
About the Authors

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod received her A.B. in psychology from Brown University and
her M.S. and Ph.D. in educational psychology from The Pennsylvania State U ­ niversity. She
earned licensure in school psychology through postdoctoral work at Temple U ­ niversity
and the University of Colorado at Boulder and has worked as a middle school geography
teacher and school psychologist. Dr. Ormrod was Professor of Educational Psychology at
the University of Northern Colorado (UNC) until 1998 and is currently Professor Emerita
in UNC’s School of Psychological Sciences. She has published and presented extensively
on cognition and memory, cognitive development, instruction, and related topics but
is probably best known for this book and four others: Human ­Learning (currently in its
8th ­edition); Educational Psychology: Developing Learners (10th edition, coauthored with
Eric Anderman and Lynley Anderman); Child Development and Education (coauthored with
Teresa McDevitt, currently in its 7th edition); and Practical Research (coauthored with Paul
Leedy, currently in its 12th edition). After raising three children (two of whom have become
teachers themselves), she now lives in New Hampshire with her husband, Richard. Within
the past few years, she has had the good fortune to visit schools in diverse cultural settings,
including Rwanda, Tanzania, Thailand, Malaysia, and Peru’s Amazon region.

Brett D. Jones is Professor of Educational Psychology in the School of Education at

Virginia Tech (Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University). He received his B.A.E.
in architectural engineering from The Pennsylvania State University and his M.A. and
Ph.D. in educational psychology from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
Dr. Jones has held faculty positions as an educational psychologist at Duke University,
the University of South Florida St. Petersburg, and Virginia Tech. He has taught over
20 different types of university courses related to motivation, cognition, and teaching
strategies. Dr. Jones has also conducted workshops and invited presentations at many
universities and has presented more than 150 research papers at conferences. His research,
which includes examining instructional methods that support students’ motivation and
learning, has led to more than 100 research articles, several book chapters, and two other
books (Motivating Students by Design: Practical Strategies for Professors and The Unintended
Consequences of High-Stakes Testing, the latter of which was coauthored with M. Gail Jones
and Tracy Hargrove). He and his wife stay busy with their two children, who enjoy school,
athletics, and cheering for the Hokies, Nittany Lions, and Tar Heels.

iv
Preface

About This Book

Welcome to the interesting field of educational psychology! We’re excited to share with you
the many psychological concepts and principles that are related to teaching and learning.
Our goal in writing this book was not only to make these concepts and principles easy to
understand but also to provide readers with research-based teaching strategies that they
could use to help their students learn in a developmentally appropriate manner.
Two primary characteristics distinguish this book from most other educational psy-
chology textbooks: its shorter length and its organization into “Big Ideas.” We used the
word Essentials in the title of the book because we’ve distilled the many ideas in edu-
cational psychology down to the essential, big ideas. As a result, this book has only 10
chapters instead of the 15 chapters or so that are typical in many educational psychology
textbooks. This shorter book allows students to spend more time understanding concepts
in-depth instead of covering more topics in less depth. For example, in a 15-week course,
instructors could spend two weeks on some chapters instead of just one. Or, they could
provide supplementary readings or case studies to delve deeper into some of the chapter
topics.
With respect to the book’s organization, each chapter is divided into about four Big
Ideas that are further divided into important principles and teaching strategies. ­Organizing
the book’s chapters by Big Ideas focuses students on the most important educational psy-
chology ideas and teaching strategies. The traditional approach to teaching and writing
about educational psychology is to cover one theory at a time, explaining its assumptions
and principles and then identifying implications for educational practice. But in our exten-
sive experience in teaching educational psychology to college students, we’ve had suc-
cess in teaching our courses differently, focusing more on commonalities than differences
among theories. In fact, although researchers from different traditions have approached
human cognition and behavior from many different angles, they sometimes arrive at more
or less the same conclusions. The language they use to describe their observations is often
different, to be sure, but beneath all the terminology are certain nuggets of truth that can be
remarkably similar. We’ve tried to integrate these ideas from many theoretical perspectives
into what is, for us, a general set of principles and strategies that educational psychology
as a whole can offer teachers.
Chapter 1 introduces readers to how teachers can develop expertise, how they can
use research findings, and how readers can implement strategies to learn and study more
effectively. Chapters 2, 3, and 4 focus on many different factors that can affect learning,
including the brain, cognition, memory, complex cognitive processes (e.g., self-regulation,
transfer, problem solving), and the social and cultural environments in which the learn-
ing takes place. We then consider the effects of motivation (Chapter 5) and development
(Chapters 6 and 7) on students’ learning and achievement. The last three chapters of the
book build on the earlier ones to offer recommendations for instruction (Chapter 8), class-
room management (Chapter 9), and assessment (Chapter 10).

v
vi Preface

Pedagogical Features
The book includes a variety of features that can help readers better understand, remember,
and apply what they’re reading. These features are provided here in a bulleted list along
with an example of each.

Photo by Unsplash
• Big Ideas: Each chapter begins with about four Big Ideas—overarching principles that
provide a general organizational scheme for the chapter’s content.

Big Ideas to Master in this Chapter

4.1 Learners’ behaviors and cognitive processes are influenced by the

specific stimuli and consequences in their immediate environment.
4.2 Learners co-construct their knowledge with others.

4.3 The cultural and societal contexts in which learners grow up also
influence their behaviors and cognitive processes.
4.4 Although various environmental contexts influence learners and
their development, so, too, do learners influence the environments in
which they live and grow.

• Case Studies: Immediately following the list of Big Ideas presented at the beginning
of each chapter is a Case Study that introduces some of the ideas and issues that we
address in the chapter. Throughout each chapter, we periodically revisit the case to
offer new insights and interpretations.

130 Case Study: Why Jack Wasn’t in School

Jack, a Native American seventh-grader, lived in the Navajo Nation in the American Southwest.
Although he enjoyed school, worked hard in his studies, and got along well with classmates, School
he’d been absent from school all week. In fact, he’d been absent from home as well, and his 4.1
family (which didn’t have a telephone) wasn’t sure exactly where he was. Jack’s English teacher Context
M04_ORMR3618_06_SE_C04.indd 130 described the situation to Donna Deyhle, an educator who had known Jack for many years: 08/09/21 15:30

That seventh-grader was away from home for 5 days, and his parents don’t care! . . . Almost and Cognition
one-third of my Navajo students were absent this week. Their parents just don’t support
their education. How can I teach when they are not in my classes?
Behaviors
A few days later, Jack’s sister explained why her parents had eventually begun to look for Jack:
4.2
He went to see [the film] Rambo II with friends and never came home. If he was in trouble
we would know. But now the family needs him to herd sheep tomorrow. Learning
It was spring—time for the family to plant crops and shear the sheep—and all family members
needed to help out. Jack’s whereabouts were soon discovered, and the family stopped by
Donna’s house to share the news:
4.3
Jack’s dad said, “We found him.” His mother turned in his direction and said teasingly, Contexts
“Now maybe school will look easy!” Jack stayed at home for several days, helping with the
irrigation of the corn field, before he decided to return to school.1

Before you continue, please answer the following questions:

1. Did you interpret Jack’s absence from school in the same way his English teacher did,
concluding that “his parents don’t care” about his education? If so, how might your own 4.4
cultural background have influenced your conclusion? Environments
2. Like most parents, Jack’s mother and father cared deeply about his school achievement
and general well-being. What alternative explanations might account for their behaviors in Environment
this situation?

Summary

Quite possibly you concluded that Jack and his parents don’t place much value on for-
Exam: Adam
mal education. If so, your conclusion might have been based on two widely held beliefs
in your culture: (1) School should take priority over most activities at home and else-
where and (2) responsible parents insist that their children attend school. In reality, most
 5.2 Internal Factors That Affect Learners’ Motivation and Engagement 205
Preface vii

It might seem paradoxical that learners who want to be successful 3.4 Thinking 119
• Guiding Principles
would actuallyandtryKey Strategies:
to undermine Boldfaced
their Guiding
own success. But ifPrinciples and KeyFigure
they believe
5.14 In this interview, a student
Strategies
explains why she sometimes doesn’t work
are provided throughout
they’re unlikely to the
succeedchapter
no to
matter highlight
what they key
do—andprinciples
especially and
if concrete
fail-
creativity skills.133 A particular advantage is that they can be designed in ways that recom-
very keep
hard on her assignments
ure
mendations will reflect
that
students’ can poorly
guide
cognitive loadonwithin
their intelligence
teachers and ability—they
in their decision
reasonable bounds making
and increase their
and classroom
appropriately structure practices.
and guide
chances justifying Interviewer: What if you don’t do so well?
students’ofefforts. 134 the failure and thereby protecting their self-worth (see

Figure 5.14).136 Student: Then you’ve got an excuse. . . . It’s

just easier to cope with if you think you
Help students
Curiously, avoid
some mental
learners setslikely
are more when to engaging in creative
perform at their best and problem
haven’t put as much work into it.
less likely
solving. to display self-handicapping behaviors when outside, uncontrol-
Interviewer: What’s easier to cope with?
lable circumstances
To avoid seemingly
mental sets that excludeminimize their
potentially chances
effective of success.
approaches andInsolutions,
such it’sStudent:
helpful From feeling like a failure because
cases, failure doesn’t
to encourage studentsindicate lowsituations
to encode ability and
andsoproblems
it doesn’tin
threaten
multipletheir you’re not good at it. It’s easier to say, “ I
ways, as demon-
sense
stratedofbyself-worth. 137
these examples:
failed because I didn’t put enough work into
it.” than “I failed because I’m not good at it.”
Learners identifytowhat
• Ask students work are, in their minds,
in cooperative the
groups to identify 3.2different
likelyseveral
causes Transfer waysMartin,
Source:
103
of A. J., Marsh, H. W., Williamson, A., & Debus,
of their successes
representing
• See for Yourself exercises:
a and
single failures.
problem on paper—perhaps as a formula,
We often put readers themselves in the position
a table,
R. L. and
(2003). aSelf-handicapping, defensive pessimism, and goal
orientation: of a study of university students. Journal of
A qualitative
Peoplegraph.
135
try to make sense of their experiences, such as when they try to Educational Psychology, 95, 617–628.
“learner” and ask them
• Have
toexplore
engage in a short learning or thinking teaching
problem before
activity.them
Many of
identify thestudents
reasons for potential
success ways
or failure inofparticular
solving asituations. We can the
these See For Yourself
concepts
see this exercises
or procedures
in a 7-year-old are similar to
an expert would
boy’s explanation ones
to his use we’ve used
to solve
father 136 in our own educational
it. he missed two free-throw
as to why
psychology •classes.
shots When aOur
duringengaging students
basketball game:have
in divergent “The found
basket
thinking, we
ask them
were to betake
shooting
students to quite
at helpful
thewasn’t in
as good
perspective making
as the
of others
other one.” (Note
have a that the
variety explanations
of roles. For children
example, provide
when don’t
concepts and principles more “real” for them—and hence more vivid, understand-
who creating aalways
list of align with
possible reality!)
novel uses
To gain
forinsight into the(besides
an umbrella kinds ofkeeping
explanations
a personyou dry
yourself
in themight
rain),identify,
people try
weretheasked
follow-
to
able, and memorable. An example of such an exercise follows.
ing exercise.
think about how an umbrella could be reused by an artist, chef, physician, mechanic,
and athlete.137
• Take students for a walk around the school or outside while considering creative
See solutions.
For Yourself
The location of the walk doesn’t matter, simply the act of walking can help
Carberry and become
students Seville more creative.138
1.
• Professor Josiah S.engage
Before students Carberryinhas just returned
a creative the first
activity, exam,them
show scored and graded,
examples of in your solu-
creative
advanced psychoceramics class. You discover that you’ve received one of the few 139 high test
tions or have them copy examples that include aspects of creativity. For
grades in the class, an A–. Why did you do so well when most of your classmates did poorly?
example,
students
Jot could possible
down several copy more abstractfor
explanations (and
whylessyou realistic)
might havedrawings
received a before starting
high grade in their
Dr.
own Carberry’s
drawings.class.
2. An hour later, you get the results of the first test in Professor Barbara F. Seville’s sociocosmetol-
• ogy
When providing
class, practice
and you learn problems,
that you failed it!mix
Whythe did kinds
you do of
so problems
poorly? Jotthat
downstudents tackle in
several possible
any single
reasons for practice this test. strategy we referred to in Chapter 2 as interleaved practice.140
your F onsession—a
Mixing problem types requires students to think carefully about which problem-solving
procedures are appropriate for each one so that they don’t fall into a particular mental
helps learning or performance
The
set reasons inyou
and simply another
apply thesituation.
just wrote down
same are Such attributions,
calledover
procedures and overwhich
again are one’s beliefs
mindlessly. 141 about
what behaviors and other factors influence
• Think About It questions: An additional feature think about it events in their lives. Learners form attributions
for many events in their daily lives, such as why they do well or poorly on tests and assign-
comes in the form of Think About It questions Can you think of a recent situation in
in the margin 3.4 Thinking
ments, why they’re popular or unpopular with peers, why they’re skilled athletes or totally
that encourage
uncoordinated, hinder readers
later
and so on. to theory
learning.
Attribution connect
Such which you exhibited positive transfer?
explains how peoples’ motivation is affected
Can you think of one in which you
chapter content
by
BigtheirIdeato their
causal
3.4 past experiences
explanation
Thinking involves or cur-
for ana variety
event, such as why processes,
of cognitive they succeeded orproblem
failed at an
suchtransfer?
exhibited negative as
activity.
solving,
rent beliefs.
138
Are the
critical attributions
thinking, and you wrote
reasoning. for your grades in Professors Carberry and
Seville’s courses similar to those shown in Figure 5.15? Obviously, these examples are only
Thinking is a broad term that can be used to describe a variety of conscious cognitive pro-
some of many attributions you could’ve made. Notice that the attributions in Figure 5.15
cesses, such as problem solving, convergent and divergent thinking, critical thinking, and
• Exampleare artifacts
categorized from students
in three ways: and teachers: If you quickly flip through the
reasoning. But the term “thinking” is not limited to these processes; thinking can require
book, you’ll• see many classroom artifacts—that is, examples of work created by
Locus (“place”): Internal versus external. Learners sometimes attribute the causes
actual students and teachers.
of events We use
to internal factors artifacts
within throughout
themselves. Thinking the
that book
a good to help
grade readers
is due to
133
J. R. Anderson et al., 1996.don’t apply school
connect concepts,
134
your ownprinciples,
hard work andandstrategies to astudents’
believing that poor gradebehavior andlack
is due to your to classroom
of ability
Barab et al., 2010; Black et al., 2014; de Jong, 2011; Kuhn & Pease, 2010; Squire, 2011; Zohar & Aharon-
practices.Kraversky, 2005. 7.3 Moral and Prosocial Development 331
77
The principles inCovington,
this section
Feldhusen
135
136 &1992; capture
Treffinger, many
1980.& Vohs,
Rhodewalt 2005;research
Sedikides & Gregg, 2008.
136
137 Brenner et al.,
Covington, 1997; J. C. Turner, Meyer, et al., 1998.
1992.
137
138 Chou & Tversky,
Graham, 2020. 1986, 2000, 2010. Prominent attribution theorists are Bernard Weiner, Carol
2020; Weiner,
138
Oppezzo
Dweck, and &SandraFigure
Schwartz, 7.15 A strong moral code often
2014.
Graham.
139
encompasses
Okada & Ishibashi, a concern
2017; Yi et al., 2015. for the welfare
140
of animals,
Rohrer, 2012; Taylor as 2010.
& Rohrer, shown in this 9-year-old’s
141
Niu & Zhou, 2010; D. L. Schwartz
response et al., “Something
to the topic 2012. I Would
Vote For ”
78
Ideally, learners should acquire conceptual under-

M05_ORMR7826_06_SE_C05.indd 205 01/11/2021 14:39

M03_ORMR3618_06_SE_C03.indd 119 07/10/2021 12:53

249

less-is-more principle introduced in Chapter 2 applies here:

own sense of well-being.250

79
In-depth instruction is
-

251
Their acts of altruism and compassion aren’t
 As children grow older, they become increasingly aware of their own thinking and learn-
ing processes and increasingly realistic about what they can learn and remember in a
given time period (see Table 3.2). With this growing self-awareness come more effective
viii Preface study strategies.
Truly effective strategies emerge quite slowly, however, especially if young learners
don’t get guidance from teachers, parents, or other adults about how to study.41 For
instance, unless specifically instructed to take notes, many young adolescents take few or
• Developmental Trends: To a considerable degree, we talk about concepts and prin-
no notes to help them remember class material. And even when they do take notes, they’re
apt to use superficial strategies in choosing what to focus on—perhaps focusing on defini-
ciples that apply to children and adolescents at all grade levels. Yet 1st graders often
tions and formulas in a textbook or writing down only the things their teacher writes on
think and act very differently than 6th graders, and 6th graders can, in turn, be quite
the board—and miss critical ideas as a result.42
Furthermore, many children and adolescents engage in little or no comprehension
different from 11th graders. Most chapters have one or more Developmental Trends
monitoring.43 When they don’t monitor their learning and comprehension, they don’t
know what they know and what they don’t know, and so they may think they’ve mastered
tables that highlight and illustrate developmental differences that teachers are apt
something when they really haven’t. This overconfidence leads to an illusion of learning,
which is seen in learners at all levels, even college students.44
to see in grades K–2, 3–5, 6–8, and 9–12. Here is an example from part of a Develop-
Comprehension monitoring isn’t just an important study strategy in its own right—it
mental Trends table.
also plays a pivotal role in the development of other study strategies.45 Learners will acquire

Developmental Trends
Table 3.2 Metacognition at Different Grade Levels
GRADE LEVEL AGE-TYPICAL CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLE SUGGESTED STRATEGIES
6.4 Intelligence 283
• Awareness of thought in oneself and An adult tells 6-year-old • Talk often about thinking processes

Photo by Unsplash
others, albeit in a simplistic form; limited Brent that she will read (e.g., “I wonder if . . . ” “How might you
Intellectual disabilities are
ability to often
reflect caused by genetic
on the specific natureconditions.
of him a listFor example,
of 12 words; shethey areremember to . . . ?”).
common in children with Down
one’s own syndrome, an inherited condition
thought processes then asksmarked by distinctive
him to predict • Provide opportunities for students to
• Considerable overestimation of what
facial features, shorter-than-average arms and legs, and poorhow many he’ll be able to
muscle tone. Other intellec-“experiment” with their memories (e.g.,
has been learned and how much can be remember. Brent predicts playing “I’m going on a trip and am going
tual disabilities are due to biological but noninherited causes,“about
remembered such as8 orsevere malnutritionto pack
9 . . . maybe ,” in which each student
Grades K–2
or excessive alcohol consumption during
• Belief that learning is athe mother’s
relatively pregnancy
passive or prolonged
all of them,” but in fact heoxygenrepeats items previously mentioned and
activity recalls only 6.
deprivation during a difficult birth. In still other situations, environmental factors, such
166 Later, when then adds another item to the list).
• Belief that the absolute truth about any the adult asks him what • Introduce simple learning strategies (e.g.,
as parental neglect or antopic
extremely impoverished
is “out there” somewhere,and unstimulating
waiting home
he did to try environment,rehearsal of spelling words, repeated
to remember
may be at fault.167 Although
to be usually
discovered a long-term condition, an theintellectual
words, he says disability
only, isn’tpractice of motor skills).
necessarily a lifelong disability, especially when its cause is“Think” and “Holdedrather
environmental it, holdthan
it in my brain.”
genetic. 168

Severe intellectual disabilities are usually identified long before children begin kin-
dergarten or first grade. However, mild cases can go undetected until school age. Teachers
who
39
De Lasuspect thatDunning
Paz, 2005; a student
et al.,has significant
2004; delays
A. King, 1992; in cognitive
Wong, 1985. development and adaptive
behavior
A. King, should definitely consult with2004;
specialists trained in identifying and working with
• Classroom Strategies boxes: Most chapters have two or more Classroom Strategies
1992; R. E. Mayer, 2010; Shanahan, Wade-Stein & Kintsch, 2004.
40

41
J. E. Barnett,
children who2001;
have Rawson
special& Kintsch,
educational2005; Schommer,
needs. 1994a; Schneider, 2010; Veenman, 2011.
Dee-Lucas & Larkin, 1991; Dole et al., 1991; R. E. Reynolds & Shirey, 1988.
boxes that offer concrete suggestions and examples of how teachers might apply a
42
Some students with mild intellectual disabilities spend part or all of the school day in
43
Dole et al., 1991; McKeown & Beck, 2009; Nokes & Dole, 2004.
general
44
L. Baker,education
1989; D. L. classrooms.
Butler & Winne, They’re apt to have
1995; Carpenter et al.,poor
2020; reading
Dunloskyand language
& Lipko, skills,&less
2007; Hacker
particular concept or principle. These features should provide yet another mecha-
general
Bol, 2004;knowledge about the world, poor memory for new information, difficulty with
N. J. Stone, 2000.
abstract
45
Kuhn etideas, and
al., 1995; fewet(ifal.,any)
Lodico 1983;metacognitive
Loranger, 1994. skills. Nevertheless, they can make con-
169

nism to help our readers apply educational psychology to actual classroom practices.
siderable academic progress when instruction is appropriately paced and provides a lot
Part of one of these Classroom Strategies boxes is shown here.
of guidance and support. The Classroom Strategies box “Working with Students Who
Have Significant Delays in Cognitive Development” offers suggestions for working effec-
tively with these students.

M03_ORMR3618_06_SE_C03.indd 93 07/10/2021 12:53

Classroom Strategies
Working with Students Who Have Significant Delays in Cognitive Development
• Introduce new material at a slower pace, and • Give students explicit guidance about how to study.
provide many opportunities for practice. An elementary teacher tells a student, “When you study a new
An elementary teacher gives a student only two new spelling word, it helps if you repeat the letters out loud while you
addition facts a week because any more than two seem practice writing the word. Let’s try it with the word house. Watch
to be overwhelming. Every day, the teacher has the student how I repeat the letters—H . . . O . . . U . . . S . . . E—as I write
practice writing the new facts and review the facts learned the word. Now you try doing what I just did.”
in preceding weeks.
• Encourage independence.
• Explain tasks and expected behaviors A middle school teacher teaches a student how to use her calcu-
concretely and in very specific language. lator to figure out what she needs to pay for lunch every day. The
An art teacher gives a student explicit training in the teacher also gives the student considerable practice in identifying
steps needed at the end of each painting session: the correct bills and coins to use when paying various amounts.
(1) Rinse the paintbrush out at the sink, (2) put the brush
and watercolor paints on the shelf in the back room, and • Provide technology that can enhance students’
(3) put the painting on the counter by the window to dry. self-reliance.
Initially, the teacher needs to remind the student of every Using a task organizer app on a smartphone (e.g., Visules,
step in the process. But with time and practice, the Picture Scheduler), a high school life skills teacher creates a
student eventually carries out the process sequence of step-by-step pictures that can help a student learn
independently. and remember how to cook a hard-boiled egg.

Sources: Feuerstein, Feuerstein, & Falik, 2010; K. L. Fletcher & Bray, 1995; Heward, 2009; Patton, Blackbourn, & Fad, 1996; Prout, 2009; Turnbull et al., 2010.

166
Dorris, 1989; Keogh & MacMillan, 1996.
167
Batshaw & Shapiro, 2002; A. A. Baumeister, 1989; D. A. Chapman et al., 2002.
168
Hallahan et al., 2009; Landesman & Ramey, 1989; Ormrod & McGuire, 2007.
• Use of footnotes: Some of our colleagues in the field may be surprised to see our
169
Beirne-Smith et al., 2002; Butterfield & Ferretti, 1987; Heward, 2009; Kail, 1990; Turnbull et al., 2010.

use of footnotes rather than APA (American Psychological Association) citation style
throughout the book. Our decision has been strictly a pedagogical one. Yes, students
need to know that the principles and recommendations in this book are research-
based. But we’ve found that APA style can be quite distracting for someone who
is reading about psychology for the first time and trying to sort out what things
M06_ORMR3618_06_SE_C06.indd 283 06/10/2021 20:33

are and are not important to learn and remember. Novice psychologists should be
concerned more with the ideas themselves than with the people behind the ideas.
By putting most of the research authors’ names in small print at the bottom of the
page, we can help novices better focus their attention on what things truly are most
important to know and understand.
 Preface ix

Pearson eText, Learning Management System (LMS)–

Compatible Assessment Bank, and Other Instructor
Resources
Pearson eText
The Pearson eText is a simple-to-use, mobile-optimized, personalized reading experience.
It allows you to easily highlight, take notes, and review key
30 vocabulary
Chapter 2all• in one place—
Learning, Cognition, and Memory
even when offline. Seamlessly integrated videos and other rich media will engage you and
give you access to the help you need, when you need it. To gain access or to sign-in to your
Pearson eText, visit: https://www.pearson.com/pearson-etext. Figure 2.1
• Video Examples: One of the features in each chapter is the Video Examples that illus-
trate principles or concepts aligned pedagogically with the chapter. Some videos
provide examples of educational psychology principles or concepts in action by
showing
2.5 Why Learners May orstudents
May Notand teachers
Remember in classrooms.
What Other videos
They Have Learned 77 show students or teach-
ers describing their teaching strategies or experiences.
(Chapter 3)
Learning
Theories Behaviorism
(Chapter 4)

Liquidation means to make some-

Pearson eText
Video Example 2.4
The teacher in this video asks many
questions to give hints that can
help students recall what they had
learned previously about how corn
grows.

• Content Extensions: Some of the chapters

Pearson eText
include Content Extensions that provide more Content Extension 2.1
information about a specific topic or founda- Learn more about how theories of
tional theory. This feature is intended to sup- learning have evolved over time in
this supplemental reading.
plement the information in the text, often by
providing additional details, background, or Cognitive psychology
context for the topic or theory.

LMS-Compatible Assessment Bank tives.2

With this new edition, assessments are included in LMS-compatible banks for the fol-
lowing learning management systems: Blackboard (ISBN 9780136817758), Canvas (ISBN
9780136817703), D2L (ISBN 9780136817918), and Moodle (ISBN 9780136817871). These
packaged files allow maximum flexibility to instructors when it comes to importing,
assigning, and grading. Assessment types include:

• Learning Outcome Quizzes: Each chapter Big Idea is the focus of a Learning ­Outcome
Quiz that is available for instructors to assign through their Learning Management
System. The Big Ideas identify chapter content that is most important for learners
self-regulation, a topic we
and serve as the organizational framework for each chapter. The quiz questions Figure 2.2
focus almost exclusively on meaningful learning and, often, on application of key learning
concepts and principles related to scenarios and problems. In general, the quiz-
zes have been written with a particular principle in mind: When used in the LMS
•
testing effect information at one time.
retrieval-based learning).142 Because students •

•
Visit https://textbookfull.com
now to explore a rich
collection of eBooks, textbook
and enjoy exciting offers!
x Preface

environment, these multiple-choice questions are automatically graded and include

feedback for the correct answer and for each distractor to help guide students’ learn-
ing. As we say in Chapter 10, Assessment activities can be learning experiences in and
of themselves.
• Application Exercises: Each chapter provides opportunities for students to apply
what they have learned through Application Exercises. One Application Exercise is
available for each Big Idea within the chapter. The exercises require students to watch
short videos, read scenarios, or think about situations and then answer open-ended
questions. When used in the LMS environment, a model response written by experts
is provided after students submit the exercise. This feedback helps guide students’
learning and can assist the instructor in grading.
• Chapter Tests: Suggested test items for each chapter in the following formats: multiple
choice and short answer/essay. Some items (lower-level questions) simply ask stu-
dents to identify or explain concepts and principles they have learned. But many others
(higher-level questions) ask students to apply those same concepts and principles to
specific classroom situations—that is, to actual student behaviors and teaching strate-
gies. The lower-level questions assess basic knowledge of educational psychology. But
ultimately, it is the higher-level questions that can best assess students’ ability to use
principles of educational psychology in their own teaching practice.

Instructor’s Manual (ISBN 9780136817611)

The Instructor’s Manual is provided as a Word document and includes resources to assist
professors in planning their course. These resources consist of suggestions for learning
activities, supplementary lectures, group activities, and additional media resources. These
have been carefully selected to provide opportunities to support, enrich, and expand on
what students read in the textbook.

PowerPoint® Slides (ISBN 9780136817574)

PowerPoint slides are provided for each chapter and highlight key concepts and sum-
marize the content of the text to make it more meaningful for students. Oftentimes, these
slides also include questions and problems designed to stimulate discussion and to encour-
age students to elaborate and deepen their understanding of chapter topics.

Note: All instructor resources—LMS-compatible assessment bank, instructor’s manual,

and ­PowerPoint slides—are available for download at www.pearsonhighered.com. Use
one of the following methods:

• From the main page, use the search function to look up the lead author (i.e., O
­ rmrod)
or the title (i.e., Essentials of Educational Psychology). Select the desired search
result, then access the “Resources” tab to view and download all available resources.
• From the main page, use the search function to look up the ISBN (provided above)
of the specific instructor resource you would like to download. When the product
page loads, access the “Downloadable Resources” tab.

New to This Edition

Our knowledge about how children and adolescents learn and develop—and also about
how best to help them learn and develop—grows every year. Throughout this sixth edition,
we’ve made many changes to reflect new research findings and evidence-based classroom
strategies. General changes include the following:

• More explicit connections between principles and teaching strategies: For several
chapters in the prior edition, we provided most of the teaching strategies in separate
 Preface xi

sections near the end of the chapter. In this edition, we integrated those teaching
strategies throughout the chapters. As a result, the Big Idea sections in many chapters
now include a subsection titled Teaching Strategies to make the connections between
the principles and the teaching strategies more explicit.
• More explicit connections between theories and principles: Although our approach
in this book is to integrate the concepts, principles, and educational strategies that
diverse theoretical perspectives offer, it’s also important for teachers to have some
familiarity with specific psychological theories and with prominent theorists who
have had a significant influence on psychological thinking (e.g., Jean Piaget, Lev
Vygotsky, B. F. Skinner). To better connect these theories to the Big Ideas and prin-
ciples presented in the text, we moved the theories from the Theoretical Perspectives
tables in the prior edition to within the body of the text.
• New figures to facilitate comprehension: We added over 90 new figures to sum-
marize or present the concepts explained in the text.
• Updated references and explanations: We have included over 500 new references
to provide readers with the most current and relevant research.
• New keywords and definitions: We added new keywords and definitions that are
consistent with current research.

Key Content Updates by Chapter

More specific, chapter-by-chapter changes include the following additions and
modifications:

• Chapter 1: Added a second reflection question and explanation related to motivation

for the opening “Case Study: The ‘No D’ Policy”; switched the order of the first and
second big ideas (Sections 1.1 and 1.2); added an explanation and figure related to the
organization of the educational psychology topics within the book; added a brief his-
tory of the field of educational psychology; added examples of the types of questions
addressed in each chapter in the book; added a definition of variable with examples;
added a figure to show the relationships between variables, principles, theories, and
ideas; added several study strategies, with figures and examples, including spacing
study sessions, reviewing previously learned material, previewing material, taking
notes during reading, finding examples and nonexamples of concepts, checking and
practicing what you have learned, and evaluating your study schedule; and added
a principle about being an active participant and putting forth effort in learning and
studying.
• Chapter 2: Replaced the Case Study at the beginning of the chapter with a new
Case Study titled ”Studying for a Test”; moved all of the teaching implications in
­Section 2.5 to within the chapter at the appropriate locations; edited the wording and
order of a few of the Big Ideas; deleted Table 2.1 and distributed the text from the
table to within the chapter or within other chapters; added a definition of cognition
at the beginning of the chapter; added more specific information about the brain in
­Section 2.1 including two new figures (Figures 2.4 and 2.5); added a new Figure 2.6;
revised the model of memory in Figure 2.7; added a new Figure 2.8; added the
terms and definitions for mind wandering, selective attention, and divided attention in
­Section 2.2; added an explanation of cognitive load theory; added a new subsection
in Section 2.3 with three new theories of concepts (classical theory of concepts, proto-
type theory, and exemplar theory) along with a new table that includes examples of
different concepts; added a new subsection in Section 2.3 with teaching strategies for
teaching concepts, including a new Classroom Strategies box; added a new example
xii Preface

for organization along with a new Figure 2.16; added a new example for encouraging
elaboration along with a new Figure 2.18; added a new Figure 2.22 to show several
different types of constructivism; added a new Figure 2.26 to provide an example of
one of the teaching strategies; added an example in Section 2.5 about how memories
are retrieved by following pathways; added information in Section 2.5 about the role
of forgetting and new findings from neuroscience with updated citations; added a
new subsection in Section 2.5 about providing opportunities to practice retrieval,
including a new Figure 2.28; added a new subsection in Section 2.5 about intermixing
practice problems, including a new See For Yourself exercise and a new Figure 2.29;
added a new sub-section in Section 2.5 about spacing review sessions that includes
a definition for spacing effect; and made minor edits throughout the chapter.
• Chapter 3: Deleted Big Ideas 3.5 and 3.6 and moved the principles and practices
within them into other sections of the chapter; edited the wording of Big Idea 3.4;
added a figure to list many different types of complex cognitive processes; added
a new figure illustrating self-regulation, metacognition, and motivation; explained
the differences between self-regulation and metacognition in Section 3.1; provided
more explanation about metacognition and a figure showing the three categories of
metacognitive knowledge; added four new strategies and examples in the Classroom
Strategies section titled “Fostering Self-Regulation”; added a new figure related to
specific transfer; added a new paragraph using an example about computer pro-
gramming for general transfer in Section 3.2; revised the definition of service learning
and provided a new example of it in Section 3.2; added an explanation of critical
service learning along with an associated figure; added a new figure showing the
components of well-defined and ill-defined problems; expanded the explanation of
creativity in Section 3.3; added text and an associated figure related to the creative
problem-solving process; added the key term engineering design and explained the
processes involved in it; added three examples of how teachers can help students
avoid mental sets (Section 3.3); added a new section about thinking at the beginning
of Section 3.4 along with a figure of the categories of cognitive processes; added the
terms design thinking and computational thinking along with explanations of each;
moved the ideas in the Cultural Considerations box (Section 3.4) to within the text
in the appropriate section; and added a new figure related to students being critical
thinkers.
• Chapter 4: Deleted Big Ideas 4.5 and 4.6 and moved the principles and practices
within them into other sections of the chapter; edited the wording of Big Idea 4.3;
added a definition and explanation of ecological systems theory in the introduction;
added a definition of Behaviorism in Section 4.1; edited Figures 4.3 and 4.6; added a
definition and examples of the Premack Principle in Section 4.1; added a definition
of social cognitive theory in Section 4.1; added a definition of cognitive modeling in
Section 4.1; added new Figures 4.7, 4.8, and 4.12; provided more examples of
using verbal praise and a token economy in Section 4.1; added definitions of social
­constructivism and sociocultural theory in Section 4.2.; the ideas in the Cultural
­Considerations box (Section 4.3) were moved to within the text in the appropri-
ate section; added an example of how cultural lenses can affect students’ views
in Section 4.3; added a new section in subsection 4.3 related to race and included
definitions and examples of racial ideology, color-blind racial ideology, racial microag-
gressions, and racial battle fatigue; added a new Figure 4.16; added another example
of stereotypes in Section 4.3; and added two new sections for teaching strategies in
Section 4.4.
• Chapter 5: The title of the chapter was changed to “Motivation and Emotions”; Big
Ideas 5.2 and 5.4 were combined; deleted Table 5.1 and distributed the text from the
 Preface xiii

table to within the chapter or within other chapters; added a new figure in Section 5.1
about theoretical approaches; added a new section in Section 5.1 titled “Teacher
Beliefs About and Assessment of Students’ Motivation” along with an accompany-
ing section with teaching strategies that include a new figure; included new figures
in Section 5.2 related to arousal, self-worth, and interest; added two new See For
Yourself activities in Section 5.2 (“Enjoyable Activity” along with an accompanying
figure and “Self-Efficacy for Different Activities”); added more explanation about
cost in Section 5.2; revised a figure related to self-efficacy and added a complemen-
tary paragraph to explain it; added a new figure related to appropriate attributions;
added a new teaching strategy related to usefulness in Section 5.3; moved the ideas
in the Cultural Considerations boxes (previously in Sections 5.3 and 5.4) to within
the text in the appropriate section; edited a couple examples in the Classroom Strate-
gies box titled “Enhancing Self-Efficacy and Self-Worth”; added a new figure related
to SMART goals; edited some examples and added two new examples (with an
accompanying figure) in the Classroom Strategies box titled “Forming ­Productive
­Expectations and Attributions;” added a new figure about situational interest in
­Section 5.3; added more strategies related to caring in Section 5.3; and added defi-
nitions of emotions, social and emotional learning, and emotion regulation (along with
accompanying explanations) in Section 5.4.
• Chapter 6: Deleted Big Idea 6.5 and moved the principles and practices within it into
other sections of the chapter; deleted Table 6.1 and distributed the text from the table
to within the chapter or within other chapters; updated several figures throughout
the chapter; added a figure that shows synaptic connections in Section 6.1; added a
paragraph about children’s use of different brain areas in Section 6.1; in Section 6.2,
added a figure that shows an example of mental schemes, a figure related to language
development, a figure explaining reciprocal teaching, and a figure about apprentice-
ships; added to the definition and explanation of scheme in Section 6.2; edited the
examples for assimilation and accommodation in Section 6.2; in Section 6.4, added a
figure related to dispositions and a figure about multiple intelligences; and moved
the ideas in the Cultural Considerations box (Section 6.4) to within the text in the
appropriate section.
• Chapter 7: Edited the wording of Big Ideas 7.1 and 7.2; deleted Big Idea 7.4 and
moved the principles and practices within it into other sections of the chapter; in
Section 7.1, edited the principles and the order in which some of them appear; added
a table for personality traits along with text to accompany it; created several new
­figures in Section 7.1; in Section 7.1, added definitions and accompanying explana-
tions for traits, sociability, activity level, environmental sensitivity, permissive and unin-
volved parenting, self-concept, self-esteem, reciprocal effects model, gender identity, and
sexual orientation identity; added a new See For Yourself exercise titled “Your Sense
of Self” along with an explanation of it; added a new principle related to sexual
­orientation; added a principle about creating positive environments for all gender
identities and sexual orientation identities; added a new definition for social and
emotional learning; added a new figure for steps in social problem solving; moved
the ideas in the Cultural Considerations box (Section 7.3) to within the text in the
appropriate section; and reorganized the principles and text in Section 7.4.
• Chapter 8: Added a new Figure 8.1 related to teacher control and edited two other
figures in Section 8.1; added a new See For Yourself exercise titled “Driving a Car”
along with an explanation of it; reorganized Section 8.2 and added a new table at the
beginning of this section to organize all of the approaches within this section; added
a new figure related to different question types; reorganized Section 8.3 and added
a new table at the beginning of this section to organize all of the approaches within
xiv Preface

this section; added a paragraph to explain debates and structured controversies;

added a new figure related to the procedures for a structured controversy; added a
new figure related to the procedures for the Jigsaw approach and the associated text
to explain it; added definitions for problem-based learning, project-based learning, and
engineering design along with explanations and two new figures; added a definition
for instructional simulations; added paragraphs to make connections to apprentice-
ships in Section 8.3 and differentiated instruction in Section 8.4; moved the ideas in
the Cultural Considerations box (Section 8.4) to within the text in the appropriate
section; added a definition of flipped classroom and an associated explanation in the
text; and made edits and organizational changes throughout the chapter.
• Chapter 9: Added a definition for social and emotional learning; revised two figures
in Section 9.1; added a new recommendation section in Section 9.1 about creating
a psychologically safe environment; added a definition for psychological safety; in
­Section 9.2, reorganized the section on communicating regularly with parents and
other primary caregivers; added a paragraph related to community member involve-
ment in Section 9.2; in Section 9.3, added a paragraph explanation to the See For
Yourself “Identifying Misbehaviors” section; added an image to the See For ­Yourself
“Putting Yourself in a Parent’s Shoes” section; moved the ideas in the ­Cultural
­Considerations box (Section 9.3) to within the text in the appropriate section; added
a paragraph and an accompanying figure about engaging strategies; and added a
new recommendation and paragraph about using the simplest and least intrusive
strategy possible at the end of Section 9.3.
• Chapter 10: Added a definition for diagnostic assessment; added a new figure and a
new table related to diagnostic, formative, and summative assessments; modified
Figure 10.5 and added more text explanation related to it; in Section 10.1, added more
explanation to how assessments can motivate students; added a new Figure 10.5;
added a definition for rating scale along with more explanation and checklists; edited
Figure 10.8 and added more text to accompany it related to attributes of effective
rubrics; added more explanation about dynamic assessment; added new Figure 10.9
about qualities of good assessments; added definitions for predictive validity and
construct validity; added seven more strategies in the Classroom Strategies box titled
“Guidelines for Constructing Multiple-Choice Items;” added a new Figure 10.13 and
accompanying text about grading multiple-choice items; added a new Figure 10.14
with the examples of performance assessments; added a new principle and associ-
ated text in Section 10.4 related to minimizing the negative effects of stereotype
threat; moved the ideas in the Cultural Considerations box (Section 10.4) to within
the text in the appropriate section; and moved some sections and made minor edits
throughout.

Acknowledgments
Although the title page lists us as the authors of this book, we’ve hardly written it alone.
We’re greatly indebted to the countless psychologists, educators, and other scholars whose
insights and research findings we have pulled together in these pages. We are also incred-
ibly appreciative of the collective efforts of the Pearson team, including Rebecca Fox-Gieg,
Curtis Vickers, Janelle Rogers, Anitha Vijayakumar, Vanitha Puela, and others who have
attended to the gazillion (and sometimes mysterious) details of turning this book into both
concrete and virtual realities.
On the home front have been the many students and teachers whose examples, arti-
facts, and interviews illustrate some of the concepts, developmental trends, and classroom
 Preface xv

strategies we describe in the book: Aleph Altman-Mills, Andrew Belcher, Katie Belcher,
Noah Davis, Shea Davis, Barbara Dee, Tina Ormrod Fox, Amaryth Gass, Anthony Gass,
Ben Geraud, Darcy Geraud, Macy Gotthardt, Colin Hedges, Philip Hilbert, Erin Islo, Jesse
Jensen, Sheila Johnson, Jack Jones, Mia Jones, Shelly Lamb, Michele Minichiello, Susan
O’Byrne, Alex Ormrod, Jeff Ormrod, Isabelle Peters, Laura Riordan, Corey Ross, ­Ashton
Russo, Alex Sheehan, Connor Sheehan, Matt Shump, Melinda Shump, Grace Tober,
Ashleigh Utzinger, Grant Valentine, Caroline Wilson, Hannah Wilson, and Brian Zottoli.
The reviewers who helped shape this sixth edition were Cassendra Bergstrom,
­University of Northern Colorado; Anthony C. Derriso, The University of Alabama; Carla
M. Firetto, Arizona State University; Jodi Legnon, Northeastern State University; Regina
Rahimi, Georgia Southern University; Jill Wendt, Arizona State University; and Maaly
­Younis, University of Northern Colorado. We are greatly indebted to all of these individu-
als for their deep commitment to preparing future teachers and to getting the word out
about the many things that the field of educational psychology has to offer.
We must also acknowledge the contributions of our professional colleagues around
the country who’ve reviewed prior editions of the book and offered many invaluable
insights and suggestions: Lynley H. Anderman, University of Kentucky; Heidi Andrade,
State University of New York at Albany; Bonnie Armbruster, University of Illinois at
Urbana–Champaign; Ty Binfet, Loyola Marymount University; Bryan Bolea, Grand ­Valley
State University; Kym Buchanan, University of Wisconsin–Stevens Point; Jessica C ­ hittum,
East Carolina University; Rhoda Cummings, University of Nevada at Reno; Emily de la
Cruz, Portland State University; Karen A. Droms, Luzerne County C ­ ommunity College;
Randi A. Engle, University of California, Berkeley; Vanessa Ewing, University of N ­ orthern
Colorado and Metropolitan State University of Denver; Robert B. Faux, ­University of
­Pittsburgh; William M. Gray, University of Toledo; Robert L. Hohn, University of ­Kansas;
Leah Johnson, Indiana University and Purdue University, Fort Wayne; Donna Jurich, Knox
College; Adria Karle, Florida International University; Julita G. Lambating, ­California State
University at Sacramento; Frank R. Lilly, California State University at S ­ acramento; Jenny
Martin, Bridgewater College; Jeffrey Miller, California State University at D ­ ominguez
Hills; Anne Marie Rakip, South Carolina State University; Marla Reese-Weber, Illinois
State University; Michelle Riconscente, University of ­Maryland at ­College Park; Cecil
­Robinson, University of Alabama; Analisa L. Smith, Nova Southeastern ­University;
­Beverly ­Snyder, University of Colorado at Colorado Springs; Karthigeyan Subramaniam,
University of North Texas; Debi Switzer, Clemson University; Mark Szymanski, Pacific
University; ­Kimberlee Taylor, Utah State University; Tenisha Tevis, American U ­ niversity;
Michael P. Verdi, California State University at San Bernardino; Vickie W
­ illiams, U
­ niversity
of Maryland, Baltimore County; Steven R. Wininger, Western Kentucky University; John
Woods, Grand Valley State University; and Sharon Zumbrunn, Virginia Commonwealth
University.
Finally, of course, Jeanne must thank her husband, Richard; her children, Tina, Alex,
and Jeff; and her grandchildren, Olivia, Miles, and Jack. Brett would like to thank his
wife, Rebecca; his children, Mia and Jack; his parents, Carole and Jack; and his stepfather,
Larry. Our families have shaped our lives—and so also this book—in ways too numerous
to recall.
J. E. O.
B. D. J.
xvi Preface

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and Inclusion
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Brief Contents

1 Introduction to Educational
Psychology 2

2 Learning, Cognition, and Memory 28

3 Complex Cognitive Processes 82

4 Learning in Context 130

5 Motivation and Emotions 180

6 Cognitive Development 238

7 Personal, Social, and Moral

Development 288

8 Instructional Strategies 344

9 Strategies for Creating Effective Classroom

and School Environments 390

10 Assessment Strategies 436

xvii
Contents

1 Introduction to Educational 2 Learning, Cognition,

Psychology 2 and Memory 28
Case Study: The “No D” Policy 3 Case Study: Studying for A Test 29
1.1 Developing Expertise as a Teacher 5 2.1 Thinking and Learning in the Brain 31
Learn as much as you can about the subject matter you Functions of the Brain 31
teach, about teaching strategies, and about learners The various parts of the brain work closely with one
and their development. 5 another. 32
Believe that you can make a difference in students’ lives. 6 Most learning probably involves changes in neurons,
Continually reflect on and critically examine your astrocytes, and their interconnections. 33
assumptions, inferences, and teaching practices. 6 The brain functions in close collaboration with—rather than
Communicate and collaborate with colleagues. 6 in relative isolation from—the rest of the body. 34
Learn as much as you can about the culture(s) of the Knowing how the brain functions and develops tells us only
community in which you are working. 6 so much about learning and instruction. 34
Keep up to date on research findings and innovative Teaching Strategies: Supporting Optimal Brain Functioning 35
evidence-based practices in education. 7 Provide ongoing intellectual stimulation, but don’t overdo
Integrate action research into your ongoing classroom it. 35
practices. 7 Encourage physical exercise. 35
1.2 Using Research Findings to Make Instructional Encourage students to get plenty of sleep. 36
Decisions 8
2.2 A Model of Human Memory 36
The effectiveness of various classroom practices can best
Sensory Register, Attention, and Working Memory 37
be determined through systematic research. 8
Sensory input stays in a raw form only briefly. 37
Educational psychologists focus on the scientific study
Attention is essential for most learning and memory. 38
of psychological principles that are relevant to
education. 10 Working memory has a short duration and limited
capacity. 39
Research can provide quantitative information, qualitative
information, or both. 12 Teaching Strategies: Remembering the Limitations of Attention
and Working Memory 40
Different kinds of research lead to different kinds of
conclusions. 12 Grab and hold students’ attention. 40
Drawing conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships Keep the limited capacity of working memory in mind. 41
requires that all other possible explanations for an 2.3 Long-Term Memory 42
outcome be eliminated. 16
The Nature of Long-Term Memory 42
Principles and theories can help synthesize, explain, and
Long-term memory is composed of declarative and
apply research findings. 17
procedural knowledge. 43
1.3 Strategies for Learning and Studying Effectively 18 Long-term memory has a long duration and virtually
Before you study, prepare for your study session. 19 limitless capacity. 43
During your study session, use effective study Some declarative knowledge is stored as concepts. 43
strategies. 20 Information in long-term memory is interconnected and
At the end of your study session, evaluate your progress organized to some extent. 44
and schedule additional study sessions as needed. 24 Storing Information in Long-Term Memory 47
Be an active participant and put forth mental effort in your Some long-term memory storage processes are more
learning and studying processes. 25 effective than others. 47
Summary 25 Practice makes knowledge more automatic and
Case Study Practice Exercises 26 durable. 51

xviii
 Contents xix

Automaticity frees up working memory capacity for other Teaching Strategies: Facilitating Retrieval 76
tasks. 52 Give students time to think about questions. 76
With age and experience, children acquire more effective Give hints that help students recall or reconstruct what
learning strategies and use them more intentionally. 53 they’ve learned. 77
Teaching Strategies: Encouraging Effective Long-Term Provide opportunities for students to practice retrieving
Memory Storage Processes 53 information. 77
Help students learn concepts through the use of defining Intermix practice problems with problems from previous
features, examples, and nonexamples. 53 lessons. 78
Help students organize ideas by making connections Space review sessions over time. 79
among them. 54 Summary 79
Facilitate visual imagery. 56 Case Study Practice Exercises 81
Present questions and tasks that encourage
elaboration. 57
Suggest mnemonics for hard-to-remember facts. 58 3 Complex Cognitive Processes 82
Focus assessments on meaningful learning rather than rote Case Study: Taking Over 83
learning. 58 3.1 Self-Regulation and Metacognition 84
Provide many opportunities to practice important Effective Self-Regulated Learning 84
knowledge and skills. 60
Self-regulating learners establish goals for their
Be on the lookout for students who have unusual difficulty performance and plan their actions accordingly. 86
with certain cognitive processes. 61
Self-regulating learners control and monitor their processes
2.4 Learning as Active Construction 62 and progress during a learning task. 86
Knowledge Construction 62 Self-regulating learners seek assistance and support when
Learners use what they already know and believe to help they need it. 87
them make sense of new experiences. 63 Self-regulating learners monitor and try to control their
Prior knowledge and beliefs affect new learning, usually for motivation and emotions. 87
the better but sometimes for the worse. 65 Self-regulating learners evaluate the final outcomes of their
Learners differ in the factors that influence their ability to efforts. 87
learn and remember. 66 Self-regulating learners self-impose consequences for their
Teaching Strategies: Helping Students Construct performance. 87
Knowledge 68 Most learners become increasingly self-regulating over
Relate new ideas to students’ prior knowledge and the course of childhood and adolescence, partly as a
experiences. 68 result of maturation in key areas of the brain. 88
Take advantage of students’ diverse background The Roles of Metacognition 91
knowledge in designing instruction. 69 Some effective study strategies are easily seen in learners’
Provide experiences on which students can build. 70 behaviors. 91
Identify and address students’ misconceptions. 70 Study strategies are effective only to the extent that they
involve productive cognitive processes. 92
Regularly assess students’ understandings. 70
Metacognitive knowledge and skills gradually improve with
2.5 Why Learners May or May Not Remember What age. 93
They Have Learned 72 Learners’ beliefs about the nature of knowledge and
Recalling Information 72 learning influence their approaches to learning
How easily something is recalled depends on how it was tasks. 95
initially learned. 72 Teaching Strategies: Promoting Self-Regulation Skills and
Remembering depends on the context and retrieval Metacognitive Development 97
cues. 73 Guide and support self-regulated learning and behavior. 97
How easily something is recalled and used depends Encourage metacognitive self-reflection. 98
on how often it has been recalled and used in the Explicitly teach effective learning strategies. 99
past. 74 Communicate that acquiring knowledge is a dynamic,
Recall often involves construction or reconstruction. 74 ongoing process—that one never knows something
Long-term memory isn’t necessarily forever. 75 completely. 101
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xx Contents

3.2 Transfer 102 Critical thinking requires sophisticated epistemic

Factors that Affect Transfer 103 beliefs. 123
Meaningful learning and conceptual understanding increase Critical thinking is a disposition as much as a cognitive
the probability of transfer. 103 process. 123
Both positive and negative transfer are more common Teaching Strategies: Developing Students’ Critical Thinking
when a new situation appears to be similar to a Skills 124
previous one. 104 Encourage critical evaluation of information and ideas
Some knowledge and skills can be transferred to very presented by others and in printed and online
different situations. 105 materials. 124
Learning strategies, general beliefs, and attitudes can also Support complex cognitive processes through group
transfer to new situations. 106 discussions and projects. 126
Transfer increases when the learning environment Teach complex thinking skills within the context of specific
encourages it. 106 topics and content domains. 126
Teaching Strategies: Fostering Transfer 106 Summary 127
Pursue topics in depth rather than superficially. 106 Case Study Practice Exercises 128
Provide numerous and varied opportunities to apply

4
classroom subject matter to new situations and
authentic activities. 107 Learning in Context 130
Construct assessments that require students to apply their Case Study: Why Jack Wasn’t in School 131
knowledge to new situations. 109
4.1 Immediate Stimuli as Context 132
3.3 Problem Solving and Creativity 110
Stimuli and Consequences Influence Learners’ Behaviors and
General Principles Related to Problem Solving and Cognition 132
Creativity 113
Some stimuli tend to elicit certain kinds of
The depth of learners’ knowledge influences their ability to responses. 133
solve problems and think creatively. 113
Learners are more likely to acquire behaviors that lead to
Both convergent and divergent thinking are constrained by desired consequences. 133
working memory capacity. 114
Learners are also likely to acquire behaviors that help them
How learners represent a problem or situation influences avoid or escape unpleasant circumstances. 135
their strategies and eventual success. 114
Learners tend to avoid behaviors that lead to unpleasant
Problem solving and creativity often involve heuristics consequences. 137
that facilitate but don’t guarantee successful
Learners acquire many behaviors by observing other
outcomes. 116
people’s actions. 139
Effective problem solving and creativity require self-
Learners learn what behaviors are acceptable and effective
regulation and metacognition. 117
by observing what happens to people whom they
Teaching Strategies: Encouraging Problem Solving and perceive to be similar to themselves. 141
Creativity 117
By seeing what happens to themselves and others,
Create a classroom climate in which problem solving and learners form expectations about the probable
creativity are both expected and valued. 117 outcomes of various actions. 141
Pose questions that require students to engage in divergent Teaching Strategies: Encouraging Productive Behaviors 142
thinking. 117
Create conditions that elicit desired responses. 142
Require students to work on complex problems, projects,
Make sure that productive behaviors are reinforced
and designs. 118
and that unproductive behaviors are not
Use technology to simulate real-world tasks and reinforced. 143
problems. 118
Make response–reinforcement contingencies clear and
Help students avoid mental sets when engaging in creative appropriate. 144
problem solving. 119
As an alternative to punishment, reinforce productive
3.4 Thinking 119 behaviors that are incompatible with unproductive
Attributes of Critical Thinking 121 ones. 145
Critical thinking can take a variety of forms. 121 Model desired behaviors. 145
Students can have difficulties engaging in critical Provide a variety of role models. 147
thinking. 123 Shape complex behaviors gradually over time. 147
 Contents xxi

4.2 Social Interaction as Context 148 Be sensitive to cultural differences in behaviors and beliefs
Other People Affect Students’ Learning 148 and, when appropriate, adapt instructional methods
Learners sometimes co-construct new understandings with to students’ accustomed ways of learning and
more experienced individuals. 149 behaving. 170

Learners co-construct knowledge and understandings with Be sensitive to the culture shock that recent immigrants
peers. 150 might be experiencing. 171

Other people sometimes provide the support learners need Work hard to break down rigid stereotypes of particular
to take on challenging new tasks. 151 cultural and ethnic groups. 171

Teaching Strategies: Providing Opportunities for Students to Provide opportunities for students to interact regularly and
Learn from Others 152 productively with people from diverse cultural, ethnic,
and racial groups. 173
Encourage student dialogue and collaboration. 152
Identify and, if possible, provide missing resources and
Use computer technology to support both within-class and
experiences important for successful learning. 173
across-class communication. 153
Create a community of learners. 153 4.4 How Students Modify Their Environments 174
How Students Influence Their Environment 174
4.3 Culture and Society as Contexts 155
Learners alter their current environment through both their
Culture as Context 155
behaviors and such internal variables as beliefs, mental
Any cultural group encourages and models certain processes, feelings, and personality traits. 174
behaviors and actively discourages certain other
Learners actively seek out environments that are a good fit
behaviors. 156
with their existing behaviors and internal variables. 175
Every culture passes along many cognitive tools that
Teaching Strategies: Attending to Students’ Behaviors 176
enhance learners’ thinking capabilities. 159
Help students become aware of how they are influencing
Every culture instills certain worldviews that color people’s
their environment. 176
interpretations of events. 159
Be aware of how students’ behaviors affect your own
Every culture has certain ways of doing things,
thoughts and behaviors. 177
and these, too, are passed from generation to
generation. 160 Summary 177

Inconsistencies between home and school cultures can Case Study Practice Exercises 178
interfere with school learning and performance. 161
Society as Context 162
Any large society has multiple layers that all affect 5 Motivation and Emotions 180
children’s learning and development either directly or Case Study: Passing Algebra 181
indirectly. 163
5.1 The Nature of Motivation 182
Different members of a society have different specialties,
The Role of Motivation in Education 182
and they call on one another’s areas of expertise as
needed. 164 A variety of theories are often helpful in explaining students’
motivation. 184
In most situations, some society members have greater
access to the society’s resources than other members Researchers have identified some general principles about
do. 164 students’ motivation. 185

Teaching Strategies: Considering Students’ Broader Cultural Teacher Beliefs About and Assessment of Students’
and Societal Contexts 166 Motivation 186

Remember that membership in a particular cultural or Teachers should believe that they can affect students’
ethnic group is not an either–or situation but, instead, motivation and that it’s important to motivate
a more-or-less phenomenon. 166 students. 186

Come to understand your own cultural lens and learn Teachers can assess students’ motivation and
as much as you can about students’ cultural engagement. 186
backgrounds. 166 Teaching Strategies: Assessing Students’ Motivation and
Be aware of how your beliefs about race affect your Engagement 187
behaviors and communications with students and Assess students’ motivation by observing their behaviors
others. 167 and reactions during class. 187
Incorporate the perspectives and traditions of many Assess students’ motivation by talking to them. 187
cultures into the curriculum. 169 Assess students’ motivation by surveying them. 187
xxii Contents

5.2 Internal Factors That Affect Learners’ Motivation and Communicate with students in a clear, but less-controlling
Engagement 188 manner. 214
Learners’ Psychological Needs 188 Use extrinsic reinforcers when necessary but do so in ways
Learners have a basic need for arousal. 188 that preserve students’ sense of autonomy. 215
Learners want to be in control of their actions to some Ask students to set some personal goals for learning and
degree. 189 performance. 216
Learners want to believe they are competent and have Teaching Strategies That Demonstrate the Usefulness of
self-worth. 191 Activities 216
Learners want to feel connected to other people. 192 Explicitly relate class activities to students’ values, goals,
Learners’ Interests and Enjoyment 193 and everyday lives. 216

Learners have existing interests, but new interests can be Ask students to talk or write about how what they are
triggered by the environment. 193 learning is useful to their lives. 216

Learners experience greater enjoyment and interest in Create conditions that foster internalization of values
school activities when their psychological needs are essential for students’ long-term academic and
met. 194 professional success. 217

Learners can become immersed in an activity when the Teaching Strategies That Foster Perceptions of Success 217
conditions are right. 195 Protect and enhance students’ self-efficacy and overall
Learners’ Values and Goals 196 sense of competence and self-worth. 217
Learners are more likely to choose to devote time and effort Present challenges that students can realistically
to activities that they value. 196 accomplish. 218
Learners’ values are affected by their social and cultural Form and communicate optimistic expectations and
environments. 197 attributions. 220
Learners typically form goals related to their academic Minimize competition. 220
achievement; the specific nature of these goals Focus students’ attention more on mastery goals than on
influences learners’ cognitive processes and performance goals. 222
behaviors. 198 Teaching Strategies That Stimulate Interest 222
Learners must juggle their achievement goals with their Conduct interest-arousing lessons and activities. 222
many other goals. 201 Relate activities to students’ individual interests. 224
Learners’ Self-Efficacy, Attributions, and Beliefs 202 Teaching Strategies That Show and Promote Caring 224
Learners are more likely to choose activities and try harder Show students that you respect them and are concerned
at them when they believe that they can succeed at about their well-being. 225
them. 202
Provide regular opportunities for students to interact
When learners think their chances of success are slim, they productively with one another. 225
may behave in ways that make success even less
Create a classroom environment in which students respect
likely. 204
one another. 225
Learners identify what are, in their minds, the likely causes
of their successes and failures. 205 5.4 Emotions and Their Effects on Motivation
Learners’ attributions for past successes and failures and Learning 226
affect their emotional reactions and future The Role of Emotions in Student Motivation and Learning 226
performances. 207 Emotions and motivation are interrelated. 226
Learners’ attributions are affected by their teachers’ Emotions are closely tied to learning and cognition. 227
attributions and resulting expectations for students’ Productive emotions can trigger effective learning
performance. 209 strategies. 228
Over time, learners acquire a general attributional Emotions can also trigger certain behaviors. 228
style. 210
Some anxiety is helpful, but a lot is often a hindrance. 229
5.3 Teaching Strategies to Support Students’ Motivation Teaching Strategies: Generating Productive Emotions for
and Engagement 211 Learning 230
Teaching Strategies That Empower Students 211 Get students emotionally involved in the subject
Give students control over some aspects of classroom matter. 230
life. 211 Help students to better regulate their emotions. 230
 Contents xxiii

Keep anxiety at a low to moderate level. 233 Scaffold students’ early efforts at challenging tasks and
As students make the transition to middle school or high assignments. 253
school, make an extra effort to minimize their anxiety Involve students in age-appropriate ways in adult
and address their need for relatedness. 234 activities. 256
Summary 235 6.3 Trends in Cognitive Development 257
Case Study Practice Exercises 236 Development of Working Memory, Knowledge, and Thinking
Processes 258

6 Cognitive Development 238 Children’s growing working memory capacity enables them
to handle increasingly complex cognitive tasks. 258
Case Study: Hidden Treasure 239 Children’s growing knowledge base enhances their ability
to learn new things. 258
6.1 General Principles of Development 240
Children’s knowledge, beliefs, and thinking processes
Developmental Principles 240
become increasingly integrated. 258
The brain continues to develop throughout childhood,
Stages of Cognitive Development 259
adolescence, and adulthood. 240
Thinking becomes increasingly logical during the
The sequence of development is somewhat
elementary school years. 259
predictable. 242
Thinking becomes increasingly abstract in the middle
Children develop at different rates. 242
school and secondary school years. 261
Development is often marked by spurts and plateaus. 242
Several logical thinking processes important for
Development involves both quantitative and qualitative
mathematical and scientific reasoning improve
changes. 243
considerably during adolescence. 263
Heredity and environment interact in their effects on
Children can think more logically and abstractly about tasks
development. 243
and topics they know well. 265
Children’s own behaviors also influence their
True expertise comes only after many years of study and
development. 244
practice. 265
Teaching Strategies: Accommodating Developmental
Teaching Strategies: Fostering Cognitive Development 266
Differences and Diversity 245
Explore students’ reasoning with problem-solving tasks and
Ideally, teachers individualize instruction for every
probing questions. 266
student. 245
Rely heavily on concrete objects and activities, especially in
Technology-based instructional strategies can be used to
the early elementary grades. 267
meet students’ developmental needs. 245
Present abstract ideas more frequently in the middle school
6.2 Developmental Processes 246 and high school grades, but tie them to concrete
Knowledge Construction 246 objects and events. 268
Children have a natural tendency to organize their Initially introduce sophisticated reasoning processes within
experiences. 246 the context of familiar situations. 269
Children are naturally inclined to make sense of and adapt 6.4 Intelligence 270
to their environment. 248 The Nature of Intelligence 270
Inconsistencies between existing understandings and new Intelligence can be measured only imprecisely at best. 271
events promote development. 248
To some degree, intelligence reflects the general speed,
Development builds on prior acquisitions. 250 efficiency, and control of cognitive processing. 273
Observations of the physical environment—and, Intelligence also involves numerous specific processes and
ideally, frequent interactions with it—promote abilities. 273
development. 250
Learners may be more intelligent in some domains than in
Language development facilitates cognitive others. 274
development. 250
Intelligence is a product of both inherited characteristics
Knowledge Construction Through Interaction with Others 251 and environmental influences. 275
Interactions with other people promote development. 251 Intelligence may take different forms at different age
Challenging tasks promote development. 252 levels. 276
Teaching Strategies: Facilitating Learners’ Knowledge Learners may have specific cognitive styles and
Construction 252 dispositions that predispose them to think and act in
Encourage play activities. 252 more or less intelligent ways. 276
xxiv Contents

Learners act more intelligently when they have physical or Sexual orientation influences one’s sense of self and
social support for their efforts. 279 identity. 302
Teaching Strategies: Teaching with a Consideration of Despite the influence of others, growing children define and
Intelligence 279 socialize themselves to a considerable degree. 302
Interpret intelligence test results cautiously. 280 In forming their identity, it’s important for adolescents
Look for signs of exceptional abilities and talents. 280 to explore alternative beliefs, values, and career
Consult with specialists if children show significant delays in goals. 303
development. 281 Teaching Strategies: Fostering Personal Development 305
Be optimistic that with appropriate guidance and support, Accommodate students’ diverse personality traits. 305
all students can perform more intelligently. 284 Create a warm, supportive environment with clear
Be cautious in applying multiple intelligences theory and standards for behavior and explanations of why some
learning styles to teaching. 284 behaviors are unacceptable. 305
Summary 286 Help students get a handle on who they are and who they
Case Study Practice Exercises 287 want to become. 306
Channel adolescents’ risk-taking tendencies into safe
activities. 307

7 Personal, Social, and Moral Create a positive learning environment in which students
of all gender identities and sexual orientation identities
Development 288 feel welcome. 308
Case Study: The School Play 289 7.2 Social Development 308
7.1 Personal Development 290 Peer Relationships 309
Personality 290 Peer relationships promote personal, social, and academic
Personality traits can be grouped into five general development in ways that adult–child relationships
categories. 290 often cannot. 309

Personality traits are influenced by genetic and Peers help define “appropriate” ways of behaving. 310
environmental contexts. 292 On average, boys and girls interact with their peers in
One personality trait, effortful control, doesn’t fully mature distinctly different ways. 311
until adulthood. 292 Social groups become increasingly important in
Parenting styles can affect children’s personality traits and adolescence. 311
behaviors. 293 Romantic relationships in adolescence can provide
Cultural environments influence the development of valuable practice for the intimate relationships of
personality traits. 294 adulthood. 312

Sense of Self and Identity 294 Truly popular children have good social skills. 313

Children construct increasingly multifaceted understandings Social Cognition 314

of their sense of self over time. 295 As children get older, they become increasingly aware of
With age, self-perceptions become more realistic, abstract, other people’s thoughts and feelings. 315
and stable. 297 Children’s cognitive processes in social situations influence
As children reach puberty, they understand that they are their behaviors toward others. 316
unique individuals, but they may overestimate their Aggressive behavior is often the result of counterproductive
uniqueness. 297 cognitive processes. 316
Self-perceptions influence students’ behaviors, and vice Teaching Strategies: Encouraging Effective Social Cognition
versa. 298 and Interpersonal Skills 318
Other people’s behaviors affect students’ sense of Foster perspective taking and empathy. 318
self. 298 Talk with students about what it really means to be
Group memberships affect students’ sense of self and popular. 319
identity. 299 Provide frequent opportunities for social interaction and
Ethnic and racial identities also affect students’ sense of cooperation. 320
self and identity. 300 Explicitly teach social skills to students who have trouble
Gender plays a role in students’ sense of self and interacting effectively with others. 320
identity. 300 Explain what bullying is and why it cannot be tolerated. 321
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 “Have you ever had anything like it before?”
“Only bright pennies sometimes, ma’am; not beautiful silver
money like that.”
“And what would you do with a whole silver crown if you had one
of your very own?”
The child’s eyes sparkled, but no words came. The idea of being
possessor of such fabulous wealth was too big a one to be grasped
in a moment. The lady laughed at the expression upon the upturned
face, and put the big silver coin into her hand.
“There, little Allumette, there is a keepsake for you. You have such
a wise little face that I am sure you will make a good use of it.
Come, Bertram, we must not miss our train.”
Before the child could find words in which to thank the lady the
crowds had swallowed up both brother and sister, and she was left
alone at her corner, grasping the wonderful piece of fairy silver (for
such indeed it seemed to her) tightly in her hand, her heart beating
thick and fast with the excitement of such a wonderful piece of
fortune’s favour.
It was Saturday afternoon, and trade was brisk. She had soon sold
all her matches, and was ready to turn her feet homewards, but first
she must think what to do with this wonderful treasure-trove. That
was her own—her very own. She scarcely dared to look at it as she
walked the streets; she was afraid lest some passer-by might get a
glimpse at the shining coin, and might set upon her and rob her of
it.
Where could she put it to keep it safe? At home there was no
nook or corner she could call her own. Poor little Allumette! Her life
was a sad and shadowed one now, and yet once nobody would ever
have guessed that she would come to selling matches in the streets.
Her father had been a clever and respectable artisan, and her
mother a farmer’s daughter. But Allumette could not remember a
mother’s care, for her mother had died whilst she was but a baby,
and her father had married again a woman of a very different
stamp. Moreover, misfortunes had come upon him, and he had lost
his health and then his work. Three years before, when Allumette
was only five, he had died, and the stepmother had almost at once
married a widower with three children—she herself had four.
So that Allumette had now neither father nor mother, and though
she was still permitted to live in the double attic where this
heterogeneous family party made their home, she was nobody’s
child, and nobody wanted her. She had to earn her own living in the
streets, and though she met with no ill-treatment at home, she
received no love or tenderness, and knew that her presence was felt
to be a nuisance by the parents of the other children.
Moreover, some of the boys were of an age when teasing becomes
a delight, and Allumette was always reckoned as fair game, for she
had nobody to stand by her and take her part.
It was before the days of School Boards, and Allumette had no
chance of learning except at a ragged school which she frequented
as often as she could in the evenings. But if she had been unlucky
with her matches by day, she was always sent out again to dispose
of her stock later on, and then she was too late and too tired ever to
think of learning anything.
And yet the child was not altogether unhappy in her life. She
made interests for herself, and sometimes friends too. Had she not
several customers who showed her kindness in a fitful way? and was
there not, above all, “her gentleman,” as she called him, who was
more to her than all the rest put together? And was there not the
old cobbler and his wife at the end of the alley, who were always
glad to see her when she came? She did not like to go too often,
because Mrs. Gregg would give her bread and treacle, and she did
not think they always had enough to eat themselves; but it was
always pleasant to sit by their little fire and hear the old man’s
stories; and to-day she bent her steps there with great eagerness,
for she meant to spend her own two pennies (given by the
gentleman) on some herrings for them, and then she would not
mind sharing the frugal meal, and could tell them about her
wonderful windfall, and ask their advice as to what she could do
with her treasure.
Allumette’s home was up a number of rickety stairs in a narrow
court, and when she arrived there she found her stepmother in the
midst of a Saturday clean, and by no means prepared to welcome
anybody. The child only paused to hand in her money, and then
disappeared down the stairs with alacrity; for one of the most valued
privileges which had been accorded her was that her time was her
own when she had disposed of her stock of matches.
Her bare feet went pattering up the alley, which grew darker and
narrower towards the end. At the end stood a tall, grim-looking
house, let out in rooms to a poor class of tenants, the lowest floor,
comprising two rooms and a tiny kitchen beyond, being rented to
the cobbler, whose front room was a sort of workshop where he was
always to be seen cobbling and patching old boots, many of which
seemed almost past the skill of even his dexterous fingers.
Sometimes Allumette picked up old boots in rubbish heaps and
brought them to him, and often she found bits of leather which were
useful to him in patching. The little girl was fond of the old couple,
and they of her. It was always a treat to her to go and sit in the
quiet of their room.
The herrings were bought at a shop in the alley, where they were
to be had cheaper than anywhere else; and with her odorous burden
she hastened to the little house at the end, where her old friends
received her with smiles and kind words.
It was a slack afternoon with the cobbler, as he had taken home
his last batch of work, and had not much in hand until fresh orders
arrived. So he sat holding the child’s hand while she poured into his
ears her wonderful tale, and displayed before his astonished eyes
her wonderful shining coin.
Mrs. Gregg came up to look and admire and wonder, and eager
was the discussion which followed.
 “No, I shan’t spend it—I shall keep it,” said Allumette. “The lady
said it was a sort of keepsake. I shall keep it and look at it
sometimes; only I don’t know where it will be safe.”
“I’ll make you a little leather bag for it, ducky,” said the old man,
“and then I’ll make a little hole in the crown itself, if you like, and
you can hang it round your neck, bag and all. It’ll be safest so, as
you might lose it out of the bag if ’twasn’t bored through itself; but
we’ll make it all safe for you!”
Allumette was delighted. She watched the whole process with
eager interest, and when the coin was wrapped in its covering and
hung about her neck, her little face beamed all over with joy.
“It feels as if it would bring me good luck!” she cried, with dancing
eyes.
“Perhaps it will for sure!” said the old couple fondly.
A happy child was Allumette that night when she fell asleep,
though she little dreamt of the golden hours that were in store for
her.
 CHAPTER II.
IN THE STUDIO.
“IT is provoking!” exclaimed Cora Clayton.
“What is the matter now?” asked bright-faced Madge, who had
strolled into her sister’s studio from the garden, her hands full of
snowdrops and aconites from the shrubbery borders.
“Why, little Muriel Ellerton has just sickened with measles, and you
know I was depending upon her as a model for my Academy picture.
It is so difficult to get a really picturesque-looking child; and Muriel
would have done beautifully. I really haven’t any time to lose; and
here I am at a perfect deadlock!”
“What a pity!” said Madge, who took great interest in her talented
sister’s drawing. Cora Clayton had achieved a rather considerable
success for an amateur, and for two years past had exhibited a small
picture in the Royal Academy. During the winter months just past
she had been away from home with her brother’s delicate wife, who
had been ordered to the south of France, so that she had not been
able to do much painting. Now that she was home again she was
eager to get forward, and it was provoking to be disappointed of her
model just upon the very morning when she had reckoned to start
work.
“Is there no other child who would do?” asked a voice from the
couch beside the fire. Young Mrs. Clayton, the barrister’s delicate
wife, had established herself in Cora’s studio, as she was fond of
doing. The sisters were greatly attached to their brother’s wife, and
the family lived happily together in perfect harmony in their old-
fashioned semi-country house at Hampstead.
“I can’t think of one that just suits my ideas,” answered Cora.
“Muriel would just have done, with her cloud of fair curls and blue
eyes with a sort of pathetic wistfulness behind their brightness. It
was just the face for my subject. It is provoking! You know I am not
like some artists; I know what I want to paint, but imagination
doesn’t do everything for me. I must have the model, and the right
model, and I’m sure I don’t know where to turn to next!”
“I wonder if little Allumette would do!” suddenly exclaimed Madge.
“She had the sweetest little face, and just such eyes and hair as
Muriel; only I think she is prettier.”
“Allumette! What do you mean? I never heard such a name!”
“Oh, that is Bertram’s nickname. She is a little match-seller in the
City. I saw her the other day when I was in town with him. Evidently
she is often on his beat, for he had given her that cognomen, and
one could see that she quite adored him. I daresay he has been kind
to her often.”
Cora and Eva were both interested, and when Madge had
described the child, Cora declared she really had a good mind to go
and have a look at her.
“It would really be easier in some ways than Muriel,” she said, “for
if I paid her I suppose her relations would be glad enough to let me
have her over here; and they would keep her for me at the
gardener’s cottage for a week or two, so that I could have her
backwards and forwards as I wanted, instead of being fettered by
lesson hours and other things as I should be with Muriel. One does
see very pretty children often in the streets; only, as a rule, it would
not be practicable to get hold of them.”
“We will ask Bertram about little Allumette when he comes home,”
said Eva, “and if he thinks it a good plan we could have her over
here whilst your picture was being painted, Cora.”
“Little Allumette,” said the young barrister when appealed to at
dinner that evening, “why, I should think you could get her, and that
she would think herself in the seventh heaven to come! Oh, yes, I
have asked her about herself sometimes. Her relationships are
rather complicated. Her own father and mother are dead, and she
lives with a stepmother who has married again. I like the little puss!
She has always a smile and a bit of arch fun. Sometimes she brings
me a button-hole when times are good. We are great friends in our
way, little Allumette and I.”
“Then I will come into town with you to-morrow, Bertram, and see
if she will do for me, and what arrangements I can make.”
“I’ll come too,” added Madge gaily; “I will give my valuable
assistance in the matter, since it was my idea to start with.”
Brother and sisters went up to town together the following day,
and sure enough there was little Allumette with her tray of matches
at the accustomed corner, eagerly scanning the faces of the passing
crowd, to see if her gentleman was amongst them.
Cora was delighted with the little bright, sensitive face, and when
the child caught sight not only of Bertram himself, but of the lady
who had made her that wonderful present, she was at once resolved
to get the little one for her model, and soon Allumette was
overwhelmed with shy delight, because the gentleman and two
beautiful ladies had stopped in front of her.
“Allumette,” said her friend with a twinkle in his eye, “do you know
how to sit or stand very still?”
“Please, sir, I think so. I sit still with baby very often.”
“And what do you get for sitting still with baby?”
“I don’t get anything, sir, unless baby wakes up, and then I
sometimes get a clout on the head.”
Cora and Madge both laughed, whilst Bertram went on gravely—
“Then do you think that for sixpence an hour and your keep you
could stand very still for this lady to draw? Did you ever see anybody
draw pictures?”
“Please, sir, they draw them on the blackboard at school; and
there’s a man comes ’long here sometimes that draws them
beautifully on the pavement, all red and blue and yellow. Ah! I could
watch him all day, I could! It’s real beautiful!”
 Bertram looked at his sisters smilingly.
“Well, I must be getting on; you’d better finish settling the matter.
It’s a long way for her to go backwards and forwards. If you do have
her, I should put her up at the cottage for a week or so, and make
what use you want of her at the time. I don’t suppose she makes
much by her matches; but of course you must pay her people a fair
equivalent.”
He moved off, and then Cora and Madge tried to explain to the
bewildered and blushing Allumette what it was they wanted.
It was all like part of a wonderful dream to the child. She showed
the ladies the way to her home; she heard them talk to her
stepmother, and vaguely knew that something very strange and
wonderful was about to happen; and then she was rather summarily
hustled into the best clothes she possessed, which was not saying
much, and was bidden to run and ask Mrs. Gregg if she could take
her up to Hampstead at once, as the overworked woman with a
large number of children to look after could not possibly do so.
Mrs. Gregg came and took the directions from the ladies, and
promised to bring the little girl at once. She was given the railway
fare, and Allumette stood by, dancing from one foot to the other
with keenest excitement. She could not believe that this thing could
really be true, and kept asking Mrs. Gregg if she was sure she knew
how to get to the place, and whether she really thought the ladies
meant it.
“Bless the child, yes! Why should they have taken all that trouble
else?” was the reassuring answer. “I’ve heerd tell before of fine folks
getting others to come and sit for them. They call them models. It
may be a good thing for you, ducky. It’s poor work selling matches
in the street. Perhaps the ladies will find you something better to do
by-and-by.”
It was all like a dream to Allumette. She had not to be at her
destination till the afternoon; but Mrs. Gregg took her a wonderful
walk upon the Heath first. The child had never seen such a place
before, and although the wind blew cold the sun shone, and the
child held her breath in awe and wonder at the great expanse of sky
and the green sweep of broken ground, the shining water, the
budding trees.
“Will heaven be like this, do you think, Mrs. Gregg?” she asked in
a low voice.
Allumette was very hazy as to what heaven was, but she had an
idea that it was a very beautiful place where the sun always shone,
and she had never seen anything so beautiful before as the scene
upon which her eyes now rested.
Later on, with a feeling of great awe, mingled with that of joy, she
stood at the back door of a big house within sheltering walls, holding
very fast to Mrs. Gregg’s hand, and almost disposed to cry and run
away when told that she must leave her friend, and follow the
servant into the house.
“Don’t be frightened, ducky, they’ll be kind to you,” said Mrs.
Gregg, kissing her; “and I’m to have a cup of tea in the kitchen, they
say; so maybe I’ll see you again before I leave.”
There was consolation in that thought, and Allumette rallied her
courage. The servant smiled kindly at her as she went on in front,
and although everything seemed to swim before the child’s eyes as
she walked, and she could not see clearly where she was going, she
knew that she was taken down a long passage, and then a door was
opened at the end, a curtain was drawn back, and she heard her
guide say—
“Here is the little girl, ma’am!”
Allumette stood just within the threshold of this most wonderful
place. She thought she had got into a fairy palace, and she rubbed
her eyes and gasped in her astonishment.
It was a great square room with all the windows overhead; and
wherever she looked she saw beautiful things, rich colours, pictures,
hangings, ornaments—things of whose names and uses she had no
idea, but the very sight of which filled her soul with awe and
rapture, they were so wonderful and beautiful.
“Come, little Allumette; come to the fire!” said a kind voice. “You
shall have a mug of hot tea and a piece of cake here, and we will
see how to dress you up as a little model!”
It was the lady who spoke—the first lady—Miss Madge, as
Allumette came to call her later on, and she came forward dressed in
that lovely red dress with the soft grey fur upon it, in which the child
had first seen her. And when Allumette had timidly advanced a few
steps, and could see the room better, she saw that the other lady
was there too, standing before an easel which held a picture, whilst
upon a sofa near the fire a third lady lay, who had put down her
book, and was now looking straight at the little girl, with a kind smile
in her eyes.
“So you are little Allumette, are you? My husband has told me
about you. He says you sell very good matches. Come and sit on
that little stool here, and you shall tell me all about yourself. Madge,
bring the mite some tea and cake. I’m sure she looks as though she
wanted it!”
Allumette sat down where she was bidden, and soon a great
wedge of delicious cake was put into her hands. But although she
was so strangely happy in this beautiful place, she was almost too
shy and excited to feel hungry; and as she nibbled at the unwonted
dainty, she answered the questions of the ladies about herself and
her life, gradually losing her fear of them, and beginning to smile
and even to laugh at the funny remarks of Miss Madge, or the
questions of young Mrs. Clayton.
Meantime the artist studied the face of the little one, and dashed
off a few little pencil sketches with great satisfaction to herself. Yes,
it was just such a face as she wanted—wistful without being sad,
bright and sunny, yet pathetic withal. Eva Clayton had a knack with
children which she was exercising now for Cora’s benefit, and before
half an hour had passed she was fully satisfied that she had got the
right model for her picture.
It was a wonderful life that began for little Allumette. No more
early rising in the dark and cold to do her household tasks, and lay
in her store of matches for the day. No standing about at street
corners in the cold wind and driving rain; no more hunger and
uncertainty of the day’s earnings; no harsh words and unkind
teasing from boys either at home or in the streets.
Here everything was beautiful and happy. She lived with a kind
couple who soon treated her almost as if she had been their child,
and the greater part of her day was spent in that wonderful studio,
where all that was asked of her was to stand still in a pretty frock
whilst the tall lady painted her; and Miss Madge generally came in
and out or sat still by the fire with a book, and often amused them
by her play with the dog, or with her merry chatter, or else by
teaching Allumette out of some simple primer.
“She’s a dear little thing,” Madge said to her brother a day or two
after the commencement of the experiment. “I’ve often wanted an
object for my benevolence, and an object on which to expend my
superfluous energy in the matter of good works. I think I shall take
up Allumette and make her my special charge. You needn’t look so
grave, sir! Wouldn’t it be a very deserving object?”
“Perhaps; but take care, Madge, take care. You know how often
you have failed from lack of perseverance. Don’t unfit the child for
her old life, or buoy her up with false hopes, only to forget her and
disappoint her later on. It is always a serious matter taking the
destinies of another human being as it were into our hands. Don’t do
anything rash; don’t give the child cause to regret in days to come
that she has ever known us!”
“Gracious! what a lecture!” cried Madge gaily. “I thought you’d be
pleased at my desiring to do a good work; and, behold, I get a
scolding!”
 CHAPTER III.
WONDERFUL DAYS.
THE growth of that picture was a source of endless wonder and
delight to little Allumette. Her naïve remarks amused the ladies
vastly, and the child became, perhaps, more of a pet with them all
than was quite advisable, considering the circumstances of the case.
To live in an atmosphere of warmth and colour; to be spoken to
kindly and gently; to hear and see only pleasant things from
morning till night, all this was a perfect delight to the little one, and
she throve and blossomed out in the genial influence in a way that
was wonderful to watch.
She was not admitted to the house itself, only to the studio by the
little garden door; and she had that sense of native refinement
which hindered her from taking liberties, or trading upon the
kindness of the ladies.
To watch them with their books or needlework, to hear Miss
Madge sing and play upon the studio piano, or to sit on a little stool
beside one or the other, learning little lessons which they would
teach her, constituted such pleasure that she never desired anything
more; and even the sitting still for the picture was no trouble to the
child. There was always something pretty to look at, and Miss Madge
was often practising her music, and that always filled the child’s
whole soul with delight.
Her horizon was widening every day. Madge had discovered that
she was very anxious to be able to read nicely, and thought she
could not do better than devote some of her leisure in teaching her.
And she got big-print fairy stories, which entranced Allumette and
lured her along the path of learning faster than her teacher had
dared to hope; and when left alone in the studio, the child would
pore over one of these charming volumes, till she began to read the
letterpress quite easily. Then young Mrs. Clayton had lessons to give
her of a different sort.
“The poor mite is almost a little heathen,” she had said to her
husband a few days after the experiment of the little model had
begun. “She seems to know nothing of religion, except what she has
picked up from an old cobbler and his wife, who read the Bible in
her hearing sometimes, and tell her a few elementary truths, which
she has got jumbled up in a very odd way. I must try and teach her
a little better. Don’t you think it would be a good plan, Bertram?”
“Yes, I think that kind of knowledge never comes except as a
blessing,” answered her husband gravely; “but have a care, Eva, and
keep an eye over the sisters, that they do not spoil the poor little
thing, making her life harder to her when she goes back to it. I am
not quite sure that the experiment is not rather a dangerous one to
Allumette. She will be so happy here, and the life of the streets will
come so hardly afterwards!”
“Perhaps we could think of something better for her afterwards,”
said Eva.
“Possibly; but those things are more easily said than done.
However, we must see what turns up. Only be careful all of you with
the child. Too much petting and softness will not be really good for
her. But teach her all you can; learning will never come amiss to her
wherever her future lot may be cast.”
And so Eva Clayton began giving the little waif of the streets
simple Bible lessons every day, in which the child came to apprehend
the mystery of Christ’s redeeming love, and to believe that He loved
her and was taking care of her, and wanted her to be a faithful little
follower of His, that some day she might live with Him in His
beautiful kingdom for ever and ever.
It was easy for Allumette to believe in this love and care now. She
would look up at Mrs. Clayton with shining eyes and say—
“I think it must have been Jesus who sent me here. I shall always
love Him for that.”
 On Sundays she was taken to church by the gardener’s wife, who
had made her a neat little frock and had soon taught her to wear the
shoes and stockings provided by the ladies. Truth to tell, Allumette
preferred running barefoot, as she was used to in the streets,
although she had some old shoes and had put them on to come
down here. But the footgear provided for her was so much more
comfortable than what she had been used to that she soon grew
reconciled to it, and she realised that it would not be at all proper to
go about barefoot here.
She did not understand the services on Sunday, but she loved the
sound of the organ and the glow of light through the painted
windows. Her behaviour was irreproachable, and afterwards Mrs.
Clayton would try and explain to her the meaning of what she had
heard and seen, so that the child had food for much thought and
reflection.
On Sundays too she always saw her “gentleman,” as she always
called Mr. Clayton in her thoughts. He would come into the studio
and ask her what she had been learning in the week, and soon
Allumette had a little bit of poetry or a few verses from the Bible
ready to repeat to him. He generally had some little gift for her in
return, and these were the red-letter days in her calendar above all
others.
The picture was finished in due course; and when the tea-party
was given in the studio, and all the artist’s friends were asked to
come and see it, Allumette was permitted to be present, to hand
round cakes and bread and butter; and people patted her head and
asked if she were a little model, and one lady took a great deal of
notice of her, and presently got Cora into a corner and began
eagerly talking to her.
“If you would only do me some illustrations for the book I am
writing, and use that child as the model for my little heroine, I
should like it so much! I could easily arrange with the editor about
the illustrations; and she has exactly the face I want. Do you think
you could manage it for me, Cora?”
 The girl’s face lighted eagerly.
“Oh, Mrs. Maberley—I should love it! I have often longed to do
illustrating; and to illustrate one of your books would be delightful! I
will keep the child a few more weeks, and you shall tell me just what
you would like each picture to be. She is a dear little model, and I
shall like keeping her. I have quite a number of studies I have taken
when she has been having lessons from Eva and Madge. I will get
my portfolio and show you.”
The pencil sketches, dashed off impromptu, delighted Mrs.
Maberley. There was Allumette sitting beside Eva’s couch with her
eyes fixed on the lady’s face in eager attention; Allumette curled up
in a corner with a book, her curls falling over her face; Allumette
standing beside the piano, with a rapt expression of wonder and
pleasure.
“It will be charming!” cried Mrs. Maberley, delighted. “I shall bring
the story to read to you one day, and we will settle on the pictures.
Some of these would almost do as they stand. You have quite a gift
for drawing children, Cora.”
Allumette heard nothing of all this, which was passing in one
corner of the studio; but she was deeply interested in another little
scene going on elsewhere. She had noticed a little while before that
Mr. Clayton, when he came in to show himself at his sister’s
reception, brought with him two gentlemen (there were not many
gentlemen in the room as compared with the number of the ladies),
and the quick eyes of the child observed that Miss Madge’s face
flushed a rosy red at the sight of them, and that almost at once one
of the strangers came over towards where she stood at the tea-
table, and seemed disposed to remain there.
She had made him useful, handing cups about for a time, after
which he had come back to her side, and they were talking eagerly
together.
Allumette had been dipping deep into fairy lore, and knew all
about what princes and princesses did; and how the prince came
and told the lady that he loved her, and that by-and-by they went off
together and lived happily ever afterwards. Miss Madge had told her
that in a different sort of way people did that still. Indeed Allumette
had watched with the keenest excitement a wedding party from the
next house, in which Miss Madge had played the part of bridesmaid.
It had given Allumette quite a different idea about marriage from
any she had had before, and she had heard the servants talking and
saying that they supposed soon they would lose one of their young
ladies, and wondering whether it would be Miss Cora or Miss Madge
who would be first to go.
Somehow all this came back to the child’s mind as she saw the
gentleman standing beside Miss Madge and talking to her.
“You know you have promised, Madge,” he said, in a rather louder
tone. “You will not disappoint us?”
And Madge laughed as she made answer—
“Oh, yes, we will be as good as our word; we will pay a visit to
Brooklands by-and-by. We shall all be glad of a change when the hot
weather comes; for Hampstead is after all only a make-believe at
country—and one likes the real thing sometimes.”
“I hope the country is not all the attraction!” said the young man,
bending an intent look upon Madge’s blushing face.
“Don’t fish for compliments, sir,” she replied, in her bright, saucy
way. “You won’t get change of that sort out of me!”
“I don’t want compliments,” said the young man in a very low
voice; “you know very well what I do want, Madge.”
Later on little Allumette heard from the gardener’s wife who the
gentleman was.
“His name is Mr. Arthur Brook, and he’s the only son of a baronet,
and they have a beautiful place in the country, where the young
ladies sometimes stay. He and Mr. Clayton were at college together,
and have always been great friends; and we all think that he wants
Miss Madge for his wife. And a bonny one she will make him, if she
ever decides to have him; and I think he is worthy of her, which I
wouldn’t say for many!”
It was all very interesting to little Allumette, who henceforth
regarded Madge even more as a fairy princess, who would one day
be carried off to live in a grand house or castle of her own.
Mr. Brook came rather often to the house during the next weeks
whilst Allumette remained to serve as a model for the set of
illustrations; and one day Madge came into the studio half laughing
and half crying, and flinging herself on her knees beside Cora she
cried out——
“Kiss me, darling, and tell me you don’t mind! I have given Arthur
my promise at last!”
And then Cora threw down her brush, and the sisters clung rather
close together; for they were deeply attached, and though both had
felt that the separation would come, it seemed rather strange to
both when the thing had finally been settled.
However, Miss Madge was very happy during the next days,
Allumette thought, though both the sisters were a little preoccupied;
and the drawings were relegated to a secondary place.
Besides, there was commotion in the house of another sort, for
young Mrs. Clayton was taken ill, and the doctors advised that she
should be taken into the country as soon as possible; and so there
was a great deal of discussion and talk; and by-and-by Allumette
heard that the three ladies were going to stay near Brooklands,
which was the home of Mr. Arthur Brook, who was to marry Miss
Madge some time during the year.
“I must finish my drawings quickly, little Allumette,” said Cora,
next time the child was called in for a sitting, “for I shall be going
away very soon; and we have let the house to some friends, who
want it very much.”
And then it suddenly came into the child’s mind that this beautiful
holiday was over. She would have to go back to her match-selling in
the streets; and for a time there would not be even her gentleman
coming and going, for Mr. Clayton had been called away on some
important business latterly, and though he had come home for a few
days when his wife was ill, he had gone away again, and might be
detained some little while.
Great tears gathered slowly in the child’s eyes. She tried to keep
furtively brushing them away, but they would not be altogether
hidden, and when Madge came dancing in she saw them there and
guessed their source.
“But we won’t forget you, little Allumette,” she said kindly, “I have
thought sometimes about you. I’ve got some plans in my head.
Allumette, have you ever seen the country—the real country, where
the fields are full of buttercups and daisies, and there are woods and
birds and cows and farms?”—and Madge plunged into a description
of the sights and sounds of rural country life, whilst Allumette
listened with a rapt expression that was instantly caught and
transferred to paper by the delighted Cora.
“Well, Allumette, if you have not seen such things, you shall some
day. I shall look out for a nice farmhouse or cottage, where the
woman will take you in for a few weeks, and some day I shall send
for you, and you shall come down in the train and have a real good
holiday, and go on cultivating those roses in your cheeks which we
are teaching to bloom there now. Will that make up to you for going
back to the streets for a little while?”
The child’s face was answer enough. With such a prospect in view
she dreaded nothing, could bear with courage and equanimity the
life of the dusty streets. So through the last days she kept a brave
face, and when she saw the beautiful picture-books and the clothes
she had had given her made up into a parcel for her to take home, it
seemed like an earnest of those joys that were to come.
Tears swam in her eyes as she said good-bye, and was led away
by the gardener’s wife who was to take her back; but she held them
bravely in check, saying to herself—
 “I shall see them again, I shall see them again. Miss Madge said
she would not forget.”
 CHAPTER IV.
AT BROOKLANDS.
“AND you like your future home, my dear one? You think you can
be happy here?”
“Oh, Arthur! it is beautiful, beautiful! I think I never knew before
quite how exquisite everything was! I am only afraid of being too
happy!”
“That is an ailment we do not often suffer from in this world,
Madge,” he answered smilingly; “but I intend my wife to be the
happiest woman in the country. She shall not know an ungratified
wish if I can help it.”
“What a selfish creature she will become!” cried Madge with a soft
laugh, and an arch upward glance into her lover’s face; “I wonder
how soon you will grow tired of your bargain!”
“Try me,” he replied, taking her two hands in his; “I am ready to
be put to the proof as quickly as you will.”
The colour flooded her face, for she knew that he meant he
wanted her as soon as she could be persuaded to come to him, and
so far she had not actually fixed the date of the wedding, although
she had said it should be “soon.”
She had been a month in the neighbourhood of Brooklands now,
and Eva Clayton was much better, and was to be taken by Cora to
the sea to complete her restoration. Madge had intended to be one
of the party, but Lady Brook had persuaded her to come and be her
guest at the fine old baronial hall, as she was anxious to make more
intimate acquaintance with the betrothed wife of her idolised son.
She had known Madge for several years, but not very intimately.
Now she was anxious to become the friend and mother of the
bright, loving girl. She did not grudge the love her son lavished upon
the woman of his choice; she only desired that Madge should learn
to love her too, and be willing to be a daughter to her and her
husband.
Madge was a warm-hearted girl, and was ready to love and be
loved. She had consented to the proposed arrangement, after a little
hesitation about leaving Cora before the time. But Cora said it would
be right for her to accept the invitation, and had said that she must
learn to do without her sister’s constant presence, and the matter
was now settled to Arthur’s satisfaction.
“We shall have so much to think of and to plan,” continued Arthur,
“for you know what they have set their hearts upon—my father and
mother? That we shall live at Brooklands, using the great west wing
as our very own, having our own servants and establishment, but
being all under one roof. My mother spoke of it to you, did she not,
Madge? You will not think that a difficult arrangement?”
“Oh, no,” answered the girl eagerly; “I think Brooklands is
charming, and the west wing has lovely rooms, and I have never
cared for being shut up alone. People said that when Bertram was
married Cora and I would find it so difficult to go on living with him,
but we never did. If your father and mother will let me, I want to be
a daughter to them; and your mother will tell me how to do
everything, for I never lived in a grand house before, and I don’t
know the ways of country people,” and Madge made a little
whimsical grimace.
“My Madge’s ways will be good enough for me,” answered Arthur
with a smile, as he took her willing hands in his; “only tell me how
soon you will come to me, Madge. I don’t want to wait long. What
have we to wait for?”
“There is the trousseau,” said Madge, blushing and laughing; but
her lover swept away all such trivial objections with masculine logic.
In the end Madge promised that early in September she would come
to him for good and all. As May was now well advanced, and another
week would see June upon them, the young man could not complain
that she was keeping him over long.
 But the idea that the thing was definitely settled turned Madge’s
mood into something graver. The lovers were walking through a
shady woodland glade, carpeted with wild flowers, and full of sweet
sounds and scents. Madge suddenly paused and exclaimed—
“But we must not be selfish, Arthur, we must not be selfish! We
must try and do some good in the world. If we are happy ourselves,
we must make other people happy too.”
“With all my heart,” he answered gaily: “you shall be as
philanthropic as you like, Madge, and I will learn of you.”
“I wonder what we could do,” mused Madge, looking round her.
“Arthur, shall we be rich?”
“Well, sweetheart, that depends upon what you call riches. We
shall not be millionaires, but I have an income sufficient for all our
needs, and a margin over. I suppose that will do?”
“Oh, yes; I am not thinking about ourselves. Arthur, you know I
have a little money myself. I have three hundred a year of my own.
Do you think we shall want that when we are living at Brooklands?”
He smiled an amused, indulgent smile.
“I think we can do without it. Do you want to keep your private
fortune to yourself? You know married women have no property. I
shall be able to despoil you of your fortune, unless you tie it up very
tightly!”
“Don’t tease, Arthur,” she answered; “do be serious, for I am really
in earnest. I don’t want the money for myself. I would rather take
everything from you. But I want to do some good with it. I should
like to use it for some special purpose.”
“What sort of purpose, dearest?”
“Oh, I don’t know. I must think. I want to make people happy.
Some have such sad lives always. It hardly seems fair. Oh, I know
what I should like best!—to take a dear little cottage, and have a
nice woman there to look after things, and to bring poor children
down from London for a month at a time, to give them a real holiday
and outing. Oh, yes, that would be lovely! and little Allumette should
be the first. Do you remember that pretty little model Cora had for
her picture? She was a dear little thing, and I told her she should
come into the country one day. I would have her for the first of the
children. Don’t you think it would be a delightful plan?”
“It might; but some of those delightful plans sound better than
they work out. No, no, don’t look so crestfallen, my Madge; I am not
throwing cold water. On the contrary, I will help you all I can. And,
by-the-by, not far from here is a very pleasant and roomy old
farmhouse, which is going to be empty at Michaelmas. It is only a
small one for a farm, but it might serve your purpose, and I daresay
you could coax my father to let you have it rent free. He wants to
take the land and throw it into the home farm which it adjoins, as
small farms don’t pay now, and the tenant is giving up. The house
might do very well for some purpose of that sort. Would you like to
go and see it?”
Madge was eager to do so, and was delighted with the place when
she got there. It was a small farmstead, picturesque and overgrown
with creepers, with a tumble-down old barn that would make an
ideal playroom for children on wet days, and a tangled orchard full
of gnarled old apple trees just going out of bloom, a duck pond, a
nut walk, and fields and copses all round.
The house was quaint and fairly roomy, and Madge was enchanted
with the flagged kitchen, the dormer windows, and the little odd
stairs up and down at every turn.
“Oh, Arthur!—it would be a sweet place for them to come to—
poor little darlings! I should like to see little Allumette’s face when
she was set down at the gate. Michaelmas, did you say? That will be
after we are married, and if I had arranged about a woman, we
could have a few little things down in October, could we not? The
nuts would be ripe then, and you know how lovely the trees are
through October. And on wet days there would be the old barn. It
would be delightful, would it not, Arthur? And for little children from
London no doing up of the house would be needed. It would be
better not too spick and span. Just a few beds and chairs and tables.
Oh, I could see to everything like that, and tell little Allumette that
she should be the first visitor. Perhaps I would let her introduce me
to some friends of hers, and bring them all down together.”
Madge was so full of delight with her new scheme that she could
talk of nothing else all the evening with Eva and Cora.
They were both quite pleased and interested in the plan.
“But I thought you half promised little Allumette a country holiday
this summer,” said Cora. “Won’t she get rather tired of waiting if you
put it off till the autumn?”
“Oh, but this will be worth waiting for; and I haven’t had time to
think about the other. I did speak to one or two women in the
cottages, but they had children of their own, and didn’t seem to like
the idea of a strange London child. One can’t wonder at it. People
fancy London children bring dirt and disease and other
unpleasantnesses. It will be far better to work it oneself on a regular
footing.”
“Yes, in some ways it will be better. I was only thinking that the
child might be disappointed.”
“Ah, well, she shall have it made up to her if she is; and she had a
nice long happy time at Hampstead which seemed to her quite like a
country holiday. I didn’t forget her, but things aren’t just as easy to
arrange as one thinks they will be. Besides, I shouldn’t have time
here to look after her as I should like. Arthur wants so much of me,
and he might not quite care for me to be running off to see little
Allumette in a cottage. Men don’t understand that sort of thing!”
So Madge dismissed the thought of any immediate summons of
the little match-seller, and busied herself with eager plans as to the
management of her little institution when it should be organised. Sir
John and Lady Brook were quite ready to interest themselves in it.
The house was to be given rent free for the purpose, and Lady
Brook said that she should pay the salary of a capable matron.
Madge’s little fortune could go to the working of the scheme, paying
the fares to and fro, and the keep of the little inmates. The girl made
numerous calculations, and amused her lover not a little by the
results thereof at different times. But in spite of blunders, Madge
had plenty of shrewdness, and Lady Brook was pleased to note her
interest in domestic details, as well as her desire after a sphere of
usefulness.
“You are quite right, my dear, to resolve not to live too much for
yourself alone, or even for that joint life which you will lead with
Arthur. We are not put here in the world just to pass our lives as
pleasantly as we can. We shall have one day to give an account, and
it often seems to me that to us, to whom God’s gifts have been
lavishly furnished, He will look to give a good account of the use we
have made of them.”
Madge’s face was full of eager assent.
“That is just how I feel about it. I have had such a happy life!
Except the death of our parents, Cora and I have had no troubles,
and we lost our father before we were either of us old enough to
feel it very keenly. I think I should not really enjoy my happiness if I
could not do things for other people. At home I often felt that I
wanted to do more, but I seemed to have no work there. I did try
one or two things, but somehow they did not succeed. I daresay it
was my fault, but I do like the idea of a thing like this. It will be
always there, and even if I have not quite as much time myself as I
should like, it will always be going on.”
Madge had plenty to think of just now besides her scheme of
benevolence. She had innumerable preparations to make for her
coming marriage, involving a great deal of correspondence with
dressmaker and milliner, the selection and discussion of patterns,
and a great deal of correspondence with private friends, whose
congratulations still continued to arrive, and whose presents began
to follow.
 Cora and Eva betook themselves off to the sea, but Madge
remained at Brooklands week after week. The house at Hampstead
was let, the tenant wanted to keep it on. Bertram was well off, in
comfortable rooms, running down each week to spend Sunday with
his wife. London was said to be unbearably hot and stuffy, and none
too healthy this season. The Brooks urged Madge to stay on with
them, and she was nothing loth. It was most interesting to see how
her new home was being transmogrified to receive her. It seemed to
her that she had only to express a wish to see it instantly gratified.
Again and again she had to remonstrate with Arthur for “spoiling her
so dreadfully.” But it was a very delightful experience and she was as
happy as the day was long.
Her brother wrote to her from time to time, sometimes on
business matters, sometimes just a little brotherly note. There was a
letter from him one morning which contained a sentence which
puzzled Madge a good deal.
“I am glad you have remembered your promise to little Allumette
at last. The poor little child has been looking very white and thin of
late, but the country air will pull her up again. How happy she will be
when she sees all the beautiful things about her. I have been
sometimes afraid that those weeks at Hampstead rather unfitted her
for the sharper battle of life she has to fight at home.”
“What can he mean?” said Madge, half aloud. And when she read
the passage in the letter aloud, Lady Brook said—
“I suppose somebody else has given the child an outing, and your
brother thinks it is you.”
“Oh, I suppose that is it,” answered Madge; “but I will ask Bertram
when I write.”
Nevertheless, the letter was never written. For a moment Madge’s
conscience had been uneasy, but the press of things crowding into
her life quickly drove all thoughts of little Allumette out of it.
 CHAPTER V.
DARK DAYS.
“WHY, little Allumette! Where have all your roses gone? I thought
you had learnt to grow them in Hampstead! What have you done
with them now?”
The child’s face had been pinched and wan the moment before,
but at the sound of that well-remembered voice the blood came
rushing back, and the light sprang into the wistful eyes.
“Oh, sir, you have come back!” she exclaimed, as though the
sunshine itself had returned with him.
“Yes, I have come back. Did you think I had gone for good? I shall
be going away again by-and-by; but I am here for a few weeks.
What have you been doing with yourself since I saw you last? Sitting
for any more pictures?”
“No, sir, I’ve only been selling matches.”
“Which do you like best?”
Bertram was almost sorry he had put the question, for sudden
tears sprang to the child’s eyes, and he saw that she could not reply.
Some chord of memory had been struck. Plainly she could not think
of those happy days at Hampstead without suffering the pangs of
longing and regret.
“There, there,” he said kindly, “perhaps there will be some more
sitting for pictures to do by-and-by, but the ladies are in the country
still. We are not living at Hampstead just now.”
“No, sir, I know. And are the ladies quite well?”
“Yes, quite. I hear from them often. They are in a very pretty
place.”
The child’s face lighted and beamed all over.
 “Yes, sir, Miss Madge told me so, and I am going there soon!”
“Are you? That is right! You look as if you would be the better for
a holiday.”
“I didn’t ought to want it; I had such a beautiful one up at your
house. But the streets do get so hot, and I just think and think and
think about what Miss Madge told me of the place I was to go to.
Mother says I’m a lucky girl, and I think I am too! I can think about
it all day, and then when it’s night I often dream about it too. I
wonder if it’ll be like the dreams when it comes? They’re so
beautiful, they are!”
“Miss Madge will keep her promise—you needn’t be afraid!” said
Bertram, as he put a shilling into the child’s hand and passed on. He
was very busy just then, but he found time to feel a real sense of
pleasure that his sister should remember their little protégée, and
arrange a country outing for her. He had been a little afraid that the
experiment of transplanting her for a time had not been entirely
successful. And the child’s appearance when first he saw her had
been a shock to him, she had looked so frail and white.
“But I will tell Madge to keep her for a really good outing when
she does get her,” he said to himself as he went on his way. “The
child looks as though she needed it. She is not of the stuff of the
average street waif. I will bear the expense of some extra weeks.
Perhaps when Madge settles at Brooklands she might find a nook for
the little one somewhere.”
Bertram was exceedingly busy just at this juncture, having been
away on professional business for some time, and having his own
holiday in view not far ahead. Moreover, his daily road did not now
lead by Allumette’s corner, and he only saw her by chance once or
twice during the week that followed.
Each time he thought she looked more white and wan than the
last, and it was with real relief he observed one day that she was
missing from her corner at the very hour she was always there to
look out for him coming from the Law Courts.