Lecture M0L1: Module 0

Course Overview
Introduction to Satellite Communications

Dr. S .M. Zafaruddin

Associate Professor

Deptt. of EEE, BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

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Objectives of Today Lecture

1. Evaluation Components
2. Course Overview
3. Motivation

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F472: Satellite Communications

▶ 3 Credits
▶ 3 Lecture hours per week

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F472: Evaluation Components

All quizzes (total 5, one buffer) are surprised during lecture

Monday hour.
MATLAB/PYTHON Simulation and HomeWork Assignments

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F472: Modules

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Text Book

[T1] Pratt, Bostian, and Allnutt, Satellite Communication

System, third edition, John Wiley& Sons, 2019.

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Internet Usage: Digital Divide

Least Developed Countries (LDCs), Landlocked Developing Countries

(LLDCs), and Small Island Developing States (SIDS), Commonwealth
of Independent States (CIS)
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Internet Usage: India

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Basics of Electronic Communications

▶ Analog versus digital

▶ Electromagnetic Wave propagation
▶ Transmission Medium

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Satellite

A satellite is a moon, planet or machine that orbits a planet or

star.

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Satellite: Applications

▶ Global Connectivity
▶ Emergency Communications
▶ Defense Communications
▶ Science and Explorations

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OneWeb

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StarLink

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 Lecture M0L2: Module 0
Introduction to Satellite Communications
Frequency Allocation

Dr. S .M. Zafaruddin

Associate Professor

Deptt. of EEE, BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

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Objectives of Today Lecture

1. Satellite Orbits
2. Frequency Allocation

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India Coverage: Cellular

How many cellular tower are required?

Given area of India: 3287263 sqr km.

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Mobile Service

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Satellite Orbits

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Satellite Orbits

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Frequency Allocation

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Frequency Allocation

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Frequency and Bandwidth

C = B log2 (1 + SN R)

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 Lecture M0L3: Module 0
Introduction to Satellite Communications
History and Satellite Systems

Dr. S .M. Zafaruddin

Associate Professor

Deptt. of EEE, BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

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Objectives of Today Lecture

1. dB Scale
2. Satellite System
3. History

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dB Scale

1. dB, dBm, dBW

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Example

Find transmit power to transmit a signal to GEO orbit at

3GHz.

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Satellite Types

1. Passive
2. Active

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Applications

▶ Communications satellites: GEO (Broadcast and

point-to-multipoint), LEO
▶ Earth observation satellites: environmental monitoring,
meteorology, and map making.
▶ Navigational satellites: MEO (GPS Gobal Positioning
System and GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System)
▶ GNSS companies: GLOANASS (Russian) and Galileo
(European)
▶ Weather satellites
▶ Earth observation or communications satellites for military
or intelligence applications.

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History

▶ 1945: C. Clarck
▶ 1953: cables across the Atlantic ocean.
▶ 1957: Sputnik I (Russia)

▶ 1958: Explorer I (US)

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History

▶ 1960: Passive Satellites ECHO 1 and ECHO 2

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History

▶ 1965: Intelsat I (Early Bird)

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History

▶ 1965: Intelsat (International Telecommunications Satellite

Organization)
▶ 1965: Intelsat I (Early Bird)
▶ 39Kg weight, 18 months LT, 1 TV channel, 7dBW power

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History
▶ 1979: INMARASAT(British)
▶ 1998-2000: LEO/MEO
▶ Iridium 1998 (781 KM): Constellation of 66 satellites
▶ GPS: Russian GLONASS
▶ 2016: European GNSS
▶ 2014-2024: SpaceX’s star link, Telesat’s Lighspeed,
OneWeb

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Indian Satellite Systems: INSAT

▶ 1982: INSAT-1A

▶ INSAT-4G:2011

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Indian Satellite Systems: INSAT

▶ GSAT: 19 GSAT satellites by ISRO

▶ Q2 2024: GSAT-20

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 Lecture M1L4: Module 1
Orbital Mechanics
Orbital Velocity and Altitude

Dr. S .M. Zafaruddin

Associate Professor

Deptt. of EEE, BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

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Objectives of Today Lecture

1. Orbital Velocity

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Orbital Velocity

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Acceleration due to gravity

▶ ma = GmM r2
e

▶ r: Satellite orbit radius from the center of earth

▶ r = as + re
▶ as : Satellite altitude and re = 6378..137km.
▶ m: mass of object,
▶ Mass of the earth Me = 5.9742 × 1024 Kg.
▶ G = 6.672 × 10−11 N m2 /kg 2
▶ G = 6.672 × 10−20 km3 /kgs2
▶ a = rµ2 km/s2
▶ Keppler’s constant: µ = GMe = 3.986004418 × 105 km3 /s2

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Orbital Velocity v

Show that r
µ
v= (1)
r

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Period of Satellite Orbit T

In a circular orbit, show that

2πr3/2
T = (2)
µ1/2

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Example

NASA’s Hubble space telescope is placed in a circular orbit

around Earth at an altitude (height above Earth’s surface) of
595 km. Determine:
(a)The speed of the satellite in orbit
(b) The satellite orbital period.

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Answers

(a) v = 7.5606km/s
(b) T = 5794.83 s= 1.6097 hours.

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Solar versus Sidereal Day

▶ The mean solar day of 24 h is the time between any

consecutive crossings of any particular longitude by the
sun, and is the time between successive sunrises (or
sunsets) observed at one location on earth, averaged over
an entire year.
▶ A sidereal day is the time between consecutive crossings of
any particular longitude on the earth by any star other
than the sun.
▶ T = 23 h 56 min 4.1 s.

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Sidereal Day

▶ 4 years = 1461 solar days (365*4 +1)

▶ 4 years : earth moves 1440 degrees (4*360) around sun.
▶ 1 solar day: earth moves 0.98 degrees (=1440/1461) around
sun
▶ 1 solar day : earth moves 360.98 degrees around itself (360
+ 0.98)
▶ 1 sidereal day = earth moves 360 degrees around itself
▶ 1 solar day = 24hrs = 1440 minutes
▶ 1 sidereal day = 1436.7 minutes (1440*360/360.98)

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Example

Find the altitude of geostationary satellite and its orbital

velocity.

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Answer

TGEO = 86164.1
r = 42164
as = 35786
v = 3.0747km/s.

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Satellite Systems

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Ellipse

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Kepler’s Laws

▶ 1. Orbit is an ellipse with the larger body (earth) at one

focus
▶ 2. The satellite sweeps out equal arcs (area) in equal time.
▶ 3. The square of the period of revolution equals a
CONSTANT multiplied the THIRD POWER of
SEMI-MAJOR AXIS of the ellipse.

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 Lecture M1L5: Module 1
Orbital Mechanics
Orbital Mechanics

Dr. S .M. Zafaruddin

Associate Professor

Deptt. of EEE, BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

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Objectives of Today Lecture

1. Orbit Equation
2. Kepler’s Laws

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Latitude and Longitude

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Geographic Location

Delhi: 28.7041 N, 77.1025 E

Pilani: 28.3802 N and 75.6092 E
London:51.50722 N, 0.1276 W
New York:40.7128 N, 74.0060 W
Melbourne: 37.8136 S, 144.9631 E

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Earth-Centering Coordinate System

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Two-Body Problem: Satellite Location

Denote: r as the position vector of the satellite.

GMe mr
F=− (1)
r3
d2 r
F=m (2)
dt2
Equating:

d2 r r
2
+ 3µ = 0 (3)
dt r

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Orbital-Centering Coordinate System

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Orbital-Centering Coordinate System: Polar

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Differential Equation in the Orbital-Coordinate System

▶ r = x0 x̂0 + y0 ŷ0
d2 r r
2
+ 3µ = 0 (4)
dt r
▶
d2 x0 d2 y0 x0 x̂0 + y0 ŷ0
x̂ 0 + ŷ0 + 2 µ=0 (5)
dt2 dt2 (x0 + y02 )3 /2

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Coordinate System Cartesian to Polar

x0 = r0 cos ϕ0 (6)
y0 = r0 sin ϕ0 (7)
x̂0 = r̂0 cos ϕ0 − ϕ̂0 sin ϕ0 (8)
ŷ0 = ϕ̂0 cos ϕ0 + r̂0 sin ϕ0 (9)
(10)

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Differential Equation

d2 r0 dϕ0 2 µ
2
− r0 ( ) =− 2 (11)
dt dt r
2
   0
d ϕ0 dr0 dϕ0
r0 2 + 2 =0 (12)
dt dt dt

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Conservation of Angular Momentum

Show that

d[r02 dϕ 0
dt ]
=0 (13)
dt
Implies
dϕ0
r02 =c (14)
dt

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Kepler’s Second Law

Area by a polar curve:

Z t2
1 2 c(t2 − t1 )
A= r0 dϕ0 = (15)
t1 2 2

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Equation of Orbit

Prove that:
c2 /µ
r0 = (16)
1 + Ac2 /µ cos(ϕ0 − θ0 )

where θ0 = 0: initial condition and A: constant.

p
r0 = (17)
1 + e cos ϕ0
2
where p = hµ and h = c: magnitude of angular momentum
e: eccentricity of ellipse

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Kepler’s First Law

2
Express r0 = 1+Ac2 /µc cos(ϕ
/µ
0 −θ0 )
in terms of Cartesian coordinate
system x and y,

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 Lecture M1L6: Module 1
Orbital Mechanics
Orbital Mechanics

Dr. S .M. Zafaruddin

Associate Professor

Deptt. of EEE, BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

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Objectives of Today Lecture

1. Velocity and Acceleration

2. Elliptic Orbit.

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Position of Satellite

We will use (r, θ) instead of r0 and ϕ0 for derivations and in the

final expression substitute r = r0 and θ = ϕ0 for consistency
with the text book.

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Position of Satellite

ay
atheta ar
y
ax

theta
x

ar = cos θax + sin θay (1)

aθ = − sin θax + cos θay (2)

r = rar = r(cos θax + sin θay ) = xax + yay (3)

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Velocity of Satellite

▶ v= dr drar
dt = dt
▶ v= dr dar
dt ar + dt r
▶ We know ar = cos θax + sin θay
▶ da dθ dθ
dt = − sin θ dt ax + cos θ dt ay
r

▶ dar dθ
dt = dt aθ
▶ v = dr dθ
dt ar + r dt aθ
▶ v = vr ar + vθ aθ

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Acceleration of Satellite

▶ v = dr dθ
dt ar + r dt aθ
▶ Show that
 2   2 
▶ a = dv
dt = d r
dt2
− r( dθ 2
dt ) ar + r d θ
dt2
+ 2 dr dθ
dt dt aθ

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Differential Equation of the Satellite

   
d2 r 2 a + r d2 θ + 2 dr dθ a
▶ a= dt2
− r( dθ
dt ) r dt2 dt dt θ
▶ Acceleration in tangential direction: 0
▶ Acceleration in radial direction: − rµ2
▶ Differential Equation

d2 r
 
dθ 2 µ
− r( ) = − 2 (4)
dt2 dt r
 2 
d θ dr dθ
r 2 +2 =0 (5)
dt dt dt

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Solution of Differential Equation

 2 
d θ dr dθ
r 2 +2 =0 (6)
dt dt dt

dθ
r2 =c (7)
dt

dθ c
= 2 (8)
dt r

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Example

Find the area swept by the Satellite in a single time period T

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Solution

Area by a polar curve from t1 to t2 :

Z t2 Z t2 Z t2
1 2 1 2 dθ 1 2c c(t2 − t1 )
A= r dθ = r dt = r 2 dt = (9)
t1 2 t1 2 dt t1 2 r 2

Area in a single time period T :

cT
A= (10)
2

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Solution of Differential Equation

d2 r
 
dθ µ
− r( )2 =− (11)
dt2 dt r2
1
Use z = r to represent above as

d2 z µ
+z = 2 (12)
dθ2 c

µ
z= + A1 cos θ + B1 sin θ (13)
c2
µ
z= + A cos(θ − θ0 ) (14)
c2
p B1
where A = A21 + B12 and θ0 = tan−1 A1

1 1 1 c2 /µ
r= = µ = µ = 2 (15)
z c2 + A cos(θ − θ0 ) c2 + A cos θ 1 + Ac
µ cos θ

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Elliptical Orbit

c2 /µ c2 /µ
r= Ac2
= (16)
1+ cos θ 1 + e cos θ
µ

Ac2
where e = µ : eccentricity of Ellipse

p
r= (17)
1 + e cos θ

where p = c2 /µ = h2 /µ

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Elliptical Orbit

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Apogee and Perigee

1
r= µ (18)
c2
+ A cos θ

Apogee:
1
rap = µ (19)
c2
−A

Perigee:
1
rpe = µ (20)
c2
+A

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Area of Ellipse

Area = πab (21)

µ/c2
Area = π (22)
((µ/c2 )2 − A2 )3 /2

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Semi-Major Axis a

rap + rpe
a= (23)
2

µ/c2
a= (24)
(µ/c2 )2 − A2

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Time Period

cT µ/c2
=π (25)
2 ((µ/c2 )2 − A2 )3 /2

4π 2 3
T2 = a (26)
µ

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 Lecture M1L7: Module 1
Orbital Mechanics
Satellite Location

Dr. S .M. Zafaruddin

Associate Professor

Deptt. of EEE, BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

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Objectives of Today Lecture

1. Elliptic Orbit
2. Satellite Location

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Apogee and Perigee

1
r= µ (1)
c2
+ A cos θ

Apogee:
1
rap = µ (2)
c2
−A

Perigee:
1
rpe = µ (3)
c2
+A

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Area of Ellipse

Area = πab (4)

µ/c2
Area = π (5)
((µ/c2 )2 − A2 )3 /2

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Semi-Major Axis a

rap + rpe
a= (6)
2

µ/c2
a= (7)
(µ/c2 )2 − A2

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Time Period

cT µ/c2
=π (8)
2 ((µ/c2 )2 − A2 )3 /2

4π 2 3
T2 = a (9)
µ

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Elliptical Orbit

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Altitude of GEO

a = r = 6378.1370 km

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TB 2.4

A satellite in an elliptical orbit around the earth has an apogee

of 39,152 km and a perigee of 500 km. What is the orbital
period of this satellite? Give your answer in hours. Note:
Assume the average radius of the earth is 6378.137 km and
Kepler’s constant has the value 3.986004418 × 105 km3 /s2

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Elliptical Orbit

c2 /µ c2 /µ
r= Ac2
= (10)
1+ cos θ 1 + e cos θ
µ

Ac2
where e = µ : eccentricity of Ellipse

p
r= (11)
1 + e cos θ

where p = c2 /µ = h2 /µ

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Elliptical Orbit

p = a(1 − e2 )
b = a(1 − e2 )1/2
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Locating the Satellite: True Anomaly and time

tp : Time of Perigee
t − tp : tie elapsed since satellite last passed the perigee

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Locating the Satellite: Eccentric Anomaly E

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 Lecture M1L8: Module 1
Orbital Mechanics
Satellite Location

Dr. S .M. Zafaruddin

Associate Professor

Deptt. of EEE, BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

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Objectives of Today Lecture

1. Mean Anomaly M
2. Spherical Geometry

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Elliptical Orbit

p
r= (1)
1 + e cos θ

Show that p = a(1 − e2 )

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Elliptical Orbit

a(1 − e2 )
r0 = (2)
1 + e cos ϕ0

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Locating the Satellite: True Anomaly and time

tp : Time of Perigee
t − tp : tie elapsed since satellite last passed the perigee

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Locating the Satellite

▶ x0 = r0 cos ϕ0 ; y0 = r0 sin ϕ0
▶ Define average angular velocity of the satellite
µ 1/2
▶ η = 2π
T = a3/2
▶ Instantaneous angular velocity: greatest at perigee and
slowest at the apogee.

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Circumscribed Cricle

Time period T : same for both elliptical orbit and circular orbit
but circular with constant angular velocity η.

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Eccentric Anomaly E

Eccentric Anomaly: Angle E at the center to the point A above

the satellite location.

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Eccentric Anomaly E

Show that r0 = a(1 − e cos E)

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Mean Anomaly M

▶ ηdt = (1 − e cos E)dE

▶ Define tp : time of perigee
▶ This is simultaneously the time of closest approach to the
earth; the time when the satellite is crossing the x0 axis;
and the time when E is zero.
▶ η(t − tp ) = E − e sin E
▶ M = η(t − tp ) = E − e sin E

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Mean Anomaly M

▶ ηdt = (1 − e cos E)dE

▶ Define tp : time of perigee
▶ This is simultaneously the time of closest approach to the
earth; the time when the satellite is crossing the x0 axis;
and the time when E is zero.
▶ η(t − tp ) = E − e sin E
▶ M = η(t − tp ) = E − e sin E
▶ The mean anomaly M is the arc length (in radians) that
the satellite would have traversed since the perigee passage
if it were moving on the circumscribed circle at the mean
angular velocity η.

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Algorithm for Satellite Location

Assumption: known tp , e, a:

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Spherical Geometry

▶ Non-Euclidean
▶ It is a geometry of points, great circles, and spheres.

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Spherical Geometry

▶ Line (Euclidean Geometry) to great circle (Spherical

Geometry)
▶ Line is infinite (Euclidean Geometry); great circle is fine.
▶ A line segment is the shortest path: Euclidean Geometry
▶ An arc of a great circle is the shortest path: Spherical
Geometry

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Spherical Geometry

Great Circle Intersection (8 angles):

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Spherical Geometry

No parallel lines in spherical geometry

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Spherical Triangle

Angle sum is not 180.

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Spherical Triangle

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Spherical Triangle

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Spherical Triangle

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 Lecture M1L9: Module 1
Orbital Mechanics
Satellite Location

Dr. S .M. Zafaruddin

Associate Professor

Deptt. of EEE, BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

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Objectives of Today Lecture

1. Revision and Numerical Example

2. Quiz-1

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Elliptical Orbit

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Elliptical Orbit

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CW Problem

A satellite is in an elliptical orbit with a perigee of 1000 km and

an apogee of 4000 km. Using a mean earth radius of 6378.14
km, find the period of the orbit in hours, minutes, and seconds,
and the eccentricity of the orbit.

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Eccentric Anomaly E

Correction: C: Center of Ellipse and O is the center of earth.

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 Lecture M1L10: Module 1
Orbital Mechanics
Look Angle

Dr. S .M. Zafaruddin

Associate Professor

Deptt. of EEE, BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

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Objectives of Today Lecture

1. Angle of Elevation
2. Azimuth

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Azimuth and Elevation

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Azimuth and Elevation

1. Azimuth is measured eastward (clockwise) from geographic

north to the projection of the satellite path on a (locally)
horizontal plane at the earth station.
2. Elevation is the angle measured upward from the local
horizontal plane at the earth station to the satellite path.

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Sub-satellite Point
The subsatellite point is the location on the surface of the earth
that lies directly between the satellite and the center of the
earth.

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Angle of Elevation

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Spherical Triangle

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Angle of Elevation

Le , le : North Latitude and west longitude of earth station

Ls , ls : North Latitude and west longitude of satellite sub-station
Prove that:

cos(γ) = cos(Le ) cos(Ls ) cos(ls − le ) + sin(Le ) sin(Ls ) (1)

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Angle of Elevation

Prove that
re 2 re
d = rs [1 + ( ) − 2( ) cos(γ)]1/2 (2)
rs rs

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Angle of Elevation

El = ψ − 90o (3)

rs d
= (4)
sin(ψ) sin(γ)

rs sin(γ)
cos(El) = (5)
d

sin(γ)
cos(El) = (6)
[1 + ( rres )2 − 2( rres ) cos(γ)]1/2

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Angle of Elevation: GEO

Latitude Ls = 0

cos(γ) = cos(Le ) cos(Ls ) cos(ls − le ) + sin(Le ) sin(Ls ) (7)

Using Ls = 0 in the above

cos(γ) = cos(Le ) cos(ls − le ) (8)

re 2 re
d = rs [1 + ( ) − 2( ) cos(γ)]1/2 (9)
rs rs
Using rs = 42164.17km, re = 6378.137km.

d = 42164.17[1.02288235 − 0.30253825 cos(γ)]1/2 km (10)

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Angle of Elevation: GEO

sin(γ)
cos(El) = (11)
[1.02288235 − 0.30253825 cos(γ)]1/2

EL = tan−1 [(6.6107345 − cos γ)/(sin γ)] − γ (12)

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Example

An earth station situated in the Docklands of London, England,

needs to calculate the look angle to a geostationary satellite in
the Indian Ocean operated by Intelsat. The details of the earth
station site and the satellite are as follows:
Earth station latitude and longitude are 52.0° N and 0°.
Satellite longitude (subsatellite point) is 66.0° E.

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Solution

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 Lecture M1L11: Module 1
Orbital Mechanics
Look Angle

Dr. S .M. Zafaruddin

Associate Professor

Deptt. of EEE, BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M1L11

Objectives of Today Lecture

1. Angle of Elevation
2. Azimuth

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Map

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Distance between Earth Station and Satellite-sub point
D: Distance between two points on the earth..

D
Arc formula: γ = re

D = re cos−1 [cos(Le ) cos(Ls ) cos(ls − le ) + sin(Le ) sin(Ls )]

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Distance between Earth Station and Satellite-sub point:
Haversine formula

havγ = hav(Ls − Le ) + cos(ls ) cos(le ) cos(ls − le )

where havθ = sin2 (θ/2).

r !
1 − cos(Ls − Le ) + cos(Ls ) cos(Le ) (1 − cos(ls − le ))
D = 2R · sin−1
2

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Visibility Test

EL ≥ 0

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Visibility Test

EL ≥ 0
re
rs ≥ (1)
cos γ

re
γ ≤ cos−1 ( ) (2)
rs
γ ≤ 81.3 for GEO

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Angle of Azimuth: GEO

Intermediate Angle α

tan(|ls − le )|
α = tan−1 [ ] (3)
sin Le

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Example

An earth station situated in the Docklands of London, England,

needs to calculate the look angle to a geostationary satellite in
the Indian Ocean operated by Intelsat. The details of the earth
station site and the satellite are as follows:
Earth station latitude and longitude are 52.0° N and 0°.
Satellite longitude (subsatellite point) is 66.0° E.

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Solution

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An interactive experiment is being set up between the
University of York, England (approximately 359.5° E, 53.5° N)
and the Technical University of Graz, Austria (approximately
15° E, 47.5° N) that will make use of a geostationary satellite.
The earth stations at both universities are constrained to work
only above elevation angles of 20° due to buildings, etc., near
their locations. The groups at the two universities need to find
a geostationary satellite that will be visible to both universities
simultaneously, with both earth stations operating at, or above,
an elevation angle of 20°. What is the range of sub-satellite
points between which the selected geostationary satellite must
lie?

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TB 2.10 Exercise

The state of Virginia may be represented roughly as a rectangle

bounded by 39.5° N latitude on the north, 36.5° N latitude on
the south, 76.0° W longitude on the east, and 86.3° W longitude
on the west. If a geostationary satellite must be visible
throughout Virginia at an elevation angle no lower than 20°,
what is the range of longitudes within which the subsatellite
point of the satellite must lie?

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M1L11

 Lecture M1L12: Module 1
Orbital Mechanics
Look Angle and Orbital Elements

Dr. S .M. Zafaruddin

Associate Professor

Deptt. of EEE, BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

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Objectives of Today Lecture

1. Look Angle Examples

2. Orbital Elements

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An interactive experiment is being set up between the
University of York, England (approximately 359.5° E, 53.5° N)
and the Technical University of Graz, Austria (approximately
15° E, 47.5° N) that will make use of a geostationary satellite.
The earth stations at both universities are constrained to work
only above elevation angles of 20° due to buildings, etc., near
their locations. The groups at the two universities need to find
a geostationary satellite that will be visible to both universities
simultaneously, with both earth stations operating at, or above,
an elevation angle of 20°. What is the range of sub-satellite
points between which the selected geostationary satellite must
lie?

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M1L12

Solution

▶ Angle of Elevation

sin(γ)
cos(El) = (1)
[1.02288235 − 0.30253825 cos(γ)]1/2
◦ ◦
▶ Using EL = 20 , γ = 61.82
◦ ◦
▶ For York le = 359.5 E, Le = 53.5 N ; ls =?
▶ cos(γ) = cos(Le ) cos(le − ls )
◦ ◦
▶ le − ls = 37.46 or ls − le = 37.46
▶ ls = le − 37.46 = 322.04E or ls = le + 37.46 = 396.96E
▶ ls = 322.04E − 360 = −37.96E = 37.96W or
ls = le + 37.46 = 396.96E − 360 = 36.96E
▶ ls = 36.96E

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Solution

◦ ◦
▶ Graz le = 15 E, Le = 47.5 N ; ls =?
▶ cos(γ) = cos(Le ) cos(le − ls )
◦ ◦
▶ le − ls = 45.66 or ls − le = 45.66
▶ ls = 15 − 45.66 = −30.66E or ls = 15 + 45.66 = 60.66E
▶ ls = 30.66W

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M1L12

TB 2.10 Exercise

The state of Virginia may be represented roughly as a rectangle

bounded by 39.5° N latitude on the north, 36.5° N latitude on
the south, 76.0° W longitude on the east, and 86.3° W longitude
on the west. If a geostationary satellite must be visible
throughout Virginia at an elevation angle no lower than 20°,
what is the range of longitudes within which the subsatellite
point of the satellite must lie?

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Answer: 128.27 W to 34.02W.

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Matlab Command for EL/Az

skyplot()

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Orbital Elements

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Orbital Elements

6 Elements determine the orbit:

▶ Semi-major axis a
▶ Eccentricity e
▶ Inclination (i) : Angle between orbital plane and equatorial
plane
▶ Right ascension of the ascending node Ω: Rotation of the
orbital plane around the z-axis of the earth.
▶ Argument of perigee (ω): locates the perigee with respect
to the equatorial plane.
▶ Time of perigee tp

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Satellite Pass

▶ Satellite Pass: Duration of satellite under a earth station

visibility.
▶ AoS (Acquisition of Signal)
▶ LoS (Loss of Signal)
▶ Pass arc
▶ Pass duration (Non-GEO):
T (min) = 9.31 × 10−3 as [km] + 4.68

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M1L12

 Lecture M1L13: Module 1
Orbital Mechanics
Orbital Perturbations

Dr. S .M. Zafaruddin

Associate Professor

Deptt. of EEE, BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

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Objectives of Today Lecture

1. Orbital Perturbation
2. Satellite Pass
3. Examples

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Orbital Elements

6 Elements determine the orbit:

▶ Semi-major axis a
▶ Eccentricity e
▶ Inclination (i) : Angle between orbital plane and equatorial
plane
▶ Right ascension of the ascending node Ω: Rotation of the
orbital plane around the z-axis of the earth.
▶ Argument of perigee (ω): locates the perigee with respect
to the equatorial plane.
▶ Time of perigee tp

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Orbital Perturbations

▶ Effects of the Earth’s Oblateness

▶ Non-Uniform Gravitational force
▶ Effects of the Sun and the Moon

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TB 2.10 Exercise

The state of Virginia may be represented roughly as a rectangle

bounded by 39.5° N latitude on the north, 36.5° N latitude on
the south, 76.0° W longitude on the east, and 86.3° W longitude
on the west. If a geostationary satellite must be visible
throughout Virginia at an elevation angle no lower than 20°,
what is the range of longitudes within which the subsatellite
point of the satellite must lie?

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M1L13

Answer: 128.27 W to 34.02W.

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Solution

◦
▶ Earth Station Corner 1 (above left): Le1 = 39.5 N and
◦
le1 = 86.3 W
▶ cos(γ) = cos(Le1 ) cos(ls − le1 )
cos(γ)
▶ cos(ls − le1 ) = cos(Le1 )
cos(γ)
▶ cos(ls − le1 ) = cos(Le1 ) = 0.4721/0.7716 = 0.6118
◦
▶ ls − le1 = 52.2802
◦
▶ Satellite must be east of corner 1: ls = 86.3 − 52.28 = 34 W

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M1L13

Solution

◦
▶ Earth Station Corner 2 (above right): Le2 = 39.5 N and
◦
le2 = 76 W
▶ cos(γ) = cos(Le2 ) cos(ls − le2 )
cos(γ)
▶ cos(ls − le2 ) = cos(Le2 )
cos(γ)
▶ cos(ls − le2 ) = cos(Le2 ) = 0.4721/0.7716 = 0.6118
◦
▶ ls − le2 = 52.2802
▶ Satellite must be west of corner 2:
◦
ls = 76 + 52.28 = 128.28 W

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Satellite Pass

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Satellite Pass

▶ Satellite Pass: Phenomenon when the satellite becomes

visible to the earth station.
▶ AoS (Acquisition of Signal)
▶ LoS (Loss of Signal)
▶ Pass arc
▶ Pass duration (Non-GEO):
T (min) = 9.31 × 10−3 as [km] + 4.68

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TB 2.5

An observation satellite is to be placed into a circular equatorial

orbit so that it moves in the same direction as the earth’s
rotation. Using a synthetic aperture radar system, the satellite
will store data on surface barometric pressure, and other
weather related parameters, as it flies overhead. These data will
later be played back to a controlling earth station after each
trip around the world. The orbit is to be designed so that the
satellite is directly above the controlling earth station, which is
located on the equator, once every 4 h. The controlling earth
station’s antenna is unable to operate below an elevation angle
of 10° to the horizontal in any direction.

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TB 2.5

Taking the earth’s rotational period to be exactly 24 h, find the

following quantities:
a. The satellite’s angular velocity in radians per second.
b. The orbital period in hours.
c. The orbital radius in kilometers.
d. The orbital height in kilometers.
e. The satellite’s linear velocity in meters per second.
f. The time interval in minutes for which the controlling earth
station can communicate with the satellite on each pass.

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Solution

In the Class

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TB 2.7

For a variety of reasons, typical minimum elevation angles used

by earth stations operating in the commercial fixed services
using satellites (FSS) communications bands are as follows: C
band 5°; Ku band 10°; and Ka band 20°.
(i) Determine the maximum and minimum range in kilometers
from an earth station to a geostationary satellite in the three
bands.
(ii) To what round-trip signal propagation times do these
ranges correspond?

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Solution

Next Class

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TB 2.11

A geostationary satellite system is being built which

incorporates inter-satellite links (ISLs) between the satellites.
This permits the transfer of information between two earth
stations on the surface of the earth, which are not
simultaneously visible to any single satellite in the system, by
using the ISL equipment to link up the satellites. In this
question, the effects of ray bending in the atmosphere may be
ignored, processing delays on the satellites may initially be
assumed to be zero, the earth may be assumed to be perfectly
circular with a flat (i.e. not hilly) surface, and the velocity of
the signals in free space (whether in the earth’s lower
atmosphere or essentially in a vacuum) may be assumed to be
the velocity of light in a vacuum.

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M1L13

TB 2.11

(i) What is the furthest apart two geostationary satellites may

be so that they can still communicate with each other without
the path between the two satellites being interrupted by the
surface of the earth? Give your answer in degrees longitude
between the sub-satellite points.
(ii) If the longest, one-way delay permitted by the ITU between
two earth stations communicating via a space system is 400 ms,
what is the furthest apart two geostationary satellites may be
before the trans mission delay of the signal from one earth
station to the other, when connected through the ISL system of
the two satellites, equals 400 ms? The slant path distance
between each earth station and the geostationary satellite it is
communicating with may be assumed to be 40,000 km.

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M1L13

TB 2.11

(iii) If the satellites in part (ii) employ on-board processing,

which adds an additional delay of 35 ms in each satellite, what
is the maximum distance between the ISL- linked geostationary
satellites now? (iv) If both of the two earth stations used in
parts (ii) and (iii) must additionally now send the signals over a
2,500 km optical fiber line to the end-user on the ground, with
an associated transmission delay in the fiber at each end of the
link, what is the maximum distance between the ISL- linked
geostationary satellites now? You may assume a refractive
index of 1.5 for the optical fiber and zero processing delay in
the earth station equipment and end-user equipment.

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M1L13

Solution

Next Class

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 Lecture M1L14: Module 1
Orbital Mechanics
TLE

Dr. S .M. Zafaruddin

Associate Professor

Deptt. of EEE, BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M1L14

Objectives of Today Lecture

1. Examples
2. Doppler Shift

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TB 2.7

For a variety of reasons, typical minimum elevation angles used

by earth stations operating in the commercial fixed services
using satellites (FSS) communications bands are as follows: C
band 5°; Ku band 10°; and Ka band 20°.
(i) Determine the maximum and minimum range in kilometers
from an earth station to a geostationary satellite in the three
bands.
(ii) To what round-trip signal propagation times do these
ranges correspond?

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M1L14

Solution

In the Class

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M1L14

TB 2.11

A geostationary satellite system is being built which

incorporates inter-satellite links (ISLs) between the satellites.
This permits the transfer of information between two earth
stations on the surface of the earth, which are not
simultaneously visible to any single satellite in the system, by
using the ISL equipment to link up the satellites. In this
question, the effects of ray bending in the atmosphere may be
ignored, processing delays on the satellites may initially be
assumed to be zero, the earth may be assumed to be perfectly
circular with a flat (i.e. not hilly) surface, and the velocity of
the signals in free space (whether in the earth’s lower
atmosphere or essentially in a vacuum) may be assumed to be
the velocity of light in a vacuum.

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M1L14

TB 2.11

(i) What is the furthest apart two geostationary satellites may

be so that they can still communicate with each other without
the path between the two satellites being interrupted by the
surface of the earth? Give your answer in degrees longitude
between the sub-satellite points.
(ii) If the longest, one-way delay permitted by the ITU between
two earth stations communicating via a space system is 400 ms,
what is the furthest apart two geostationary satellites may be
before the trans mission delay of the signal from one earth
station to the other, when connected through the ISL system of
the two satellites, equals 400 ms? The slant path distance
between each earth station and the geostationary satellite it is
communicating with may be assumed to be 40,000 km.

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M1L14

TB 2.11

(iii) If the satellites in part (ii) employ on-board processing,

which adds an additional delay of 35 ms in each satellite, what
is the maximum distance between the ISL- linked geostationary
satellites now? (iv) If both of the two earth stations used in
parts (ii) and (iii) must additionally now send the signals over a
2,500 km optical fiber line to the end-user on the ground, with
an associated transmission delay in the fiber at each end of the
link, what is the maximum distance between the ISL- linked
geostationary satellites now? You may assume a refractive
index of 1.5 for the optical fiber and zero processing delay in
the earth station equipment and end-user equipment.

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M1L14

Solution

In the Class

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M1L14

Orbital Elements

6 Elements determine the orbit:

▶ Semi-major axis a
▶ Eccentricity e
▶ Inclination (i) : Angle between orbital plane and equatorial
plane
▶ Right ascension of the ascending node Ω: Rotation of the
orbital plane around the z-axis of the earth.
▶ Argument of perigee (ω): locates the perigee with respect
to the equatorial plane.
▶ Time of perigee tp

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M1L14

TLE:Two Line Element

▶ NORAD (North American Aerospace Defense Command)

▶ www.celestrak.com

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TLE

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M1L14

TLE

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MATLAB Code

satelliteScenario
satellite

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Simulations

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Skyplot

skyplot(azdata,eldata)

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SGP (simplified general perturbations)

Set of five mathematical models (SGP, SGP4, SDP4, SGP8 and

SDP8) used to calculate orbital state vectors of satellites and
space debris relative to the earth-centered inertial coordinate
system.

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M1L14

 Lecture M2L: Module 2
Satellite Subsystem

Dr. S .M. Zafaruddin

Associate Professor
Deptt. of EEE, BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2

Lecture 16

1. Satellite Subsystem
2. Antenna Theory

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Satellite Subsystem

▶ Communications Systems and Antenna

▶ Attitude and Orbital Control System (AOCS)
▶ Telemetry Tracking and Command (TT&C)
▶ Power System
▶ Thermal control system

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Frequency of Operation

Doppler Shift

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Antenna

▶ transmitting or receiving system to radiate or to

receive electromagnetic waves

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Antenna Types

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Radiation

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Near-Field Versus Far-Field

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Lecture 17

1. Isotropic Antenna and Antenna Gain

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Antenna Coordinate System

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Electric and Magnetic Fields
▶ Eθ , Eϕ , Hθ , Hϕ
q
▶ E = Eθ2 + Eϕ2
▶ Characteristic or Wave impedance
E Eθ
Zw = Hϕθ = H ϕ
= 120πΩ

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2

Power Flux Density

Power per unit area

2
▶ ψ = ZE
w
▶ Electric filed is inversely proportional to distance
▶ Power flux density inversely proportional to square of
the distance

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Radian

2π rad: complete circle

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Steradian

4π sr in a closed sphere.
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Antenna Efficiency

PT
η=
PS

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Isotropic Antennas
Equal radiation in all directions:

▶ Power Flux Density ψi = Pt

4πr2
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Directional Antenna
Maximum radiation in one direction

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Antenna Gain

Gain of a directional antenna wrt isotropic antenna

ψd
G(θ, ϕ) =
ψi

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Example

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Example

ψ = FNBW.

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Radiation Pattern

Normalize the gain with maximum value

G(θ, ϕ)
g(θ, ϕ) =
Gmax

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Radiation Pattern (Field Linear)

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Radiation Pattern (Power Linear)

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Radiation Pattern (Power in dB)

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Lecture 18

1. Directvity and Beamwidth

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Radiation Intensity

Radiation Intensity: Power radiated per unit solid angle

Prad
U= (1)
4π
(2)

Radiation intensity in terms of power density:

U = r2 ψ (3)

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2

Directivity

U (θ, ϕ)
D(θ, ϕ) = (4)
Uiso
4πU (θ, ϕ)
D(θ, ϕ) = (5)
Prad

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2

Directivity

Umax Umax 4πUmax

Dmax = D0 = = = (6)
U0 U0 Prad
▶ Dmax is the maximum directivity,
▶ D0 is the directivity,
▶ Umax is the maximum radiation intensity,
▶ U0 is the radiation intensity for an isotropic source,
▶ Prad is the total radiated power.

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2

Directivity and Gain

G(θ, ϕ) = D(θ, ϕ)η (7)

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Radiation Pattern

dA = r2 sin θdθdϕ (8)

dA
dΩ = = sin θdθdϕ (9)
r2
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Area of Spherical Cap

dA = r2 sin θdθdϕ
Z 2π Z θ
A= r2 sin θdθdϕ
0 0
A = 2πrh = 2πr2 (1 − cos θ)

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2

Beamwidth
HPBW: Half-Power Beamwidth:
FNBW: First-Null Beamwidth:

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Area of Spherical Cap

θ = FNBW/2.

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2

Problem

The normalized radiation intensity of an antenna is given

by:

U (θ) = cos2 (θ) cos2 (3θ) for 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 90◦ , 0◦ ≤ ϕ ≤ 360◦

▶ (a) Find the Half-Power Beamwidth (HPBW) in both

radians and degrees.
▶ (b) Find the First-Null Beamwidth (FNBW) in both
radians and degrees.

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2

Beam Solid Angle ΩA

ΩA : solid angle through which all the power of the antenna

would flow if its radiation intensity is constant (and equal
to the maximum value of U ) for all angles within ΩA
Z 2π Z π
1
ΩA = U (θ, ϕ) sin θ dθ dϕ
|U (θ, ϕ)|max 0 0
.
4π
D0 = (10)
ΩA
ΩA ≈ HPBWE × HPBWH

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2

Directivity in terms of HPBW

In radians
4π
D0 = (11)
HPBWE × HPBWH
(12)

In degrees
41253
D0 = (13)
HPBWE × HPBWH
(14)

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2

Omni-Directional

U (θ) = | sinn θ| (15)

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2

Omni-Directional

101
D0 ≈
HPBW (degrees) − 0.0027 [HPBW (degrees)]2

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2

Example

Design an antenna with omnidirectional amplitude pattern

with a half-power beamwidth of 90◦ . Express its radiation
intensity by:
U = sinn θ
Determine the value of n and attempt to identify elements
that exhibit such a pattern. Determine the directivity of
the antenna.

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2

Lecture 19

Effective Aperture

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Antenna Types

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Polarization

Polarization of a radiated wave is defined as “that property

of an electromagnetic wave describing the time-varying
direction and relative magnitude of the electric-field vector;
specifically, the figure traced as a function of time by the
extremity of the vector at a fixed location in space, and the
sense in which it is traced, as observed along the direction
of propagation.”

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2

Effective Length or Height

Vinduced
Effective Length/Height le = Eincident
▶ Half-Dipole: lphysical = λ2 ; le ≈ 0.64 × lphysical
▶ Short-Dipole lphysical << λ; le ≈ ×lphysical
▶ Quarter-wave: lphysical = λ4 ; le ≈ 0.64 × lphysical

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2

Equivalent Areas: Effective aperture or area

The effective area of an antenna is not necessarily the same

as the physical aperture.
▶ Definition: The effective aperture or effective area is
the area which when multiplied by the incident power
density gives the power delivered to the load.
▶ Effective aperture Ae = ψP
i
▶ where P : power transferred to the load and ψi : power
density.

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2

Equivalent Areas: Scattering Area

The scattering area is defined as the equivalent area when

multiplied by the incident power density is equal to the
scattered or reradiated power.

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Equivalent Areas: Loss Area

The loss area is defined as the equivalent area, which when

multiplied by the incident power density leads to the power
dissipated as heat.

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Equivalent Areas: Capture Area

Capture area is defined as the equivalent area, which when

multiplied by the incident power density leads to the total
power captured, collected, or intercepted by the antenna.
Capture Area = Effective Area + Scattering Area + Loss
Area

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2

Aperture Efficiency

ηap = MaximumEffectiveArea
PhysicalArea
Aperture type antennas: ηap ≤ 1
Wire-type antenna: ηap > 1 is also possible

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Maximum Effective Area

A: Effective area
Am : Maximum Effective Area
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Maximum Effective Area
▶ Assume antenna 1 as isotropic, the power density:

Pt
ψi =
4πR2
▶ Pt : radiated power
▶ Power density with directivity Dt

Pt D t
ψt = ψi Dt =
4πR2
▶ Power received by the antenna

Pt Dt Ar
Pr = ψt Ar =
4πR2

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2

Maximum Effective Area
▶ Simplifying, we get

Pr
Dt Ar = (4πR2 )
Pt
▶ If antenna 2 is used as a transmitter, 1 as a receiver

Pr
Dr At = (4πR2 )
Pt
▶ Thus,

Dt Ar = Dr At
Dt Dr
=
At Ar
Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2
Maximum Effective Area
▶ Increasing directivity increases the effective area

D0t D0r
=
Atm Arm
D0 : maximum directivity and Am : maximum effective
area.
▶ If antenna 1 is isotropic D0t = 1

Arm
Atm =
D0r
▶ Maximum effective area of an isotropic source is equal
to the ratio of the maximum effective area to the
maximum directivity of any other source.

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2

Maximum Effective Area
▶ Example of short-dipole: Arm = 0.119λ2 and D0r = 1.5
▶ Maximum effective area of an isotropic source
Arm 0.119λ2 λ2
Atm = = =
D0r 1.5 4π
▶ Maximum effective aperture:
λ2
Arm = D0r
4π
▶ In general, maximum effective aperture of any antenna
is related to its maximum directivity D0

λ2
Aem = D0
4π
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Maximum Effective Area

▶ If antenna efficiency is considered:

λ2
Aem = ηD0
4π

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Lecture 20

Friis Transmission Equation

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Example

Find the maximum aperture of an isotropic antenna using

the data from half-dipole antenna:
Arm = 0.13λ2
D0 = 1.64

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Friis Transmission Equation

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Friis Transmission Equation
▶ Condition R ≥ 2(max{Dphytx , Dphyrx })2 /λ
▶ Isotropic

Pt
ψi = et
4πR2
▶ Directional
Pt D(θt , ϕt ) Pt G(θt , ϕt )
ψt = et 2
=
4πR 4πR2
▶ Effective Area
λ2
Ar = er Dr (θr , ϕr )
4π

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2

Friis Transmission Equation
▶ Received Power

Pr = A r ψ t
▶ Received Power
Pt D(θt , ϕt )D(θr , ϕr )λ2
Pr = et er
(4πR)2
▶ Received Power
Pt G(θt , ϕt )G(θr , ϕr )λ2
Pr =
(4πR)2
▶ Received Power
Pt Gt Gr λ2
Pr =
(4πR)2
Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2
Friis Transmission Equation in dBm

Pr (dBm) = Pt (dBm) + 10 log10 (Gt )

+10 log10 (Gr ) + 20 log10 (λ) − 20 log10 (4πR)

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2

Lecture 21

Parabolic Reflector Type Antenna

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Types of Antenna: Parabolic Reflector

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Types of Antenna: Parabolic Reflector

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Different feeds

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Types of Antenna: Parabolic Reflector

G = ηap (πDphy /λ)2

θ3dB = HP BW ≈ (75λ)/Dphy degrees

If ηap = 0.6

33000
G≈
(θ3dB )2

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2

Example

The earth subtends an angle of 17 degree when viewed from

geostationary orbit. What are the dimensions and gain of a
horn antenna that will provide global coverage at 4 GHz?

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2

Example 3.6.2

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Horn Antenna

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Other Types of Antennas

Double-Reflector (Cassergrain, Georgian)

Array antenna

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TB 3.5

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TB 3.6

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2

TB 3.7

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Lecture 22

Coverage footprint
Satellite Subsystem

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Beams

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Beams

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Coverage

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2

Coverage Patterns of Intelsat Satellites Over the
Atlantic Ocean
▶ The coverage pattern is represented by concentric
contour lines that indicate signal strength levels and
geographic coverage.
▶ Lower numbered contours (e.g., -1, -2) represent
stronger signal strength
▶ Higher numbered contours (-6, -7) represent weaker
signals farther from the central coverage area.
▶ Geographical Coverage:
▶ The strongest signals are focused on Western Europe,
especially around the UK, France, and Germany.
▶ The coverage extends to Scandinavia, Eastern Europe,
and parts of the Mediterranean, but with decreasing
signal strength.
Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2
Satellite Footprint in Terms of Beamwidth

▶ re : Radius of the Earth

▶ h: Altitude of the satellite above the Earth’s surface
▶ θ: Beamwidth of the satellite antenna (in radians)
▶ r: Radius of the footprint on the Earth’s surface
 
θ
r = (re + h) · sin
2
Coverage Area of the Footprint:

A = πr2

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2

Coverage Area of GEO with 17 degree

r = 6231 km
Area 122.95 millian km-sqr
Total earth area: 148.9 millian km-sqr
Area of India= 3.287 km-sqr

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2

Coverage Area of GEO with 1 degree

r=?

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Agle of Elevation and beamwidth

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Transponder in Communications Satellites
A communications satellite exists to provide a platform in
geostationary orbit for the relaying of voice, video, and
data communications.
▶ Typically consists of:
▶ One or more antennas for wide bandwidth reception
and transmission at microwave frequencies.
▶ A set of receivers and transmitters that amplify and
retransmit signals.
▶ Receiver–transmitter units are called transponders.
▶ Two types of transponders used in satellites:
▶ Linear or bent-pipe transponder:
▶ Amplifies the received signal.
▶ Retransmits at a different, typically lower, frequency.
▶ Baseband processing transponder:
▶ Used with digital signals.
▶ Converts the received signal to baseband, processes it,
and retransmits a digital signal.
Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2
Evolution of Communications Satellite
Transponders
▶ Early communications satellites:
▶ Fitted with transponders of 250 or 500 MHz
bandwidth.
▶ Low-gain antennas.
▶ Transmitters with 1 or 2 W output power.
▶ System limitations:
▶ Earth station receivers struggled with signal-to-noise
ratio when full bandwidth was used.
▶ System was power-limited.
▶ Later generations of satellites:
▶ Transponders with much higher output power, up to
200 W (e.g., DBS-TV satellites).
▶ Improved bandwidth utilization efficiency over time.
Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2
Transponders and Signal Reception in Satellites
▶ Earth station signals (carriers) are received by:
▶ Zone beam antenna: Receives from any transmitter
within the coverage zone.
▶ Spot beam antenna: Has limited, focused coverage.
▶ The received signal is often sent to two low noise
amplifiers (LNAs) for redundancy.
▶ Output from both LNAs is recombined to ensure
continuous operation in case of failure.
▶ Failure of both amplifiers can be catastrophic since all
carriers from one antenna pass through the LNA.
▶ Redundancy is crucial in components where failure
would result in significant loss of communication
capacity.

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2

Transponder

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2

Transponder

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Transponder

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Intelsat Systems

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Lecture 23: Compensatory Lecture

Satellite Subsystem

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Orbits

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Orbits

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Attitude and Orbit Control System (AOCS)

▶ Purpose of AOCS
▶ Controls the orientation (attitude) and position
(orbit) of the spacecraft.
▶ Ensures proper alignment of solar panels,
communication antennas, and scientific instruments.
▶ Attitude Control:
▶ Keeps the spacecraft correctly oriented in space
relative to Earth, stars, or the Sun.
▶ Utilizes sensors such as star trackers, gyroscopes, Sun
sensors, and Earth horizon sensors*
▶ Adjustments are made using reaction wheels,
magnetorquers, or thrusters.

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2

Spinner Design

▶ The spinner design of satellites is typified by many

built by the Hughes Aircraft Corporation for domestic
satellite communication systems.
▶ The satellite consists of a cylindrical drum covered in
solar cells, housing power systems and rocket motors.
▶ The communications system is mounted on top of the
drum.
▶ An electric motor drives the communications system in
the opposite direction of satellite rotation.
▶ This ensures that the antennas continuously point
toward Earth, making these satellites ”despun.”

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2

Spinner

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2

Satellite Stabilization Methods
▶ There are two main methods to stabilize a satellite in
orbit:
▶ Spinner Stabilization:
▶ The satellite body is rotated at a rate between 30 and
100 rpm.
▶ This creates a gyroscopic force that stabilizes the spin
axis.
▶ The spin axis remains pointing in the same direction,
providing stability.
▶ Example: The popular Hughes 376 (now Boeing 376)
satellite design.
▶ Three-Axis Stabilization:
▶ Stabilization is achieved using one or more
momentum wheels.
▶ The satellite is kept stable in three axes without
needing to spin.
▶ Provides
Dr. Zafarbetter control of
(BITS Pilani) satellite
SatComm: M2orientation.
Attitude and Orbit Control System (AOCS)

▶ Orbit Control:
▶ Maintains the spacecraft’s trajectory and altitude.
▶ Corrects orbital disturbances caused by gravitational
forces or atmospheric drag.
▶ Uses propulsion systems (e.g., thrusters) to adjust
orbit.

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2

Attitude and Orbit Control System (AOCS)
▶ Key Components:
▶ Sensors: Measure position, rotation, and orientation.
▶ Onboard computers: Process data and control
commands.
▶ Actuators: Apply corrective forces to adjust attitude
and orbit.
▶ Control algorithms: Optimize the response of
actuators based on sensor data.
▶ Challenges:
▶ Maintaining high precision for scientific missions.
▶ Efficient use of fuel and resources for long-term
missions.
▶ Managing external disturbances such as solar
radiation and atmospheric drag.

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2

TTC&M
▶ Telemetry:
▶ Vital for monitoring the status of sensors and
subsystems on the satellite.
▶ Provides data for earth station personnel to assess
satellite health and performance.
▶ Tracking:
▶ Primarily performed by the earth station to ensure
the satellite maintains its orbit.
▶ Enables repointing of individual antennas on large
geostationary satellites under TTC&M command.
▶ Command:
▶ Controls the satellite’s orbit and attitude.
▶ Issues commands to switch on/off sections of the
communication system.
▶ Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2
TTC&M

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2

Power Systems

▶ Communications satellites obtain electrical power from

solar cells, converting sunlight into electrical energy.
▶ Deep space satellites sometimes use thermonuclear
generators, but these are avoided in communications
satellites due to safety concerns.
▶ At geostationary altitude, the sun provides a radiation
intensity of 1.39 kW/m2 .
▶ Solar cell efficiency is typically 20–25% at the
beginning of life (BOL), but decreases over time due to
aging and micrometeor impacts.
▶ Extra solar cell area (about 15%) is added to ensure
sufficient power at the end of life (EOL).

Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2

Reliability and Failure Rate Calculations

Ns (t)
R(t) = where
N0
N0 = Number of components at start of test period,
Ns (t) = Number of surviving components at time t.
Number of Failures: The number of components that failed
in time t is:
Nf (t) = N0 − Ns (t).
Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF):
N0
1 X
MTBF = m = ti
N0
i=1
Average Failure Rate:
Number of failures in a given time 1 1
λ= = =
Number of surviving components m MTBF
Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2
Failure Rate and Reliability Equation
Failure Rate as a Time Derivative:
1 dNf 1 dNs
λ = =−
Ns dt Ns dt
1 dR
= − (16)
R dt
Exponential Reliability Function:
R(t) = e−λt (17)
Time at which Reliability Falls to 1/e (37%):
1
t1 = =m (18)
λ
Hence, the reliability of a device decreases exponentially
with time. When the time t1 equals 1/λ, the reliability R(t)
falls to 1/e, or approximately 37% of its initial value.
Dr. Zafar (BITS Pilani) SatComm: M2
Redundancy to Improve Lifetime

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