PC Hardware

and Network Technical Support

Vol 1
1 Hardware Fundamentals
Lesson Time: 2 hours, 10 minutes

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will identify the hardware components of a computer. You will:
• Identify computer system components.
• Identify storage devices.
• Identify personal computer device connection methods.

Lesson Introduction
A very large percentage of the work that most IT technicians do entails working with
hardware, including installing, upgrading, repairing, configuring, maintaining, optimizing,
and troubleshooting computer components. To install and configure computer hardware,
you need to recognize the basic components that constitute most personal computers, along
with the functionality that each component provides to the computing experience. In this
lesson, you will identify hardware components and how they function.
Preparing for a career in computer support and maintenance can be a daunting task. A good
place to start is with the basics: the essential hardware components that you find in most
computers. Identifying hardware components and their roles give you a solid base on which
to build the knowledge and skills you need to install, configure, and troubleshoot computer
hardware.
This lesson covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) Exam 220-801
certification objectives:
• Topic A:
• Objective 1.1
• Topic B:
• Objectives 1.5, 1.7, 1.12
• Topic C:
• Objectives 1.7, 1.11

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 TOPIC A
Computer System Components
In this lesson, you will identify the hardware components of a computer. The first step is to identify
the hardware that you will find in virtually all computer systems. In this topic, you will identify
computer system components.
If you are not familiar with the various components that a computer is made up of, it can seem like
a jigsaw puzzle. Like most puzzles, each part of a computer connects to other parts in a specific
place, but generally, you will find that the pieces fit together almost exactly the same way from one
system to another. To help you put the puzzle together, you need to understand what these pieces
look like and what they do.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) Exam 220-801 certification
objectives:
• Objective 1.1: Configure and apply BIOS settings.

Common Computer Components

Common Computer Computing components are the physical devices that are required for a computer to operate
Components properly. There are four main categories of components in a typical computer.
Emphasize that early in
this course, you will Component Description
focus on desktop
hardware, and later in The system unit The system unit, also commonly referred to as the CPU, or the tower, is
the course, you will the main component of a computer, which houses most of the other
cover laptop hardware devices that are necessary for the computer to function. Traditionally, it is
components. comprised of a chassis and internal components, such as the system
board, the microprocessor, memory modules, disk drives, adapter cards,
the power supply, fans and other cooling systems, and ports for
connecting external components such as monitors, keyboards, mice, and
other devices.
System units are also often referred to as boxes, main units, or base units.

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Component Description

In some newer computer models, the system unit is incorporated with the
display screen and referred to as an all-in-one computer. Similar to
laptops, the system unit is integrated into a smaller configuration, which
may make it harder to manage or replace the system unit components.
Display devices A display device is a personal computer component that enables users to
view the text and graphical data output from a computer. Display devices
commonly connect to the system unit via a cable, and they have controls
to adjust the settings for the device. They vary in size and shape, as well
as the technologies used.
Common terms for various types of display devices include display,
monitor, screen, cathode ray tube (CRT), liquid crystal display (LCD), and
flat-panel monitors.

Input devices An input device is a personal computer component that enables users to
enter data or instructions into a computer. Common input devices
include keyboards and computer mice. An input device can connect to
the system unit via a cable or a wireless connection.

External devices You can enhance the functionality of practically any personal computer
by connecting different types of external devices to the system unit. Also
called peripheral devices, external devices can provide alternative input or
output methods or additional data storage. You connect external devices
to the system unit via cable or a wireless connection. Some devices have
their own power source, while others draw power from the system.
Common examples of external devices include microphones, cameras,
scanners, printers, and external drives.

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 Component Description

Computer Cases
The computer case is the enclosure that holds all of the components of your computer. Computer
cases come in several sizes and arrangements. Some are designed to hold many internal components
and have a lot of room to work around those components. These are usually tower or desktop cases
and take up a good deal of room. Other cases are designed to use a minimum amount of space. The
trade-off is that the interior of the case is often cramped, with little room for adding additional
components. Because the tower proved to be popular, there are now several versions of the tower
model. These include:
• Full tower, which is usually used for servers or when you will be installing many drives and other
components.
• Mid tower, which is a slightly smaller version of the full-size tower.
• Micro, or mini tower, which is the size that replaces the original desktop case in most modern
systems.
• Slim line, which is a tower case that can be turned on its side to save room

The Motherboard
The motherboard is the personal computer component that acts as the backbone for the entire
computer system. Sometimes called the system board, it consists of a large, flat circuit board with chips
and other electrical components on it, with various connectors. Some components are soldered
directly to the board, and some components connect to the board by using slots or sockets.

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Figure 1-1: A motherboard.

The CPU
The central processing unit (CPU) is a computer chip where most of the computing calculations take
place. On most computers, the CPU is housed in a single microprocessor module that is installed on
the system board in a slot or a socket.

Figure 1-2: CPUs.

Multicore Processors
Since mid-to-late 2000, the trend has been to build processors with two or more individual CPUs
that work in parallel and that are contained in a single chip. Two or more individual processors can
share a workload more efficiently than a single processor. Dual-core and quad-core processors are
engineered to include two to four cores on a single chip, while hexa- and octa-core processors
include six and eight cores, respectively.

Multi-CPU Motherboards
Prior to the development of multicore processors, some hardware manufacturers offered additional
processing power by designing motherboards that could hold more than one CPU. With the advent
of the multicore processors, these are less common in personal computers, but they are still widely
used in server machines.

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 Memory
Memory is the computer system component that provides a temporary workspace for the processor.
Memory refers to modules of computer chips that store data in a digital electronic format, which is
faster to read from and write to than tape or hard drives. Memory chips each contain millions of
transistors etched on one sliver of a semiconductor. Transistors are nothing more than switches that
can be opened or closed. When a transistor is closed, it conducts electricity, representing the binary
number 1. When it is opened, it does not, representing the binary number 0.
There are two types of memory used in computer systems: Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read-
Only Memory (ROM). RAM is a computer storage method that functions as a computer's main
memory. This type requires a constant power source to access the data stored within the RAM.
However, data stored on ROM is saved and stored without a constant power source. Once data is
written to ROM, it cannot be modified easily.

Volatile and Non-volatile Memory

Memory is considered to be either volatile or non-volatile:
• Volatile memory stores data temporarily and requires a constant source of electricity to keep
track of the data stored in it. When the power is no longer available, the data stored in volatile
memory is lost. The computer's main RAM is an example of volatile memory. The computer can
both read the data stored in RAM and write different data into the same RAM. Any byte of data
can be accessed without disturbing other data, so the computer has random access to the data in
RAM.
• Non-volatile memory retains the information stored on it whether or not electrical current is
available. ROM is an example of non-volatile memory.

Figure 1-3: A sample memory module.

The System Bus

In computer communications, a bus is a group of wires or electronic pathways that connect
components. The system bus is the wires, or traces, on the motherboard that provide the main
communication path between the CPU and memory. The system bus enables data transfer between
the CPU, memory, and the other buses in the computer, which connect other system components
such as hard drives and adapter cards. It is sometimes referred to as the frontside bus or local bus.

Storage Devices
A storage device is a computer system component, such as a hard drive, that enables users to save data
for reuse at a later time, even after the personal computer is shut down and restarted. Storage
devices can save data magnetically, optically, or electronically, depending on their design.

Memory

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 Power Supplies

Figure 1-4: Examples of storage devices.

Power Supplies
A power supply is a computer system component that converts line-voltage alternating current (AC)
power from an electrical outlet to the low-voltage direct current (DC) power needed by other system
components. The power supply is often referred to as the power supply unit (PSU). The power
supply is typically a metal box in the rear of the system that is attached to the computer chassis and
to the system board. While the power supply is not itself a component of the system board, it is
required in order for system components to receive power. The power supply contains the power
cord plug and a fan for cooling, because it generates a lot of heat. Some power supplies have a
voltage selector switch that enables you to set them to the voltage configurations that are used in
different countries. AC adapters are generally built in to the power supply for desktop systems and
are external for laptops and other mobile systems.

Figure 1-5: A power supply.

Fixed-Input Power Supply Voltage Selector Switch

Power supplies with voltage selector switches are called fixed-input power supplies. The voltage
selector switches generally have two settings—for example, 220 and 110—depending on the
manufacturer. If you set the switch to a higher voltage than supplied by the power source, the
system will not receive enough power and will not function properly. However, if you set the switch
to a lower setting than supplied by the power source—for example, if you set the switch to 110 volts
(V) while connected to a 220 V outlet—you run the risk of burning out the power supply, damaging
system components, or more seriously, creating a fire or electrocution hazard.

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 Auto-switching power supplies do not have a manual voltage switch, but detect the voltage level
supplied by the outlet and set themselves to the correct voltage automatically. This can be
convenient and safe for people who travel to various countries with portable computers.

Cooling Systems
A cooling system is a computer system component that prevents damage to other computer parts by
dissipating the heat generated inside a computer chassis. The cooling system can consist of one or
more fans and other components such as heat sinks or liquid cooling systems that service the entire
computer as well as individual components, such as the power supply and CPU.

Figure 1-6: A typical cooling system for a CPU.

Components That Require Cooling

Computer systems contain several components that require cooling:
• The CPU.
• The power supply.
• Some adapter cards.
• Some hard disk drives.

Expansion Cards
An expansion card is a printed circuit board that you install into an expansion slot on the computer’s
system board to expand the functionality of the computer. In standard desktop systems, cards have
connectors that fit into an expansion slot on a system board and circuitry to connect a specific
device to the computer. Laptops, on the other hand, typically have slots located on the outside of
the case for inserting expansion cards. These cards are often referred to as laptop expansion cards.

Cooling Systems

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Figure 1-7: An expansion card.

Note: An expansion card is also known as an adapter card, I/O card, add-in, add-on, or simply
as a board.

Riser Cards
A riser card is a board that plugs into the system board and provides additional expansion slots for
adapter cards. Because it rises above the system board, it enables you to connect additional adapters
to the system in an orientation that is parallel to the system board and thus saves space within the
system case. Riser cards are commonly found within rackmount server implementations to provide
additional slots for expanding the features of a server and in low rise smaller cases to fit larger
expansion cards.

Figure 1-8: A riser card.

Note: A riser card expands motherboard capabilities the way a power strip increases the
capabilities of electrical outlets.

Daughter Boards
Daughter board is a general computing and electronics term for any circuit board that plugs into
another circuit board. In personal computing, a daughter board can be used as a more general term
for adapter cards. Sometimes, in casual usage, the term “daughter board” is used interchangeably
with the term “riser card,” but technically they are not the same.

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 Firmware
Firmware Firmware is specialized software stored in memory chips that stores OS-specific information whether
or not power to the computer is on. It is most often written on an electronically reprogrammable
chip so that it can be updated with a special program to fix any errors that might be discovered after
a computer is purchased, or to support updated hardware components.
Note: Updating firmware electronically is called flashing.

The System BIOS

The System BIOS A Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) is a set of instructions that is stored in ROM and that is used to
start the most basic services of a computer system. Every computer has a system BIOS, which sets the
computer's configuration and environment when the system is powered on. It is located in ROM
chips on the system board. Computers may also include other devices that have their own BIOS to
control their functions.

Figure 1-9: The system BIOS resides on ROM chips, and sets the computer's configuration and
environment at startup.

The POST
The POST The Power-On Self Test (POST) is a built-in diagnostic program that runs every time a personal
computer starts up. The POST checks your hardware to ensure that everything is present and
functioning properly, before the system BIOS begins the operating system boot process. If there is
an error, then an audible beep will alert you that something is wrong.
The POST process contains several steps to ensure that the system meets the necessary
requirements to operate properly.
Note: The POST process can vary a great deal from manufacturer to manufacturer.

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Hardware Component POST Test Criteria

Power supply Must be turned on, and must supply its "power good" signal.
CPU Must exit Reset status mode, and must be able to execute instructions.
BIOS Must be readable.
BIOS memory Must be readable.
Memory Must be able to be read by the CPU, and the first 64 KB of memory
must be able to hold the POST code.
Input/output (I/O) bus Must be accessible, and must be able to communicate with the video
or I/O controller subsystem.

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 ACTIVITY 1-1
Identifying Personal Computer Components

Scenario
In this activity, you will identify personal computer components.
Consider asking
participants to identify
the major components 1. Your instructor might provide you with examples of computer components and ask you or other
(system unit, display participants to identify them.
device, input devices,
and peripheral devices) 2. Identify the computer components in this graphic.
of their computers. This
can be an opportunity to
generate discussion on
the differences between
the various types of
components and their
uses.

A. System unit
B. Display device
C. Input device
D. Peripheral device

3. Which computer components are part of the system unit?

☐ Chassis
☐ Internal hard drive
☐ Monitor
☐ Portable USB drive
☐ Memory

4. What are the main categories of personal computer components?

☐ System unit
☐ Display
☐ Input devices
☐ Network devices
☐ Peripheral devices

5. Identify the system unit and motherboard components in this graphic.

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 A. Motherboard
B. Power supply
C. Adapter card
D. Storage device
E. Memory
F. CPU

6. How many fans would you expect to find in a computer? How many do you think are in the computer
you are using for this course?
A: Answers will vary, but should indicate at least one fan for the power supply. A case fan and a fan
for the CPU might also be present, as well as fans on some expansion cards.

7. Where is the system BIOS stored?

○ On the primary hard drive
○ In BIOS memory
○ On ROM chips
○ In RAM

8. Which hardware components are checked during the POST?

☐ Power supply
☐ CPU
☐ Display
☐ RAM

9. Which system unit components are connected by the system bus?

☐ CPU
☐ Memory
☐ Power supply
☐ System board
☐ Cooling system

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 TOPIC B
Storage Devices
In the previous topic, you identified the main components of a personal computer. One of the
primary reasons for using a computer is to electronically store data. In this topic, you will identify
the types of storage devices used in personal computers.
As a computer technician, your responsibilities are likely to include installing and maintaining many
different types of computer components, including storage devices. By identifying the various types
of storage devices that can be found in most personal computers, you will be better prepared to
select, install, and maintain storage devices in personal computers.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) Exam 220-801 certification
objectives:
• Objective 1.5: Install and configure storage devices and use appropriate media.
• Objective 1.7: Compare and contrast various connection interfaces and explain their purpose.
• Objective 1.12: Install and configure various peripheral devices.

Floppy Drives
Floppy Drives A floppy disk drive (FDD) is a storage device that reads data from, and writes data to, floppy disks.
Floppy disks are removable disks that are made of flexible Mylar plastic that is covered with
magnetic coating and enclosed in stiff, protective plastic cases. The vast majority of floppy drives are
internal devices that connect to the system board through a floppy disk controller, and they get their
power from the personal computer's power supply. The form factor is usually 3.5 inches; 3.5-inch
floppy disks can hold up to 1.44 MB of data. Floppy disk drives are not used much anymore and are
considered a legacy technology, but you might still encounter them on older machines.

Figure 1-10: An FDD.

Note: Although 3.5 inches is the most recent standard for floppy disks and drives, 5.25-inch
floppy disks and drives were once the standard, and before that, 8-inch disks and drives were the
standard. You will probably never encounter either of these, and even 3.5-inch models are
essentially obsolete.

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Hard Drives
A hard disk drive (HDD) is a storage device that reads data from, and writes data to, a hard disk. A Hard Drives
hard disk consists of several metal or hard plastic platters with a magnetic surface coating. Data is
stored magnetically and can be accessed directly. Although the HDD and the hard disk are not the
same thing, they are packaged together and are often referred to interchangeably. HDDs are also
referred to as hard drives, and they can be internal or external devices. Internal hard drives are
mounted inside the chassis and connect directly to the system board through at least one cable for
data and one for power, while external hard drives generally connect to the system by means of an
expansion card or a port.

Figure 1-11: An HDD.

Disk Controllers
Both floppy drives and hard drives require circuitry to communicate with the CPU. This circuitry is
known as the disk controller. Disk controllers can be built into the drive itself, or they can be
contained on an expansion card. In most modern floppy drives and hard drives, the controller is
built into the drive.

Jumpers
Jumpers are used to configure older hardware by shutting off an electrical circuit located on the
component. Using jumpers, this is accomplished by sliding a jumper shunt over the jumper pins on
the jumper block of the motherboard.

Hard Drive Speeds

The speed of a hard drive is based on how fast the disk is spun to retrieve the requested data. This is
referred to as revolutions per minute (rpm). Common speeds include:
• 5,400 rpm
• 7,200 rpm
• 10,000 rpm
• 15,000 rpm

Types of Hard Drives

There are many types of hard disks that you might encounter as you work with personal computers, Types of Hard Drives
each of which has its own set of characteristics.

Hard Drive Type Characteristics

Parallel Advanced Also known as Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE), Enhanced IDE (EIDE),
Technology Attachment Ultra Direct Memory Access (UDMA), and Advanced Technology Attachment
(PATA) (ATA) drives, PATA drives have the following characteristics:
• The controller is built into the drive.
• PATA drives are limited to two channels, each with up to two devices.

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 Hard Drive Type Characteristics

• The earliest PATA drives came in "types," which corresponded to a

particular internal geometry; the drive type needed to be set in the system
BIOS. Modern drives are automatically detected.
• If the drive type is not automatically detected, it must be set in the
system BIOS.
• Over the years, there have been several revisions to the standard, each
supporting different data transfer rates.
• To install PATA drives, you use jumpers to set the configuration.
Small Computer SCSI drives have the following characteristics:
Systems Interface
• There is no controller built into the drive. A separate bus within the
(SCSI)
computer system enables SCSI drives to communicate with the CPU.
• SCSI supports up to eight devices, but the host bus adapter (HBA) card
installed in the computer counts as one of the devices, so you can
actually connect only up to seven drives or other devices (15 devices in
more recent versions).
• You must configure separate SCSI ID settings for each device.
• You might need to set the system BIOS to no drive, and then configure
the SCSI firmware to recognize which drive to boot from.
• There are several variations on the interface, each supporting different
data transfer rates.
Serial Advanced SATA drives have the following characteristics:
Technology Attachment
• SATA supports one device per channel.
(SATA)
• Data transfer rates are 150 MBps for SATA I and 300 MBps for SATA
II.
• SATA supports hot swapping of drives, which means that you can replace
a SATA drive without powering down the system.
• Recently, computers have started offering external SATA jacks.

PATA Configuration
Each PATA interface can support up to two drives. Because the controller is integrated with the
drive, there is no overall controller to decide which device is currently communicating with the
CPU. This is not a problem as long as each device is on a separate interface, but to support two
devices on the same channel, the master/slave configuration was developed. This configuration
allows one drive's controller (the master) to tell the other drive's controller (the slave) when it can
transfer data to or from the computer. Some drives feature an option called Cable Select (CS). With
the correct type of connecting cable, these drives can be automatically configured as master or slave.
Most drives today come preset for CS, which allows the BIOS to configure itself as needed.

ATA and Related Specifications

Hard drive manufacturer Western Digital designed IDE technology as a replacement for even older
drive technologies that did not include an integrated drive controller. American National Standards
Institute’s (ANSI) ATA standard was based on IDE and released in 1990. ATA referred to IBM®’s
PC/AT. When SATA technology was introduced in 2003, ATA was retroactively renamed PATA.
The original IDE specification predated CD-ROM drives, and did not support hard drives larger
than 504 MB. However, revisions of the specifications over the years have extended the capabilities
to provide support for faster and larger hard drives and other devices. The following table describes
PATA specifications.

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Standard and Other Description
Common Names for It

IDE, ATA, ATA-1, or The original PATA specification supported one channel, with two
PATA drives configured in a master/slave arrangement. A second channel was
added later.
EIDE, Fast ATA, Also known as ATA Interface with Extensions ATA-2, Western Digital
ATA-2, or Fast ATA-2 called its implementation EIDE. Seagate’s was called Fast ATA or Fast
ATA-2. It could implement power-saving mode features, if desired.
ATA-3 A minor enhancement to ATA-2, this standard improved reliability for
high-speed data transfer modes. Self Monitoring Analysis And
Reporting Technology (SMART) was introduced. This is logic in the
drives that warns of impending drive problems. Password protection
was available as a security feature of the drives.
ATA/ATAPI-4, ATA-4, This standard doubled data transfer rates. ATA Packet Interface
Ultra ATA/33, Ultra (ATAPI) is an EIDE interface enhancement that includes commands
DMA, UDMA, or used to control tape, CD-ROM, and other removable drives.
UDMA/33
ATA/ATAPI-5, ATA-5, The ATA-5 specification introduced UDMA modes 3 and 4, as well as
Ultra ATA/66, or mandatory use of the 80-conductor (40-pin), high-performance IDE
UDMA/66 cable with UDMA modes higher than 2. Additional changes to the
command set were also part of this specification. This standard supports
drives up to 137 GB.
ATA/ATAPI-6, ATA-6, This standard supports data transfers at up to 100 MBps and supports
Ultra ATA/100, or drives as large as 144 petabytes (PB), which is approximately 144 million
UDMA/100 GB or 144 quadrillion bytes.
PIO Programmed Input/Output (PIO) is a data transfer method that
includes the CPU in the data path. It has been replaced by DMA and
UDMA.
DMA Direct Memory Access (DMA) is a data transfer method that moves
data directly from the drive to main memory. UDMA transfers data in
burst mode at a rate of 33.3 MB per second. The speed is two times
faster than DMA.
SATA This standard uses serial instead of parallel signaling technology for
ATA and ATAPI devices. SATA employs serial connectors and serial
cables, which are smaller, thinner, and more flexible than traditional
PATA cables. Data transfer rates are 150 MB per second or greater.
SATA II, SATA2, or This standard provides data transfer rates of 300 MBps.
SATA 3 Gbps
SATA 6 Gbps This standard doubled data transfer rates, and is designed to support the
latest (and future) solid state drives (SSDs).

SCSI Standards
SCSI standards have been revised repeatedly over the years. The following table describes current
SCSI standards.

SCSI Standard Description

SCSI-1 Features an 8-bit parallel bus (with parity), running asynchronously at 3.5 MBps
or 5 MBps in synchronous mode, and a maximum bus cable length of 6 meters,
compared to the 0.45-meter limit of the PATA interface. A variation on the

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 SCSI Standard Description
original standard included a high-voltage differential (HVD) implementation with a
maximum cable length of 25 meters.
SCSI-2 Introduced the Fast SCSI and Wide SCSI variants. Fast SCSI doubled the
maximum transfer rate to 10 MBps, and Wide SCSI doubled the bus width to 16
bits to reach 20 MBps. The maximum cable length was reduced to 3 meters.
SCSI-3 The first parallel SCSI devices that exceeded the SCSI-2 capabilities were simply
designated SCSI-3. These devices were also known as Ultra SCSI and Fast-20
SCSI. The bus speed doubled again to 20 MBps for narrow (8-bit) systems and
40 MBps for wide (16-bit). The maximum cable length stayed at 3 meters.
Ultra-2 SCSI This standard featured a low-voltage differential (LVD) bus. For this reason, Ultra-2
SCSI is sometimes referred to as LVD SCSI. LVD's greater immunity to noise
allowed a maximum bus cable length of 12 meters. At the same time, the data
transfer rate was increased to 80 MBps.
Ultra-3 SCSI Also known as Ultra-160 SCSI, this version was basically an improvement on
the Ultra-2 SCSI standard, in that the transfer rate was doubled once more to
160 MBps. Ultra-160 SCSI offered new features such as cyclic redundancy check
(CRC), an error correcting process, and domain validation.
Ultra-320 SCSI This standard doubled the data transfer rate to 320 MBps.
Ultra-640 SCSI Also known as Fast-320 SCSI, Ultra-640 doubles the interface speed yet again,
this time to 640 MBps. Ultra-640 pushes the limits of LVD signaling; the speed
limits cable lengths drastically, making it impractical for more than one or two
devices.
Serial SCSI Four versions of SCSI—Serial Storage Architecture (SSA), Fibre Channel-Alternating
Loop (FC-AL), IEEE 1394, and Serial Attached SCSI (SAS)—perform data
transfer via serial communications. Serial SCSI supports faster data rates than
traditional SCSI implementations, hot swapping, and improved fault isolation.
Serial SCSI devices are generally more expensive than the equivalent parallel
SCSI devices.
iSCSI Internet SCSI (iSCSI) provides connectivity between SCSI storage networks over
an IP-based network without the need for installing Fibre Channel.

Optical Disks
Optical Disks An optical disk is a storage device that stores data optically, rather than magnetically. The removable
plastic disks have a reflective coating and require an optical drive to be read. In optical storage, data
is written by either pressing or burning with a laser to create pits (recessed areas) and lands (raised
areas) in the reflective surface of the disc. Common optical disks include compact discs (CDs) and
digital versatile discs (DVDs).

Types of Optical Disks

There is a wide variety of optical discs available in the marketplace, each with its own requirements
and specifications.

Optical Disk Type Description

CD-ROM Compact Disc-Read Only Memory. Data is permanently burned onto the
disk during its manufacture.
CD-R CD-Recordable. Data can be written to the disk only once.
CD-RW CD-Rewritable. Data can be written to the disk multiple times.

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Optical Disk Type Description
DVD-ROM Digital Versatile Disc-Read Only Memory. Data is permanently burned onto
the disk during its manufacture.
DVD-R DVD-Recordable. Data can be written to the disk only once.
DVD+R Another format of DVD-Recordable. Data can be written to the disk only
once.
DVD+R DL DVD-Recordable Double Layer. A higher-capacity double-layer format.
Data can be written to the disk only once.
DVD-RW DVD-Rewritable. Data can be written to the disk multiple times.
Dual Layer DVD- A DVD-RW disc that has two layer of writable space with a maximum
RW capacity of 8.5 GB. These disks are not used widely due to the cost and the
release of Blu-ray.
DVD+RW Another format of DVD-Rewritable. Data can be written to the disk
multiple times.
DVD-RAM DVD-Random Access Memory. Data can be written to the disk multiple
times.
BD-ROM Blu-ray Disc-Read Only Memory. Blu-ray discs (BD) are intended for high-
density storage of high-definition video as well as data storage. Current Blu-
ray discs hold 50 GB total. However, companies such as Sony are testing
experimental disks that have storage capacities of up to 200 GB and more.
BD-R Blu-ray Disc-Recordable (BD-R). Data can be written to BD-R once.
BD-RE Blu-ray Disc-Recordable Erasable. BD-RE is a disc that can be written to as
well as erased. Data can be written to and erased from the disk many times
without compromising the integrity of the disk or the data stored on it.

DVD Plus or DVD Dash?

There are several competing DVD formats. DVD-ROM, DVD-R, DVD-RW, and DVD-RAM are
approved by the DVD Forum, while DVD+R, DVD+R DL, DVD+RW are not. Because some of
the competing formats are incompatible, many hybrid DVD drives have been developed. These
hybrid drives are often labeled DVD±RW.

Optical Drives
An optical drive is an internal or external disk drive that reads data to and writes data from an optical Optical Drives
disc. Optical drives can be connected to the system by using IDE, SCSI, or other interfaces. Internal
optical drives generally have a 5.25-inch form factor.

Types of Optical Drives and Burners

Optical drives include CD, DVD, and Blu-ray drives. Some optical drives provide only read
capabilities, while others enable users to write, or burn, data to optical disks. CD, DVD, and Blu-ray
drives have varying characteristics and specifications.

Optical Drive Description

Type

CD Compact discs store data on one side of the disc, and most hold up to 700 MB of
data, although older disks and drives may support only up to 650.4 MB of data.
CDs are widely used to store music and data. To meet the audio CD standard, the
CD drive on a computer must transfer data at a rate of at least 150 KBps. Most

19
 Optical Drive Description
Type
CD drives deliver higher speeds: at least eight times (8x) or sixteen times (16x) the
audio transfer rate. There are also drives with much higher transfer rates, up to
52x. CD drives use one of two special file systems: Compact Disc File System
(CDFS) or Universal Disc Format (UDF). CDs can be either CD-R (which can be
written to once) or CD-RW (which can be written to multiple times).
DVD Digital versatile discs can typically hold 4.7 GB on one side of the disk; it is
possible to write to both surfaces of the disk, in which case the disk can hold up to
9.4 GB. There are also dual-layer disks, which store additional data on each side,
and are capable of holding up to 17 GB. DVD drives access data at speeds from
600 KBps to 1.3 MBps. Because of the huge storage capacity and fast data access,
DVDs are widely used to store full-length movies and other multimedia content.
DVD drives use UDF as the file system. DVDs can be DVD-R (which can be
written to once), or DVD-RW (which can be written to multiple times).
Blu-ray Named for the blue laser it uses to read and write data, Blu-ray drives read and
write data from Blu-ray discs. Blu-ray discs are primarily used for high-definition
video, though they are also used for data storage. Blu-ray used to compete with
high-definition (HD) DVD for market share, but has since emerged as the winner
of that battle. The wavelength of the blue laser is shorter than that of the red laser
used in previous optical drives, so data can be more tightly packed on a Blu-ray
disc. A single-layer Blu-ray disc can hold up to 25 GB of information, and a dual-
layer Blu-ray disc can hold up to 50 GB, dwarfing the capacity of a standard
double-sided DVD. Blu-ray uses UDF v2.5.
Combination A combination drive, also referred to as a combo drive, can read and write to a
drives and number of different optical disc types. Older combo drives were equipped with the
burners read/write function for CDs only, but could also read DVDs. However, most
combo drives today are primarily DVD-RW burners that also have the ability to
read/write CDs and Blu-ray discs. Depending on your needs, you may require a
combo drive that can also support the use of dual-layer DVD-RW discs.
Depending on the manufacturer, some combination Blu-ray drives and players can
also read/write to CDs and DVDs. It is a best practice to check the specific
manufacturer's drive capabilities to verify which media the device can support.

Tape Drives
A tape drive is a storage device that stores data magnetically on a tape that is enclosed in a removable
tape cartridge. Data on the tape must be read sequentially. Sizes for external tape drives vary, but
internal drives have a 5.25-inch form factor. Tape drives are most commonly used to store backup
copies of archived, offline data in large data centers and are almost never used with desktop
computers. Recent technological advances made by IBM have allowed for data on tapes to be
accessed and read in a file format method similar to other storage media, such as optical disks and
flash drives. The specification is called Linear Tape File Systems (LTFS). LTFS is a tape format that
determines how data is recorded on tape, and how specialized software will read that data.

20
Figure 1-12: A tape drive.

Solid State Storage

Solid state drives (SSDs), use flash technology to retain data in special types of memory instead of on Solid State Storage
disks or tape. Solid state storage uses non-volatile memory to emulate mechanical storage devices,
but solid state storage is much faster and more reliable than mechanical storage because there are no
moving parts.

Solid State vs. Magnetic Storage

Storage devices typically store data in either solid state or magnetic form. Solid state devices, such as
flash drives, contain no moving parts and tend to be more reliable than magnetic drives. Magnetic
drives, such as hard drives, store information on a magnetic coated media that is rotated underneath
a read/write head.

Hot Swappable Devices

Hot swapping is a type of hardware replacement procedure where a component can be replaced
while the main power is still on. Also called hot plug or hot insertion, hot swap is a feature of USB
and FireWire devices, enabling you to install an external drive, network adapter, or other peripheral
without having to power down the computer. It is good practice to use the safe removal option
from the System Tray before removing a hot-swappable device or peripheral from the computer.
Hot swapping can also refer to the system's ability to detect when hardware is added or removed.
Non-hot-swappable devices require the system to be shut down and restarted before any device
installation updates or removals are recognized by the system.

Types of Solid State Storage

Solid state storage comes in several formats, many of which are used in external devices such as Types of Solid Storage
digital cameras or mobile devices.

Solid State Specifications

Storage Device

USB flash drives USB flash drives come in several form factors, including thumb drives and
pen drives. Thumb drives can be small, from 50 to 70 mm long, 17 to 20 mm
wide, and 10 to 12 mm thick. Data storage capacities vary, from 128 MB up to
128 GB. Data transfer rates also vary, from 700 KBps to 28 MBps for read
operations, and from 350 KBps to 15 MBps for write operations.

21
 Solid State Specifications
Storage Device

SSDs Flash-memory-based disks do not need batteries, allowing makers to replicate

standard disk-drive form factors (2.5-inch and 3.5-inch). Flash SSDs are
extremely fast since these devices have no moving parts, eliminating seek time,
latency, and other electromechanical delays inherent in conventional disk
drives. The use of SSDs has been increasing over time due to their speed and
quick data access times.
SSDs can be configured within systems to replace traditional computer
hardware such as disk drives, optical drives, and network security appliances
that include firewall and routing functions.

CF cards CompactFlash (CF) cards are flash memory cards that are 43 mm long by 36
mm wide. Due to their compact size, they are typically used in portable
devices. Type I is 3.3 mm thick and Type II is 5 mm thick. They hold 100 GB
or more, and have a 50-pin contact. Transfer speeds of up to 66 MBps are
possible.
Newer versions of the CF card offer speeds up to 1 Gbps and can store up to
1 terabyte (TB) of data.
CF cards are commonly used for additional storage in:
• Digital cameras
• Music players
• Personal computing devices
• Photo printers
• Digital camera recorders

22
Solid State Specifications
Storage Device

SM cards SmartMedia (SM) cards are flash memory cards that are similar in size to the
CF cards, and are 45 mm long by 37 mm wide by 0.76 mm thick. They can
hold up to 128 MB and can transfer data at speeds of up to 8 MBps.
SM cards are commonly used for additional storage in:
• Digital cameras
• Digital camera recorders
• Older models of personal digital assistants (PDAs)

xD xD-Picture Cards (xD) are flash memory cards that are specifically designed
for use in digital cameras. They are 20 mm long by 25 mm wide by 1.7 mm
thick. They can hold up to 2 GB with plans for up to 8 GB. Data transfer
rates range from 4 to 15 MBps for read operations and from 1.3 to 9 MBps
for write operations.

23
 Solid State Specifications
Storage Device

MSes Memory sticks (MSes) are flash memory cards that are 50 mm long by 21.5
mm wide by 2.8 mm thick. They can hold up to 16 GB and are used
extensively in Sony products such as VAIO® laptops. Data transfer rates are
2.5 MBps for read operations and 1.8 MBps for write operations.

SD cards The original Secure Digital (SD) Memory Card is 32 mm long, 24 mm wide,
and 2.1 mm thick. The miniSD Card measures 21.5 mm by 20 mm by 1.4 mm,
and the microSD/TransFlash Card measures 15 mm by 11 mm by 1 mm. SD
Memory Cards are currently available in several capacities, up to 2 TB. Data
transfer rates range from 10 MBps to 20 MBps.
SD cards are used in many different devices, including:
• Laptops
• Digital cameras
• Smartphones
• Handheld gaming devices
• Audio players

24
Solid State Specifications
Storage Device

MMCs MultiMediaCards (MMCs) are 32 mm long by 24 mm wide by 1.5 mm thick.

Reduced Size MMCs (RS-MMCs) and MMCmobile cards are 16 mm by 24
mm by 1.5 mm. MMCmini cards are 21.5 mm by 20 mm by 1.4 mm, and
MMCmicro cards are 12 mm by 14 mm by 1.1 mm. These cards can hold up
to 8 GB, and data transfer rates can reach 52 MBps. MMC cards are generally
also compatible with SD card readers and are used in many of the same
devices.

25
 ACTIVITY 1-2
Identifying Storage Devices

Scenario
In this activity, you will identify storage devices.
Consider displaying
various examples of
storage devices, 1. Your instructor might provide you with examples of storage devices and ask you or other participants to
including both drives and identify them.
disks or other media,
and ask participants to 2. Which storage device records data magnetically and is most often used for backups?
identify them. This can
be an opportunity to ○ FDD
generate discussion on ○ HDD
the differences between
the various types of
○ Optical disk drive
devices and the media ○ Tape drive
that they use, as well as
the common practice of
○ SSD
treating the drive and the
medium as identical 3. What is the primary benefit of using solid state storage?
entities. A: Answers will vary, but should include the portability of thumb drives and other small solid state
If you have virtual devices, and the speed of data access when compared to traditional magnetic storage media.
students attending your
class, be sure that they 4. Which two optical drive media types enable you to write to an optical disk only once?
can see the devices you ☐ CD-ROM
are displaying in class.
☐ CD-R
☐ CD+RW
☐ DVD+R
☐ DVD-RW

5. True or False? No optical disk can hold more than 50 GB of data.

☐ True
☐ False

26
TOPIC C
Device Connections and Interfaces
You are already familiar with the common components that make up a personal computer. Next,
you need to be able to identify how all the components are connected together to form a complete
personal computer system. In this topic, you will identify device connection and interface methods.
A personal computer is made up of many different components. All of these components need to
be able to communicate with each other in order for the computer to function properly. As personal
computers have evolved over the years, a number of connection technologies have been
implemented to provide communication among computer components. As a computer technician,
identifying the different methods that are used to connect devices to a computer will enable you to
install, upgrade, and replace personal computer components quickly and effectively.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) Exam 220-801 certification
objectives:
• Objective 1.7: Compare and contrast various connection interfaces and explain their purpose.
• Objective 1.11: Identify connector types and associated cables.

Ports
A port is a hardware interface that you can use to connect devices to a computer. The port transfers
electronic signals between the device and the system unit. The port is either an electrically wired
socket or plug, or it can be a wireless transmission device. Ports can vary by shape, by color
according to the color coding standards, by the number and layout of the pins or connectors
contained within the port, by the signals the port carries, and by the port's location. Ports exist for
both internal and external devices. External ports often have a graphical representation of the type
of device that should be connected to it, such as a small picture of a monitor adjacent to the video
port. 7

Ports

27
 Figure 1-13: Ports on a personal computer.

Genders
Most ports and the cables that connect to them have genders. For example, most computer ports
are jacks, into which you plug in the matching cable. The computer's jacks are most often the female
connectors and the cable's plug is most often the male connector. You can always look directly at
the innermost electrical connections on the connectors to determine the gender. The one with the
protruding pins is the male and the one with the holes to accept the pins is the female.

Port Shapes
Ports can have different physical shapes such as round, rectangular, square, and oblong. There is
some standardization of physical properties and functions, though. Most connectors are keyed in
some way to restrict connecting devices into the wrong port.

PS/2 Ports
The round 6-pin port, also referred to as a mini-Din connector or PS/2 port, is an interface located
on the motherboard. The Din-6 port is the larger 13.2 mm port. Many keyboards and mice use PS/2
ports to connect to the motherboard. To avoid confusion between the identical-looking keyboard
and mouse ports, PS/2 ports are often color-coded to match the end of the cable on the device:
purple for the keyboard and green for the mouse. Or, there may be a sticker with a picture of a
mouse and keyboard near the connectors.

Computer Connections
Computer connections are the physical access points that enable a computer to communicate with
internal or external devices. They include the ports on both the computer and the connected
devices, plus a transmission medium, which is either a cable with connectors at each end or a

28
wireless technology. Personal computer connections can be categorized by the technology or
standard that was used to develop the device.

Figure 1-14: A personal computer connection.

Serial Connections
A serial connection is a personal computer connection that transfers data one bit at a time over a single
wire. Serial connections support two-way communications and were typically used for devices such
as fax cards or external modems. These legacy serial ports have either 9-pin (DB-9) or 25-pin
(DB-25) male connectors. A legacy serial cable ends with a female connector to plug into the male
connector on the system unit. On system units that have color-coded ports, the serial port is teal-
colored. Serial connections that are seen today are used to attach printers, scientific devices such as
telescopes, networking hardware such as routers and switches, and industrial products. In most
cases, these devices will need to be connected using a USB adapter.

Figure 1-15: A serial connection.

29
Ethernet and USB ports
are technically also Serial Transmissions
types of serial In a serial transmission, data is sent and received one bit at a time over a single wire. To accomplish
connections, and
operate similarly;
this, the serial communication process:
however, the term "serial 1. Disassembles bytes into bits on the sending end of the communication.
port" generally refers to 2. Sends the bits across the communication wires.
legacy 9-pin or 25-pin
serial connections.
3. Reassembles the bits into bytes at the receiving end.

Serial Port Naming

Serial ports are typically called COM1, COM2, COM3, and COM4, where “COM” is short for
communications port. This port has been almost completely phased out in favor of USB. You'll
probably find many systems with no serial ports at all.

Parallel Connections
Parallel Connections A parallel connection is a computer connection that transfers data eight or more bits at a time over
eight or more wires. Any components connected by multiple data pathways may be considered to
have a parallel connection, but the term is generally used to refer to a standard legacy parallel port
that uses eight data wires, and is typically used to connect a printer to a system unit. Parallel
connections in older personal computers support only one-way or unidirectional communications.
Newer computers have parallel ports that support bidirectional communications. Standard parallel
ports have 25-pin female connectors. A parallel cable has a 25-pin male connector to plug into the
system unit and a 36-pin male Centronics connector at the other end to attach to the external
device. On system units that have color-coded ports, the parallel port is burgundy or dark pink.

Figure 1-16: A parallel connection.

Note: The standard parallel port has been phased out in favor of USB, so you may find many
systems with no parallel ports at all.

30
FDD Connections
Internal FDDs have two primary connections: the power connection and the data connection. The
data connection is a parallel connection. The FDD cable is a 34-pin flat ribbon cable with a twist,
which is used to differentiate between multiple FDDs in a system.

USB Connections
A universal serial bus (USB) connection is a computer connection that enables you to connect multiple
peripherals to a single port with high performance and minimal device configuration. USB
connections support two-way communications. All modern PC systems today have multiple USB
ports and can, with the use of USB hubs, support up to 127 devices per port. USB cables may have
different connectors at each end. The computer end of the cable ends in a Type A connector. The
device end of the cable commonly ends in a Type B connector, or may also end in a Mini-A, Mini-B,
Micro-AB, or Micro-B connector. The mini connectors are typically used for portable devices such
as smartphones. The size of the connector varies depending on the device. USB connections
transfer data serially, but at a much faster throughput than legacy serial connections. USB devices
also incorporate Plug-and-Play technology that allows devices to self-configure as soon as a
connection is made.

Figure 1-17: USB connections.

USB Standards
USB 2.0, released in April 2000, is the most commonly implemented standard. It can communicate
at up to 480 Mbps. The original USB 1.1 standard is still commonly found in devices and systems. It
can communicate at up to 12 Mbps. A USB 2.0 device connected to a USB 1.1 hub or port will
communicate at only USB 1.1 speeds, even though it might be capable of faster speeds. Generally,
the operating system will inform you of this when you connect the device.
USB 3.0, also called SuperSpeed USB, is the latest USB standard released in November 2008. It
features a maximum transfer rate of 5.0 Gbps. It is 10 times faster than the USB 2.0 standard, has
enhanced power efficiency, and is backward compatible with USB-enabled devices currently in use.
USB cables have a maximum distance before performance suffers. To work around this, one or
more hubs can be used to create a "chain" to reach the necessary cable length. USB 1.1 has a
maximum cable length of 3 meters, while USB 2.0's maximum length is 5 meters. In each case, a
maximum of five hubs can be used to extend the cable length. The maximum cable length is not
specified in the USB 3.0 specification.

PATA ports are

technically also types of
parallel connections, and
operate similarly, but the
term "parallel port" 31
specifically refers to the
 IEEE 1394 and FireWire Connections
A FireWire connection is a computer connection that provides a high-speed interface for peripheral
devices that are designed to use the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) 1394 standard.
FireWire can support up to 63 devices on one FireWire port. FireWire 400 transmits at 400 Mbps
and uses either a 6-pin, bullet-shaped, powered connector or a 4-pin square-shaped, unpowered,
connector. FireWire 800 transmits at 800 Mbps and uses a 9-pin connector.

Figure 1-18: A FireWire connection.

FireWire Terminology
Apple® was the primary vendor to promote the IEEE 1394 Standard, and used the FireWire name
as a trademark for the IEEE 1394 implementation included in its Macintosh® systems. FireWire has
since become the common name for all IEEE 1394 devices.

FireWire vs. USB

FireWire predated USB and was faster than the original USB 1.1 standard. USB 2.0, with its
increased speed, largely superseded FireWire. However, although USB 2.0 is faster by the numbers
than FireWire, FireWire is actually faster on throughput, making it ideal for video/audio file
transfers and external storage devices. A file transfer of 100 separate documents might be slightly
faster on USB than FireWire, but a file transfer of a single 2 GB video file will be much faster in
FireWire. Also, while USB provides a device up to 5 V power, FireWire provides up to 12 V power
on the wire.
With the release of USB 3.0 and the latest FireWire S3200, the performance will still vary. USB 3.0 is
10 times faster than USB 2.0, and will remain the popular standard used for most devices. The
FireWire S3200 standard, however, still has considerable advantages over USB. For example,
FireWire uses much less CPU power, and provides more power over a single cable connection.
Similar to USB, FireWire has maximum distance restrictions. However, FireWire's distances are
greater than USB's. A FireWire "chain," created with cables and repeaters, can reach up to 237 feet
from device to host, while USB 2.0 can reach 30 meters (just under 100 feet).

SCSI Connections
SCSI, pronounced “scuzzy,” is an older connection standard, typically used for storage devices such
as tape and hard drives, that remains in use due to its reliability and high speed. A SCSI adapter has
a port for external devices and a connection for internal devices. SCSI devices themselves can have
multiple ports, enabling you to connect up to seven devices in a chain to one SCSI adapter. Each
device in the chain requires a unique ID, which you configure by using switches or jumpers. SCSI
cables have 25-pin, 50-pin, 68-pin, or 80-pin connectors, depending upon the type of SCSI in use.

IEEE 1394 and FireWire

Connections
32
Figure 1-19: A SCSI connection.

PATA Connections
A PATA connection is a drive connection standard that provides a parallel data channel from the
drive controller to the disk drives. Originally called ATA, IDE, EIDE, or UDMA, PATA
connections are used to connect internal hard drives, optical drives, and tape drives to the system
board. On the system board, two sockets provide connections for up to two drives per socket.
PATA cables are ribbon cables with 40 or 80 wires and 40-pin connectors.

Figure 1-20: A PATA connection.

33
 Note: You might hear PATA pronounced “Parallel ay-tee-ay,” “PEE-ay-tee-ay,” “PAY-tuh,” or
“PAT-uh.”

ATA, IDE, EIDE, and UDMA

IDE, EIDE, and UDMA are alternative names for the ATA standards that are now referred to as
PATA. (After Serial ATA drives became popular, the PATA term was coined to refer to the parallel
drives.) There have been several versions of the ATA standard, with successive versions providing
support for different types of devices, or providing performance enhancements such as higher data
rates. For example, ATAPI provides support for tape drives and CD-ROM drives, while ATA-7
supports data rates up to 133 Mbps.

Master and Slave Designations

PATA drives are configured in a master/slave hierarchy, usually by setting jumpers. Each PATA
channel can support one or two devices. Because each PATA device contains its own integrated
controller, you need to have some way of differentiating between the two devices. This is done by
giving each device a designation as either master or slave, or by using the Cable Select (CS) feature
to assign master and slave designations, and then having the controller address commands and data
to either one or the other.

Scheme Description

Master/slave In the master/slave configuration scheme, the drive that is the target of the
command responds to it, and the other one ignores the command, remaining
silent. Each manufacturer uses a different combination of jumpers for
specifying whether its drive is master or slave on the channel, though they are
all similar. Some manufacturers put this information right on the top label of
the drive itself, while others do not. Jumper information is available in the
hard disk’s documentation, or by checking the manufacturer's website and
searching for the model number.
CS With CS, you do not have to set jumpers to designate which device is master
and which is slave. The connectors that are connected to the devices take care
of the configuration. To set up CS, you need to use a jumper to set both
devices on the channel to the CS setting, along with a special cable. This cable
is similar in most respects to the regular PATA cable, except for the Cable
SELect (CSEL) signal, which the devices use to determine which is the master
and which is the slave.

SATA Connections
A SATA connection is a drive connection standard that enhances PATA by providing a serial data
channel between the drive controller and the disk drives. SATA transfer speeds are much higher
than PATA for the same drive technologies. SATA's physical installation is also easier because the
SATA power and data cables are much smaller, thinner, and more flexible than traditional PATA
ribbon cables. SATA connectors have seven pins.

34
Figure 1-21: A SATA connection.

Note: You might hear SATA pronounced “Serial ay-tee-ay,” “ESS-ay-tee-ay,” “SAY-tuh,” or
“SAT-uh.”

Note: Although current practice is to use the terms “IDE” and “PATA” interchangeably, you
should be aware that SATA is also a type of IDE drive, but with a different interface.

eSATA
External SATA (eSATA) is an external interface for SATA connections. Like USB and FireWire, it
provides a connection for external storage devices. eSATA connections provide fast data transfers
without having to translate data between the device and the host computer. eSATA interfaces do
require an additional power connector to function. You can provide eSATA functionality by
installing eSATA cards in systems.
If you have an eSATA
connector available, let
Display Cable and Connector Types students see what the
connector looks like.
Display devices can use several different types of cables.
Display Cable and
Connector Types
Cable Type Description
As you talk through all
Video Graphics Array The DB-15 high-density VGA connector is the most common cable used for the different connector
(VGA) types, stop and ask
LCD monitors. It contains three rows of five pins. Pins 4, 11, 12, and 15
students if they have
receive information from the device, while pins 1, 2, 3, 13, and 14 send used any of the
information to the display. connector types and
when and how they used
them.
Mention that the
connection types
presented here will be
important later in Lesson
7 when custom client
workstations is covered.

35
 Cable Type Description

Mini-VGA is used on smaller devices, such as laptops, in place of the

standard full-sized cables.
Digital Video Interface DVI cables keep data in digital form from the computer to the display.
(DVI) There is no need to convert data from digital information to analog
information. LCD monitors work in a digital mode and support the DVI
format.
• DVI-analog (DVI-A) is an analog-only format. It requires a DVI-A
supported interface. The connector does not support dual link
technology. It is commonly used to connect CRT or VGA devices to a
computer using a DVI-A adapter.
• DVI-digital (DVI-D) is a digital-only format. It requires a video adapter
with a DVI-D connection and a monitor with a DVI-D interface. The
connector contains 24 pins/receptacles in three rows of eight above or
below a flat blade, plus a grounding slot for dual-link support. For single-
link support, the connector contains 18 pins/receptacles.
• DVI-integrated (DVI-I) supports both digital and analog transmissions.
This gives you the option to connect a monitor that accepts digital input
or analog input. In addition to the pins/receptacles found on the DVI-D
connector for digital support, a DVI-I connector has four additional
pins/receptacles to carry an analog signal. For single-link support, the
connector contains 18 pins/receptacles, and four additional pins for
analog transmissions.

High Definition HDMI is the first industry-supported uncompressed, all-digital audio/video

Multimedia Interface interface. HDMI uses a single cable composed of copper wires to provide an
(HDMI) interface between any audio/video source, such as a set-top box, DVD
player, or A/V receiver and an audio and/or video monitor, such as a digital
television (DTV). The connector is made up of 19 pins and can support a
number of modes such as High Definition TV (HDTV), Standard Definition
TV (SDTV), and Enhanced Digital TV (EDTV) can run to 50 feet or more
in length.
HDMI has largely superseded DVI and is compatible with the DVI
standard. It can be used with PC systems that support DVI.

36
Cable Type Description

Mini-High Definition Mini-HDMI is similar to the full size HDMI connector, except that it is
Multimedia Interface specified for use with portable devices. The connector is a smaller version of
(Mini-HDMI) the full size with same number of pins. The difference between the full size
and the mini is that some of pins have different transmission functions.

Separate Video (S- S-Video is an analog video signal that carries the video data as two separate
Video) signals (brightness and color). S-Video works in 480i or 576i resolution.
Note: Video resolution is sometimes noted in the format shown here,
particularly when television signals are being discussed. A resolution
of 480i indicates a vertical frame resolution of 480 interlaced lines that
contain picture information, while a resolution of 576i indicates a
vertical frame resolution of 576 interlaced lines that contain picture
information.

Component/RGB Component video is a type of analog video information that is transmitted or

stored as two or more separate signals. Analog video signals (also called
components) must provide information about the amount of red, green, and
blue to create an image. The simplest type, RGB, consists of three discrete
red, green, and blue signals sent down three coaxial cables.

37
 Cable Type Description

Composite video Composite video is the format of an analog (picture only) signal before it is
combined with a sound signal and modulated onto a radio frequency (RF)
carrier.

Coaxial A coaxial cable, or coax, is a type of copper cable that features a central
conducting copper core surrounded by an insulator and braided or foil
shielding. An insulator separates the conductor and shield, and the entire
package is wrapped in an insulating layer called a jacket. The data signal is
transmitted over the central conductor. The outer shielding serves to reduce
electromagnetic interference.

DisplayPort DisplayPort is a digital display standard that aims to replace DVI and VGA
standards. DisplayPort is not backward compatible with DVI and HDMI
and is a royalty-free standard. However, by using special dual-mode ports
and suitable adapters, it may be possible to use DVI and HDMI signals with
DisplayPort. Similar to Peripheral Component Interconnect Express (PCIe),
DisplayPort also supports high-quality gaming and other applications that
use high-end graphics.

38
Cable Type Description
Radio Corporation of RCA cables and connectors are used to carry audio and video transmissions
America (RCA) to and from a variety devices such as TVs, digital cameras, and gaming
systems. In some cases, the RCA cable may also be used as a power cable, a
loud speaker cable, and to carry digital audio. The female jacks on the
devices are colored to provide a guide as to what type of connector can be
attached. Common colors found are:
• Yellow for various composite connections.
• Red for the right channel of the audio transmission.
• White or black for the left channel of audio transmission.

Bayonet Neill- The BNC connector is used with coaxial cable to carry radio frequencies to
Concelman (BNC) and from devices. The BNC cable can be used to connect radio equipment,
aviation electronics, and to carry video signals. The actual BNC connectors
come in two versions. The connector will be either 50 or 75 ohms,
depending on the specific cable that is attached.

Ethernet and Displays

Some display devices such as the Apple Thunderbolt display include an Ethernet port for
connection directly to a network.

DVI Single Link vs. Dual Link

DVI cables use a technology called Transition Minimized Differential Signaling (TMDS) to transmit
serial data over a high-speed connection. Single link cables use a single TMDS transmitter to carry
data, while double-link uses two. Therefore, dual link cables can transmit larger images at higher
speeds than single link.

Audio/Video Connections
There are a number of audio/video connectors that are used to connect a wide variety of devices,
including PCs, DVD and Blu-ray players, surround sound systems, stereo equipment, projectors,
and HDTVs. In addition to HDMI and DVI, common audio/video cable and connectors include
those described in the following table. 9

39
 Type Description

Single-core/shielded The single core wire is the positive, and the shield is the negative. This
cable type of cable is used for unbalanced audio signals. Generally, unbalanced
audio cables are short, because noise is less of an issue.

One pair/shielded Uses a pair (white and red) of cores with one wire being the positive, and
cable the other wire being the negative. The shield acts as a ground. This type
of cable is used for balanced audio signals. Balanced audio is a method
for minimizing noise and interference in audio cables.

TS and TRS The most common connectors used in for unbalanced audio cables are
connectors the 1/4-inch tip-sleeve (TS) or tip-ring-sleeve (TRS) and RCA
connectors, which are typically used with high-end audio equipment. The
1/8-inch tip-sleeve is typically used with smaller audio devices such as
Apple® iPods®. TS and TRS connectors are also referred to as phone
jacks, phone plugs, audio jacks, and jack plugs. Traditionally, TS
connectors are used for mono, while TRS connectors are used for stereo.
Some connectors can carry more signals; these are often used with
camcorder, laptops, and other devices. Stereo connectors can also carry a
single, balanced signal. Wiring configurations for TRS connectors include:
• For unbalanced mono, the tip carries the signal, the ring is not
connected, and the sleeve acts as ground.
• For balanced mono, the tip is positive, the ring is negative, and the
sleeve acts as ground.
• For stereo, the tip carries the left channel, the ring carries the right
channel, and the sleeve acts as ground.

40
Type Description
3-pin XLR connectors The standard connector for balanced audio is the 3-pin XLR. The most
common wiring configuration is:
• Pin 1: Shield (ground)
• Pin 2: Positive (hot)
• Pin 3: Negative (cold)

Analog vs. Digital Video

Analog transmissions carry information in the form of a continuous wave. Analog signals are most Comparing Analog and
often generated by electrical current, the intensity of which is measured in volts. An analog signal Digital Video
oscillates over time between maximum and minimum values and can take on any value between
those limits. The size, shape, and other characteristics of that waveform describe the analog signal and
the information it carries. Digital transmissions, unlike analog transmissions, which can have many
possible values, hold just two values—ones and zeroes. These values represent an on and off state,
respectively. Digital data, which is a sequence of ones and zeroes, can be translated into a digital
waveform. In computer systems and other digital devices, a waveform switches between two voltage
levels representing 0 and 1.

VGA vs. HDMI

VGA and HDMI are inherently different because one is analog (VGA) and the other is digital
(HDMI). Many home theater environments will use one or the other, or in some cases both, if an
adapter is applied. Traditional VGA has a maximum resolution of 800 by 600 pixels and Super VGA
(SVGA) has a resolution up to 2,048 by 1,536 pixels or more, while the latest version of HDMI 4.1
has the capability of carrying a resolution up to 4,196 by 2,160 pixels.

Wireless Device Connections

Wireless is rapidly becoming the primary connection method for connecting a wide variety of Wireless Device
computer components, as well as for connecting computing devices to each other. There are a Connections
number of connection methods you can use to accomplish this.

Connection Method Description

Radio frequency (RF) Radio networking is a form of wireless communication in which signals are sent
via RF waves, in the 10 KHz to 1 GHz range, to wireless antennas.
An antenna transmits by converting electrical energy into an RF wave. When
an antenna receives a transmission, it converts the RF wave into electrical
energy.

41
 Connection Method Description

In wireless communication, low-frequency data or voice signals are

transmitted through high-frequency radio waves by superimposing data on
them.
Bluetooth Bluetooth® is a wireless technology that facilitates short-range wireless
communication between devices, such as personal computers and some of
their components, laptops and some of their components, mobile phones,
and gaming consoles and other gaming peripherals. Both voice and data
information are exchanged among these devices at 2.4 GHz within a range of
approximately 30 feet. A maximum of eight Bluetooth devices can be
connected to each other at a time; this connection of two to eight Bluetooth-
enabled devices is known as a piconet. Bluetooth devices operate at very low
power levels of approximately 1 milliwatt (mW).
Bluetooth is predominantly used in wireless personal area networks to
transfer information between two computers or other devices. It is also used
in mobile headsets for communicating with mobile phones. Computer
peripherals such as the mouse, keyboard, and printer can also use Bluetooth
for communication. Bluetooth-enabled devices such as gaming consoles and
global positioning system (GPS) receivers are also popular.
Infrared (IR) IR transmission is a form of wireless transmission in which signals are sent
via pulses of infrared light. IR is generally used for short-range transmission,
because receivers need an unobstructed view of the sender to successfully
receive the signal, though the signal can reflect off hard surfaces to reach the
recipient. Typically, IR communication takes place in the near-infrared
frequency range that is in the visible region of the spectrum. Therefore, in
some instances, wireless IR communication is also referred to as wireless
optical communication.
IR uses electromagnetic waves with frequencies ranging from 300 GHz to
400 THz. Their wavelengths range from approximately 1 mm to 750 nm. IR
waves are classified into sub-bands called far-infrared, mid-infrared, and
near-infrared. The near-infrared frequencies are visible to the human eye as
red or violet light, while the far-I frequencies are not visible to the human eye
but are radiated in the form of heat.
IR technology is used in several ways in the computing and
telecommunication fields. The primary application is to provide network
connectivity in wireless personal area networks. IR devices facilitate short-
term wireless connections between two computers or between a computer
and a wireless handheld device such as a mobile phone. An IR-powered
network can also be used as an extension network for a local area network
where installing cable may be difficult. Wireless devices such as wireless mice,
keyboards, television remote controls, and game controllers also use IR waves
for their operation.

Allocation of the RF Spectrum

The RF spectrum is classified based on the frequency range.

Frequency Range Name

3 Hz–30 Hz Extremely Low Frequency (ELF)

30 Hz–300 Hz Super Low Frequency (SLF)
300 HZ–3KHz Ultra Low Frequency (ULF)

42
Frequency Range Name
3 KHz–30 KHz Very Low Frequency (VLF)
30 KHz–300 KHz Low Frequency (LF)
300 KHz–3000 KHz Medium Frequency (MF)
3 MHz–30 MHz High Frequency (HF)
30 MHz–300 MHz Very High Frequency (VHF)
300 MHz–3000 MHz Ultra High Frequency (UHF)
3 GHz–30 GHz Super High Frequency (SHF)
30 GHZ–300 GHz Extremely High Frequency (EHF)

43
 ACTIVITY 1-3
Identifying Device Connections and Interfaces

Scenario
In this activity, you will identify device connections and interfaces.

Consider displaying 1. Your instructor might provide you with examples of device connections and interfaces and ask you or
various examples of other participants to identify them.
device connectors and
interfaces, and ask 2. Examine the following graphic and identify the ports.
participants to identify
them. This can be an Identify the ports shown in the graphic. Use labels such as audio port, parallel port, PS/2 port, serial
opportunity to generate port, and USB port.
discussion on the A:
differences between the
various types of
connections and where
they might be used.

3. Which connection type supports up to 127 peripherals for a single connection?

○ IEEE 1394
○ SATA
○ Parallel
○ USB

4. Which type of connection features small, thin data and power cables?
○ SCSI
○ PATA
○ SATA
○ Parallel

5. Which connection type transfers data eight or more bits at a time over eight or more wires?
○ Serial connection
○ Parallel connection
○ USB connection
○ FireWire connection

44
6. Which connection type connects a series of internal hard drives in a master/slave configuration?
○ Parallel connection
○ USB connection
○ SCSI
○ PATA

7. Which connection type is associated with the IEEE 1394 Standard?

○ USB connection
○ FireWire connection
○ SCSI connection
○ Serial connection

45
 Summary
In this lesson, you identified the components that make up most computers. The ability to identify
the various parts of computers is essential foundational knowledge for every computer technician.
Use the review
questions provided to How many of the personal computer components described are familiar to you?
generate discussion A: Answers will vary, but may include the system unit, display devices, input devices such as the
among the participants. keyboard and mouse, and peripheral devices such as printers and cameras.

Which of the device connections discussed were familiar to you? Which were new?
A: Answers will vary, but may indicate familiarity with USB and wireless, and unfamiliarity with FireWire
and SCSI.

Note: Check your LogicalCHOICE Course screen for opportunities to interact with your
classmates, peers, and the larger LogicalCHOICE online community about the topics covered in
this course or other topics you are interested in. From the Course screen you can also access
available resources for a more continuous learning experience.

Encourage students to
use the social
networking tools
provided on the
LogicalCHOICE Home
screen to follow up with
their peers after the
course is completed for
further discussion and
resources to support
continued learning.

46
2 Operating System
Fundamentals
Lesson Time: 2 hours, 50 minutes

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will identify the basic components and functions of an operating system.
You will:
• Identify the most common personal computer operating systems.
• Identify the utilities that you can access via the Windows Control Panel.
• Identify command line tools and how they function.
• Identify Windows security settings.
• Identify Windows operating system tools.

Lesson Introduction
In the previous lesson, you identified the hardware components of standard desktop
personal computers. The other major element of a personal computer is the operating
system, which is the software that provides the user interface and enables you to access and
use the hardware components. In this lesson, you will identify the basic components and
functions of an operating system.
As a professional IT support representative or PC service technician, your job will include
installing, configuring, maintaining, and troubleshooting personal computer operating
systems. Before you can perform any of these tasks, you need to understand the basics of
what an operating system is, including the various versions, features, components, and
technical capabilities. With this knowledge, you can provide effective support for all types of
system environments.
This lesson covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification
objectives:
• Topic A:
• Exam 220-802: Objective 1.1
• Topic B:
• Exam 220-802: Objectives 1.1, 1.5

47
 • Topic C:
• Exam 220-802: Objectives 1.1, 1.3
• Topic D:
• Exam 220-802: Objectives 1.2, 1.8, 2.3.
• Topic E:
• Exam 220-802: Objectives 1.1, 1.4

48
TOPIC A
Personal Computer Operating Systems
In this lesson, you will identify the basic components and functions of personal computer operating
systems. The first step is to learn about the various operating systems available today, and to identify
those that are commonly used on personal computers. In this topic, you will identify the most
common personal computer operating systems.
Aside from hardware, the operating system is the next most important piece of the personal
computer system. Without a user-friendly operating system, most people would not be capable of
using their computers to successfully perform the tasks required of them. As an IT professional,
being familiar with the different types of operating systems that can be installed on personal
computers can help you to support a variety of computer environments.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220-802, Objective 1.1: Compare and contrast the features and requirements of various
Microsoft Operating Systems.

Microsoft Windows
Microsoft® Windows® is the single most popular and widely deployed operating system on both
desktop computers and server systems in the world today. The various versions of Windows all
feature a graphical user interface (GUI), support for a wide range of applications and devices, a
minimum of 32-bit processing, native networking support, and a large suite of built-in applications
and accessories such as the Internet Explorer® browser. Windows currently comes pre-installed on
many personal computers sold commercially.
There have been several versions of Windows since its inception. The three most current versions
are often deployed on personal and professional computers.
• Windows® 7, the latest in the Microsoft product line covered in the CompTIA® A+® objectives,
was released in 2009. Windows 7 returned to the overall look and feel found in Windows® XP in
response to the criticism of Windows Vista®'s interface. Rather than introduce a multitude of
new features like Vista, 7 instead offered many critical upgrades to the system, including
application and hardware compatibility, performance improvements, and a redesigned shell.
• Windows Vista was released in 2007 and included many new features, the most noticeable
change being to the user interface. While it offered many upgrades to the system, specifically to
security features, many were critical of the redesigned interface.
• Windows XP was released in 2001, and was available in both Home and Professional editions. It
was highly praised as a consumer-friendly and highly usable operating system (OS) for personal
use, not just for those in the professional environment. Windows XP is often still found on both
home computers and in enterprise implementations; however, Microsoft no longer provides
active product support for Windows XP.
Note: Microsoft announced the latest version of Windows, Windows® 8, in 2012.

Older Windows Versions

There are other versions of Windows that are now unsupported and outdated. It is possible (but
unlikely) that you will encounter some of these in a legacy implementation.

49
 Version Description

Windows 2000 Windows® 2000 was a prior version of Microsoft's enterprise

operating system software. It was available in several Server editions as
well as in a desktop version, Windows 2000 Professional. The Server
version was the first to include Microsoft's standards-based directory
service software, Active Directory®. Microsoft no longer provides
active product support for Windows 2000 Server or Professional.
Windows 9x and Prior to Windows XP, the Windows® 9x group of operating systems
Windows Me were Microsoft's primary products for end-user and home PCs. They
were complete operating systems with built-in networking, but they
used a different code base and a different graphical interface design
from the Windows Server® computers available at that time, as well as
from the later Windows XP operating system family. This group of
operating systems is no longer supported.
• Windows® 95 was Microsoft's first release of a complete graphical
desktop operating system, as opposed to a system shell for lower-
level system software. It was the first to provide a graphical
interface based around the Start menu and taskbar.
• Windows® 98 was a popular and widely adopted version within the
Windows 9x product line. An updated version was also released as
Windows 98 SE (Second Edition).
• Windows® Me (Millennium Edition) was the final release in the
Windows 9x code base family. It was released in 2000.
Windows NT There were several prior versions of Windows Server software, all
released under the Windows NT® brand. They employed the
Windows 3.1 graphical interface (though NT 4.0 used the Windows 95
GUI) and implemented network domain configurations on a
proprietary Microsoft model.
• Windows NT 3.1 Advanced Server and its client version, Windows
NT 3.1, were the first 32-bit versions of Windows. They were
released in 1993.
• Windows NT 3.5x and its client version, Windows NT
Workstation 3.5x, were the first Windows versions considered to
be robust enough for enterprise network support. They were
released in 1995.
• Windows NT 4.0 and its client version, Windows NT Workstation
4.0, were the first versions to use Transmission Control Protocol/
Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) as the preferred protocol. They were
released in 1996.
Older versions of The first Windows desktop operating systems released were shell
Windows programs that were designed to run on top of a DOS command-line-
based operating system. They extended DOS by providing a graphical
interface, extended memory support, mouse support, and the ability to
have multiple programs open at once.
• Windows 1.0 (released in 1985) and Windows 2.0 (released in 1987)
were earlier releases but were not very popular.
• Windows 3.0 was the first commercially successful version of
Windows. It was released in 1990.
• Windows 3.1 was the primary end-user desktop version of
Windows until the advent of Windows 95. It was released in 1992.

50
Version Description

• Windows for Workgroups was an extension of Windows 3.1 that

incorporated workgroup networking support using the NetBEUI
protocol. It was released in 1992.

Older Windows Server Editions

Windows is also available in various editions indexed specifically for user on server computers.

Version Description

Windows Small Business Windows Small Business Server® 2011, Microsoft's network solution
Server 2011 designed for small businesses, is available in two editions:
• Small Business Server 2011 Standard, an all-in-one network
solution that provides enterprise-level server features such as email,
file and printer sharing, daily backups, remote access, and Internet
connections, but for a small business with up to 75 employees.
• Small Business Server 2011 Essentials, a network solution that uses
the cloud to provide access and protection to business data, email,
resources, and tools for very small businesses with up to 25
employees.
Small Business Server 2011 Premium Add-on, an add-on for Small
Business Server 2011 allows small businesses to deploy additional
servers on the network.
Windows Server 2008 Windows Server 2008, Microsoft's current server-oriented operating
system, is currently available as Release 2 (R2) and is available in
several different editions:
• Server 2008 Foundation, an affordable small-business platform for
file and print sharing, remote access, security, and clean upgrade
paths.
• Server 2008 Datacenter, a highly scalable platform for large-scale
virtualization.
• Server 2008 Enterprise, optimized for applications, clustering, and
identity management.
• Server 2008 Standard, with enhanced security options,
virtualization capabilities, and the ability to streamline management.
• Web Server 2008, integrated with ASP.NET and the .NET
Framework.
• HPC Server 2008, which stands for High-Performance Computing,
is able to scale to thousands of cores, and can be easily integrated
with non-Microsoft HPC servers.
• Server 2008 for Itanium®-based Systems, for large databases.
Itanium is the name of a processor available from Intel®.
Windows Server 2003 Windows Server® 2003 was last updated with the R2 release in 2005.
Windows Server 2003 R2 comes in several editions:
• Windows Server 2003 R2 Standard Edition, for general purpose
use as a file server or service host, or to support the needs of small
and medium businesses.
• Windows Server 2003 R2 Enterprise Edition, optimized to support
enterprise network management for large numbers of users,
computers, and services.

51
 Version Description

• Windows Server 2003 R2 Datacenter Edition, for high-availability

applications and databases.

Microsoft Retirement Schedules

To find out when Microsoft products will be retired or how long specific products will be
supported, visit the Microsoft Product Lifecycle Search tool at http://support.microsoft.com/
lifecycle/search/.

Microsoft Windows Features

Microsoft Windows Windows includes a number of features that distinguish it from other operating systems. Each
Features version of Windows includes a unique combination of many of these features.
Note: Other features of the Windows operating system will be covered in more detail
throughout this course.

Feature Description

Aero Windows Aero® is a color scheme available in Windows Vista and Windows 7.
Windows Aero provides a visually rich experience with its glossy and transparent
interface. It also provides dynamic visual and animation effects such as Live
Preview of taskbar buttons and a Flip 3D view of open windows. You can choose a
color scheme from one of the predefined color schemes available in Windows
Aero, or you can create a custom color scheme using the color mixer. Each color
has a default transparency level that you can change for both predefined and
custom color schemes.
Gadgets The Desktop Gadget Gallery is a Windows 7 feature that displays different gadgets,
which are mini applications that can perform many different information-display
tasks, including displaying the date and time, central processing unit (CPU) usage,
stock information, and user-selected news headlines. If a gadget for a particular
need is not available from Microsoft or from a third-party developer, users can
create their own. Available gadgets are stored in the Gadget Gallery, which provides
a link to download additional gadgets.
BitLocker Windows BitLocker® is a security feature of Windows 7 and Windows Server® 2008.
This security feature provides full disk-encryption protection for your operating
system, as well as all the data stored on the operating system volume. BitLocker
encrypts all data stored on the operating system volume and is configured by
default to use a Trusted Platform Module. This feature ensures the protection of
early startup components and locks any BitLocker-secured volumes in order to
prevent access or tampering when the operating system is not running.
Shadow The Shadow Copy technology is available on Windows XP and newer versions. It
Copy creates backup copies or "snapshots" of the system's data and stores them locally or
to an external location of the user's choosing. You can perform Shadow Copy
operations manually, or you can set up automatic backups at scheduled intervals.
System The System Restore utility is available in Windows XP, Windows Vista, and Windows
restore 7. It monitors the system for changes to core system files, drivers, and the Registry.
It automatically creates a system restore point, which is a snapshot of the system
configuration at a given moment in time that contains information about any
changes to system components. Restore points are stored on the computer's hard
disk, and you can use them to restore system settings to an earlier state without
affecting changes in user data since that time.

52
Feature Description
ReadyBoost ReadyBoost® is a performance enhancer that is available on Windows Vista and
Windows 7 and that enables the user to supplement the computer's memory with
an external storage device such as a flash drive.
Sidebar The Sidebar is a designated area of the Windows Vista desktop that is displayed
vertically along the side of the desktop. Users can add gadgets of their choice to
appear in the Sidebar, in order to provide information and access to frequently used
tools or programs.
Compatibility Compatibility mode enables older programs or applications to run on a newer
mode version of Windows. You can configure compatibility for specific applications or
programs by using the Properties options for the applications. Windows 7 can
accommodate legacy applications dating back through Windows 95.
XP mode Windows XP mode is a download that is available for Windows 7 versions and that
is designed to enable users running Windows 7 to access and use Windows XP-
compatible software and programs directly on their desktops.
Defender Windows Defender is the antispyware software that is included with Windows XP,
Vista, and 7 installations. You can configure Defender to scan for malicious
materials at scheduled intervals, automatically remove any spyware detected during
a scan, or even alert you in real time if spyware installs or runs on the computer.
Category In Windows XP and later versions, you can configure the Start menu, Control
view vs. Panel, and other interface elements by using two options:
classic view
• Category view, which is the default setting, displays the options available divided
into high-level categories. For instance, in category view, the Control Panel
displays categories of options such as Appearance and Themes or
Performance and Maintenance.
• Classic view displays a more traditional view from earlier versions of Windows,
in which all of the available options are displayed, either in a list or icon form.

32-Bit vs. 64-Bit

A 32-bit operating system supports applications that use data units up to 32 bits wide, but no larger.
A 64-bit operating system can support applications that use data units up to 64 bits wide, making
64-bit operating systems backwards-compatible (in other words, they are able to support 32-bit
programs). A 64-bit operating system requires a 64-bit processor and 64-bit software. A 64-bit
processor uses memory more efficiently; since it can use more memory, it can increase the use of
RAM and decrease the amount of time spent using the hard disk. A 32-bit processor cannot use
more than 4 GB of physical memory, while 64-bit registers (which store memory addresses) can
address up to 16 terabytes (TB) of physical memory. Except Windows 7 Starter, all other versions
come in both 32-bit and 64-bit versions.

x86 and x64

x86 is the most common and successful instruction set architecture, which supports 32-bit
processors. If something is referred to as x86, it supports 32-bit software, and it might support 64-bit
software. To clarify things, the term "x86-64" (also written as "x64") explicitly refers to a 64-bit x86
architecture.

Running Windows Compatibility Mode

You can either run the Program Compatibility wizard to automate the process of running
programs in compatibility mode (by selecting Start→Control Panel→Programs→Run programs
made for previous versions of Windows) or you can manually change the compatibility settings
for a specific program. You can do this by right-clicking a program's executable (.exe) file, selecting
Properties, and changing the appropriate settings on the Compatibility tab.

53
 Microsoft Windows 7 Versions
Windows 7 is available in several different editions.

Edition Features and Requirements

Windows 7 Starter Windows 7 Starter is a simple, basic edition with very few features and
limited customization. Windows Aero and the majority of the visual
styles included on the higher versions are not included in Starter. Unlike
the other versions of Windows 7, it is only available in a 32-bit version.
Windows 7 Home Windows 7 Home Premium is a low-cost edition for beginners and
Premium home users. This edition offers basic OS functions such as Windows
Explorer and Internet Explorer 8, and support for other productivity
software.
Windows 7 Professional Windows 7 Professional enables users to run programs in Windows XP
mode, connect to domains, and back up data to a network location.
Windows 7 Enterprise Windows 7 Enterprise is available for enterprise organizations that need
large volumes of Windows licenses for employee use. Enterprise features
include support for multiple languages through the Multilingual User
Interface (MUI), BitLocker, and compatibility with UNIX applications
that may be present in the corporate environment.
Windows 7 Ultimate Windows 7 Ultimate offers the same features as Windows 7 Enterprise,
but is available for individual licensing for personal home use.

Microsoft Windows Vista Versions

Windows Vista is available in several different editions.

Edition Features and Requirements

Windows Vista Home Windows Vista Home Basic is a lower-budget OS for beginners and
Basic home users who do not require advanced multimedia capabilities and
who do not require networking more advanced than a workgroup.
Windows Vista Home Windows Vista Home Premium adds a media center, High Definition
Premium TV (HDTV) support, backup scheduling, and more support for alternate
displays. It also includes the Windows Aero interface.
Windows Vista Business Windows Vista Business offers the same features as Vista Home Basic,
plus additional business-focused features such as Remote Desktop, an
encrypting files system, and the ability to join a Windows Server domain.
Windows Vista Windows Vista Enterprise adds features to the Vista Business edition,
Enterprise including UNIX application support, BitLocker, drive encryption, and
multilingual user interfaces.
Windows Vista Ultimate Windows Vista Ultimate combines all of the features of the other
editions, plus additional features, with support for up to 128 GB of
Random Access Memory (RAM) but only in 64-bit.

Microsoft Windows XP Versions

Windows XP is one of Microsoft's most popular operating systems for desktop and laptop
computers for both home and office use. It comes in several distinct editions.

Microsoft Windows 7
Versions
54
Edition Features and Requirements

Windows XP Windows XP Professional, the flagship Windows XP edition, is intended

Professional for office use in networked environments. It supports individual file-
level security and encryption, policy-based configuration management,
and domain and workgroup membership.
Windows XP Home Windows XP Home Edition is intended for home users. Windows XP
Edition Home is very similar in look and feel to Windows XP Professional, but
does not support some of the Windows XP Professional networking,
security, and management features.
Windows XP Media Windows XP Media Center Edition is optimized for media-based
Center Edition activities such as recording live TV, organizing and playing music, and
managing digital photographs.
Windows XP Windows XP Professional x64 Edition has all the functionality of XP
Professional x64 Professional, but is specifically designed for computers with 64-bit
Edition processors.

Other Operating Systems

There are a number of other operating systems available. Other Operating
Systems
OS Description

OS X OS X® is the operating system developed by Apple® Computing, Inc. OS X is a

Linux® derivative, and consists of UNIX-based operating systems and GUIs. This
proprietary operating system is included on all Macintosh® computer systems.
OS X features include:
• Multiple user support.
• Integrated Mac, Windows, and UNIX server, file, and printer browsing in the
Finder.
• The Safari® web browser.
• Native TCP/IP networking.
• Many file- and network-level security features.
• Comprehensive hardware device support with a unique Macintosh computer
system design.
UNIX UNIX® is a trademark for a family of operating systems originally developed at Bell
Laboratories beginning in the late 1960s. All UNIX systems share a kernel/shell
architecture, with the kernel providing the core functionality and the interchangeable
shells providing the user interface. Unlike many operating systems, UNIX is portable
to different hardware platforms; versions of UNIX can run on everything from
personal computers to mainframes and on many types of computer processors. UNIX
also incorporates built-in multitasking, multiuser support, networking functions, and a
robust platform for software development.
Linux Linux is an open-standards UNIX derivative originally developed and released by a
Finnish computer science student named Linus Torvalds. The Linux source code was
posted publicly on a computing newsgroup, and the code was developed and tested
cooperatively all over the world. Because the source code is open, it can be
downloaded, modified, and installed freely. However, many organizations prefer to
purchase and implement a Linux distribution. A Linux distribution is a complete Linux
implementation, including kernel, shell, applications, utilities, and installation media,
that is packaged, distributed, and supported by a software vendor.

55
 Note: With the release of the latest version of OS X (Mountain Lion) in 2012 and with the
increased use of iOS for mobile devices, Apple officially dropped “Mac” from its operating
system's name. It is now known simply as OS X, pronounced "OS 10."

UNIX Versions
Many different companies and organizations have licensed the UNIX name and technology and
marketed their own UNIX versions, leading to a proliferation of different UNIX families, system
names, and interfaces. Different hardware manufacturers tend to favor particular versions, or
"flavors," of UNIX. The following table lists some of the most important UNIX categories you will
encounter.

UNIX Version Description

Berkeley Software Any of a group of UNIX versions that followed the innovations
Distribution (BSD) incorporated into UNIX at the University of California at Berkeley. Darwin
UNIX is a newer version of BSD.
System V Release 4 The standard for UNIX systems that follow the AT&T development
(SVR4) UNIX architecture. It was issued to unify standards and features in competing
versions of UNIX, including BSD UNIX, and it is the foundation for most
current UNIX-based systems.
Portable Operating A set of Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) standards
System for Computer for portability of applications from one UNIX environment to another. A
Environments POSIX-compliant application should run identically on any POSIX-
(POSIX) compliant platform.
Single UNIX A set of specifications issued by The Open Group (www.opengroup.org),
Specification (SUS) setting software standards for operating systems that qualify for the name
UNIX.
Advanced Interactive Launched by IBM® and used on their mainframe computers. AIX is closed-
eXecutive (AIX) source, proprietary UNIX that uses the Common Desktop Environment
(CDE) as its GUI. Based on UNIX System V.
Sun Solaris/Oracle A scalable OS developed by Sun Microsystems with native support for
Solaris Sun’s own Java® Desktop Environment (though other desktop
environments work as well), as well as their StarOffice™ productivity suite.
Solaris™ has been closed source for much of its history, but moved more
toward open source in recent years. When Sun Microsystems was acquired
by Oracle® Corporation, the name was changed to Oracle Solaris and the
open-source effort was discontinued.
HP-UX A flavor of UNIX developed by Hewlett-Packard. Like AIX, HP-UX is also
based on UNIX System V. HP-UX is distributed in Operating
Environments (OEs), which are pre-packaged collections of software that
ship with the OS.

Linux Release Versions

The first version of the Linux kernel that was publicly released was version .02, released in 1991.
Linux kernel version 3.4.4 was available as of June 2012. For more information about Linux and its
versions, see the Linux home page at www.linux.org.

Popular Linux Distributions

The following table lists some popular Linux distributions.

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Vendor Description

Red Hat® Linux® A popular United States distribution designed to be easy for new users to
install and use. Red Hat officially supports Red Hat Enterprise Linux, while the
more user-oriented operating system (called Fedora) is community-supported.
SUSE® A popular European distribution, now owned by Novell®, Inc. SUSE is
properly pronounced "ZOO-zuh," but is often pronounced to rhyme with
Suzie.
Mandriva Linux Formerly known as Mandrake, Mandriva is a popular desktop Linux
distribution. Its unique features include simplified administration and an easy-
to-use package manager for software installation.
Debian® An option-rich free distribution assembled by volunteers that contains many
utilities and supports many hardware platforms.
Gentoo Linux™ A source-code distribution designed for professional developers and computer
hobbyists.
Ubuntu® A popular community-developed operating system derived from the Debian
distribution. Ubuntu works on laptops, desktops, and servers, and has
supported variants appropriate for educational, multimedia, or mobile uses.
Arch Linux® A pared-down, binary-based distribution aimed at experienced Linux users and
maintained by a volunteer community of users.

Mac OS Versions
There have been several versions of the Macintosh operating system.

Version Description

OS X Mountain The latest version of OS X, released in 2012, will continue to add many of the
Lion features being developed and deployed in the updates to Apple's iOS, the
operating system for its consumer devices such as the iPod® and iPhone®.
New features will include Game Center, an online social gaming network;
support for the iMessage messaging application; and the debut of Notification
Center, a desktop version of the application alert center already used in iOS.
OS X Lion OS X Lion incorporated many of the enhancements developed for Apple iOS
and incorporated them into the operating system. New features included the
Launchpad™ for easier navigation of applications, auto-hiding scrollbars,
auto-save for documents, and same-state restarts for closed applications.
OS X Snow The update to OS X Leopard was mostly an "under the hood" update that
Leopard increased the performance and functionality of the operating system and other
related programs. Changes included increased disk space after cleanups, faster
Time Machine® backups, an updated version of the Preview application, and
an improved Safari browser.
OS X Leopard Leopard added many new features, including Time Machine, which is an
incremental backup utility. Leopard also enhances dozens of Mac features,
including the Dashboard, iChat®, Finder®, and Safari.
OS X Tiger A version of OS X that could run on both Intel and PowerPC processors. It
featured various enhancements to OS X, including Spotlight® search
technology.
OS X The first Mac operating system to be developed as a UNIX derivative. It is
based on an open-source UNIX implementation called Darwin and features a
user interface called Exposé®.

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 Version Description
Prior Mac OS® Older versions of the Macintosh operating system were based on a proprietary
versions system architecture and utilized the proprietary AppleTalk® file and print
services and LocalTalk™ network topology. Security was based on user roles,
including administrative user accounts, normal user accounts, limited user
accounts, and panel user accounts.

58
 ACTIVITY 2-1
Discussing Operating Systems

Before You Begin

Every computer in the physical classroom is assigned a unique computer name. Some steps in the
activities refer to computer names such as Admin##, where ## refers to a student's number. A
student whose number is 01 should enter Admin01 as the user name on his or her computer, a
student whose number is 02 should enter Admin02 as the user name, and so on. The password is !
Pass1234 and is the same for each user.

Scenario
In this activity, you will discuss various personal computer operating systems.
As you discuss the
various operating
1. Start your computer and log on to Windows. systems and their
a) If necessary, power on your computer. versions, ask
participants to share
b) On the Welcome Screen, verify that the user name Admin## is displayed, and then in the Password how many different
text box, enter !Pass1234 operating systems they
c) Verify that you are logged on to the operating system and that the desktop is displayed. have used.
Verify that all
2. Examine the desktop. participants have
successfully logged on
Which screen element indicates that the Aero interface is active? to Windows before you
A: The transparent effect of the taskbar. proceed with the next
step.
3. True or False? Windows XP includes the Windows Aero interface.
☐ True
☐ False

4. What is the Windows Sidebar?

○ A designated area of the desktop where users can add gadgets of their choice to provide
information and access to frequently used tools or programs.
○ A performance enhancer, available in Windows Vista and Windows 7, that allows the user to
supplement the computer’s memory with an external storage device like a flash drive.
○ A security feature that provides full disk encryption protection for your operating system as well as
all the data stored on the operating system volume.
○ An application that displays information such as local weather data.

5. Look for help on the Windows Sidebar. Participants may

a) Select Start→Help and Support. question why they are
b) In the Search Help text box, enter sidebar investigating only some
of the features that were
c) Select 1. What happened to Windows Sidebar?
described in this topic.
d) Read the help information, and then select Desktop gadgets: frequently asked questions. Reassure them that they
e) Select How do I add and remove gadgets from my desktop? will access many of the
f) Read the help information. other features later in
the course.
6. Add gadgets to the desktop.
a) Display the desktop's shortcut menu.

59
 b) Select Gadgets.
c) Double-click Calendar and Clock to add the gadgets to the desktop.

d) Close the Gadget Gallery and the Windows Help and Support window.
The gadgets remain displayed on the desktop after you close the open windows.

7. True or False? Gadgets must be downloaded from the Microsoft Windows website, or they will not work
properly.
☐ True
☐ False

8. Search for help on the ReadyBoost feature, and review the help articles titled Using memory in your
storage device to speed up your computer and Turn ReadyBoost on or off for a storage device. Then,
close the Help and Support window.)

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 Do you think that you or your users might take advantage of this performance-enhancing feature? Why
or why not?
A: Answers will vary depending on individual preferences and organizational standards.

9. Find out what edition of Windows your computer is running.

a) Select Start, display the shortcut menu for Computer, and select Properties.

The View basic information about your computer window is displayed. The first section of this
window provides information about the Windows edition running on your computer. This information
can be helpful to IT professionals in determining whether a user issue is a true problem, or a
misunderstanding of the capabilities of the operating system.
b) Close the window.

10. Which editions of Windows would be appropriate if you needed to add computers to a Windows
domain?
☐ Windows Vista Home Basic
☐ Windows 7 Home Premium
☐ Windows 7 Professional
☐ Windows 7 Ultimate

11. Which statements about UNIX are true?

☐ There are many versions of UNIX from different developers and distributors.
☐ All versions of UNIX use the same shell, or user interface.
☐ UNIX versions are proprietary.
☐ UNIX is a multi-user, multi-tasking system.

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 ☐ UNIX was developed using the open-source methodology.

12. Which statements about Linux are true?

☐ Linux was developed as open-source software.
☐ Developers must obtain permission to access and modify the source code.
☐ Development was initiated and managed by Linus Torvalds.
☐ Releases of Linux are unstable.
☐ Linux distributions can provide tools, utilities, and system support.

13. Which statements about Mac OS X are true?

☐ Mac OS X can be downloaded and modified freely.
☐ Mac OS X can integrate browsing for files created in other operating systems.
☐ Mac OS X provides many security features.
☐ Mac OS X can run the Windows XP user interface.

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TOPIC B
Windows Control Panel Utilities
In the previous topic, you identified the major personal computer operating systems, including
several versions of Microsoft Windows. To support these operating systems, you'll need to identify
the elements of the system that make each Windows environment function, which are found in the
Control Panel. In this topic, you will identify the utilities accessed via the Control Panel.
The Windows Control Panel provides centralized access to many of the elements of the Windows
environment. As a professional support technician, knowing which utilities can be accessed through
the Control Panel and what each utility does can help you to configure systems to meet users'
needs, as well as assist users in configuring their systems.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220-802, Objective 1.1: Compare and contrast the features and requirements of various
Microsoft Operating Systems.
• Exam 220-802, Objective 1.5: Given a scenario, use Control Panel utilities (the items are
organized by “classic view/large icons” in Windows).

The Control Panel

The Control Panel is a graphical interface that provides access to a number of utilities that you can
use to configure the Windows operating system or a computer's hardware. The specific Control
Panel utilities that are available will vary depending on the version of Windows that you are using.

The Control Panel

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 Figure 2-1: The Control Panel in Windows 7.

Note: The Control Panel is available from the Start menu, and as a link in various My
Computer views. In Windows 7, you can open the Control Panel by selecting the Open
Control Panel button located below the address bar of the Computer window.

Internet Options
Internet Options The Internet Options Control Panel utility has many settings that can be customized.
You might want to
display the Internet Setting Description
Options Control Panel
and briefly demonstrate
General • Home page: Defines which web page the browser opens to by default.
the various settings as • History: Defines how many days the browser will keep a record of visited
you discuss them. pages.
• Colors: Defines the user's preferred colors for text, page backgrounds, and
hyperlinks.
• Fonts: Defines the user's preferred fonts for viewing pages.
• Languages: Defines the user's preferred default language for viewing
pages.
• Accessibility: Defines settings that enable visual- or hearing-impaired users
to access web pages.

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Setting Description
Security Defines levels of security for different groups of websites, known as zones. By
placing sites in zones and then configuring zone settings, users can enable or
disable features such as the blocking or acceptance of web pages, or whether
web scripts or controls can run automatically, based upon user preference.
Privacy Defines the level of access that third-party cookies have to the browser.
Content Contains various content-related configuration settings, including settings that
relate to using content ratings on websites, implementing Internet security
certificates, and the AutoComplete function in web-based forms.
Connections Determines how Internet Explorer will use the computer’s network
connections to access Internet content.
Programs Determines which programs Internet Explorer will launch by default when the
user clicks links that are associated with other types of Internet content, such as
email or newsgroups.
Advanced Defines a wide variety of settings including how the browser handles external
scripts, whether or not hyperlinks are always underlined, and whether or not
videos can be played within web pages.

Display
The Display Control Panel utility allows the user to configure the display properties for the
system, including the physical appearance of the environment, such as the wallpaper, screen saver,
color scheme, and font size used. The user can also configure the display settings for the monitor or
monitors being used, including setting the primary monitor and the arrangement of additional
monitors, extending the desktop onto another monitor, and determining the screen resolution and
color quality for the monitors.

Display

65
 Figure 2-2: The Display utility in Windows 7.

Available Screen Resolutions

Common screen resolutions include 800 by 600, 1024 by 768, and 1280 by 1024, measured in pixels.

User Accounts
A user account is a collection of credentials and important information about a person who has access
to the system. Most importantly, it defines the rights and privileges assigned to the user, determining
what kinds of actions they can perform on the system. There can be more than one user account
added to a specific system. There may be users with the same permissions or different permissions
assigned to the same computer.
Note: There will typically be at least two user accounts per system: the administrator and the
user who owns or has been assigned the machine.

The User Accounts Control Panel utility lets you view and manage your own account, including
changing your user name and password. If your account has been assigned administrator privileges,
you may also be able to add, remove, or modify other user accounts to allow other users access to
the system.

66
Figure 2-3: The User Accounts utility in Windows 7.

Folder Options
The Folder Options Control Panel utility lets you configure settings for how files and folders are
displayed when they are accessed. Folder Options also lets you configure more general settings
such as whether new folders will open in a new window or the existing window, what the layout of
folders opened in the navigation pane will be, what action is used to open a file in a folder, and
which program is the default for opening specific file types.
Using Folder Options, you can also configure the Advanced Settings for files and folders,
including:
• Whether simple file sharing, the feature in Windows that allows users to share files and folders
with other computers on the network without permissions, is enabled or disabled. The default
for the system is that simple file sharing is enabled.
• If you can view hidden files and folders, including protected operating system files. The default is
that hidden files and folders, including the protected operating system files, are not displayed
when accessing a folder that contains the files to protect them from being accidentally deleted or
modified.
• Whether to hide or display extensions for known file types within the folder structure. The
default is to hide file extensions for known file types.

67
 Figure 2-4: The Folder Options utility in Windows 7.

Simple File Sharing Over a Network on Windows 7

Simple file sharing is disabled by default in Windows 7. To enable it, log on as a user with
administrative privileges, open the Control Panel, and select Network and File Sharing Center.
From the left pane, select the Change advanced sharing settings link, and then select Turn on
file and printer sharing and Turn off password protected sharing and select Save changes.

System
System The System Control Panel utility lets you view and configure settings for the system.

System Property Description

General Provides information about the system, such as what operating system
and version is running on the system, who the computer is registered to,
and machine hardware information such as the central processing unit
(CPU) type and speed and how much RAM is available.
Computer Name Provides information about the computer's identification, including its
description, name, and the domain it belongs to. Users can also add a
description, change the name, or join a different domain.

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System Property Description
Hardware • Device Manager displays all devices currently installed on the
computer, and you can use it to modify the properties for these
devices.
• Drivers allows the user to configure driver signing options, such as
what action to take if a driver being installed is not compatible, and
determine how to connect to the Windows Update website when
searching for matching drivers.
• Hardware Profiles allows the user to configure and save hardware
configurations, or profiles, and choose which profile to use at startup.
Advanced • Performance allows the user to view and configure the performance
options settings for visual effects, processor usage, memory usage,
and virtual memory. You can also enable or disable Data Execution
Prevention, which is a program that monitors security threats to
essential Windows programs, through this utility.
• User Profiles allows the user to configure settings for the user
accounts registered to the machine.
• Startup and Recovery allows the user to configure settings related to
the system startup, system failure, and debugging.
System Restore Allows the user to enable or disable System Restore and configure the
amount of disk space allocated for System Restore to use.
Automatic Updates Allows the user to enable or disable Automatic Updates. The default
and recommended setting is that Automatic Updates are turned on, to
protect the system from the most current threats.
Remote Allows the user to configure settings for how the computer can be used
from a remote location.
• You can enable or disable Remote Assistance to allow the computer
to be controlled remotely, typically from IT personnel
troubleshooting a problem.
• You can enable or disable Remote Desktop, and you can add
remote users to define who will be able to remotely access the
computer.

Action Center
The Action Center Control Panel utility provides information about any security software
currently deployed on or missing from the system, and provides access to helpful resources about
current security threats, including a check for the latest Windows Update. Action Center also
provides links to the Backup and Restore, Windows Update, and Windows Program
Compatibility Troubleshooter utilities, where you can manage specific settings regarding system
security and troubleshooting. 9

69
 Figure 2-5: The Action Center in Windows 7.

Security Center
In Windows Vista and XP, the Security Center Control Panel included some of the same
information as the Action Center does in Windows 7, but in the Security Center, links to the
Internet Options, Automatic Updates, and Windows Firewall Control Panels are included.

Windows Firewall
A firewall is a device or program that blocks unauthorized data transmissions and protects the
computer from unauthorized access. Windows Firewall is a software-based firewall, included with
almost all Windows installations, that protects the computer against attacks through the Internet or
the network. The Windows Firewall utility enables you to:
• Enable or disable Windows Firewall.
• View active networks.
• Configure notifications concerning blocked activity.
• Open blocked ports.
• Configure other firewall settings for both private (home or work) and public networks that the
computer may access. )

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Figure 2-6: The Windows Firewall utility in Windows 7.

Note: In the corporate environment, this utility is usually not accessible to individual users, as
the Windows Firewall settings are configured and controlled by an administrator in the IT
department, or Windows Firewall is superseded by a dedicated enterprise-level firewall system.

Power Options
Using the Power Options Control Panel utility, there are a number of power settings that can be Power Options
configured for the computer.

Power Option Description

Hibernate In Hibernate mode, the computer will store whatever is currently in

memory on the hard disk and shut down; when the computer comes out
of hibernation, it will return to the state it was in upon hibernation.
In the Power Options utility, you can enable or disable hibernation, and
you can view how much disk space is needed and available for
hibernation. Once hibernation is enabled, you can configure the settings
for when hibernation occurs using the Power Plans settings.
Power Plans Power Plans (called Power Schemes in Windows XP) are a set of built-
in power configurations that a user can choose from to manage how the
computer uses power. For each Power Plan, there are default settings
for when to turn off the monitor, when to turn off hard disks, and when
to enter system standby, depending on whether the computer is plugged

71
 Power Option Description
in or, if it is a laptop, is running on batteries. You can modify and save
these settings for the selected power plan, or you can create and save a
new power plan.
Sleep/Suspend/ The user can determine the amount of time of inactivity after which the
Standby computer is switched into sleep mode. In sleep mode, the computer
conserves as much energy as possible by cutting off power to the parts of
the machine that are not necessary to function, excluding RAM, which is
needed to restore the system to its state once it is woken from sleep
mode. These settings can be configured for when the computer is
plugged in or, if it is a laptop, if it is running on batteries.
Depending on the operating system and version, sleep mode can be
called a variety of things:
• Sleep mode in Windows Vista, Windows 7, Windows Server 2008, and
Apple OSs.
• Standby mode in Windows 98, Windows Server 2003, and Windows
XP.
• Suspend mode in Windows 95 and Linux.

Windows XP Control Panel Utilities

Windows XP Control There are a number of utilities in the Control Panel that are unique to Windows XP.
Panel Utilities
Windows XP Utility Description

Add or Remove Used to install or remove applications and programs, view updates that
Programs have been installed, enable or disable optional features, and set default
programs.
Network Connections Used to view available connections, connect or disconnect from a
connection, and manage all network and Internet connections.
Printers and Faxes Used to add, remove, and manage any printers, scanners, or faxes
installed on the computer.
Automatic Updates Controls how Windows Updates are downloaded and installed.
Network Setup Wizard Launches the setup wizard, which walks the user step-by-step through
setting up an Internet connection and creating a network to share files,
printers, and other resources.

Windows Vista Control Panel Utilities

Windows Vista Control There are a number of utilities in the Control Panel that are unique to Windows Vista.
Panel Utilities
Windows Vista Utility Description

Tablet PC Settings Under the Mobile PC utility, the user can configure settings for a tablet
PC running Windows Vista through the Tablet PC Settings utility. Some
of the settings that you can modify include:
• Screen calibration.
• Screen orientation.
• Handedness.

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Windows Vista Utility Description

• Handwriting recognition.
• Button functions.
Pen and Input Devices For a tablet PC running Windows Vista, you can use a pen or other
input device such as a stylus to interact with the tablet. You can use the
Pen and Input Devices utility to customize the settings for the pen
and input devices that are used to interact with the tablet. Some of the
settings that you can configure include:
• Pen Options: You can configure the equivalent "mouse action"
when an action is taken on screen with the pen (such as a double-
tap) and customize settings for the pen buttons.
• Pointer Options: You can enable or disable dynamic feedback for
actions and select what the feedback method will be, and select
whether or not the pen cursor is displayed.
• Flicks: You can enable or disable the use of flicks as the pen gesture
for navigating, and then customize settings for flicks including
sensitivity.
Offline Files You can use the Offline Files utility to enable or disable the use of offline
files, which allows you to save and modify a local copy of a file from the
network and then sync it back to the network. Some of the settings for
offline files that you can configure include:
• Disk Usage.
• Encryption.
• Network settings.
Problem Reports and The Problem Reports and Solutions utility displays any recent
Solutions problems that Windows has encountered. Depending on the issue, the
user can find out more information about the issue or search online for
a solution to resolve the issue.
Printers The Printers utility is used to add, remove, and manage any printers
installed on the computer.

Note: The Printers utility in Vista replaced the Printers and Faxes utility in Windows XP and
was replaced with the Devices and Printers utility in Windows 7. While the name changed in
the various versions, the functionality of the utility has remained largely the same.

Windows 7 Control Panel Utilities

There are a number of utilities in the Control Panel that are unique to Windows 7. Windows 7 Control
Panel Utilities
Windows 7 Utility Description

HomeGroup With HomeGroup, the user can set up a home network of computers and
printers, and then add users or computers to the HomeGroup to share
libraries and resources.
Action Center Action Center provides a single location where security actions are
consolidated. When the system places an alert in the Action Center, you
can view the solution to the problem and fix the issue immediately, if
possible, through the Action Center. You can enable or disable

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 Windows 7 Utility Description

notifications for the Action Center. You can also configure settings such
as how much information is sent or how often to check for solutions.
RemoteApp and With RemoteApp and Desktop Connections, users can access programs, remote
Desktop computers, and virtual computers remotely that are made available by the
Connections network administrator. The RemoteApp and Desktop Connections
utility displays all of the resources and connections available, and the user
can select the resource or connection that they want to access.
Troubleshooting The Troubleshooting utility provides troubleshooting resources for common
Windows problems in five general areas: Programs, Hardware and
Sound, Network and Internet, Appearance and Personalization, and
System and Security. Users can also configure some basic settings for
the Troubleshooting utility, including enabling or disabling scheduled
computer maintenance checks, allowing search functionality through the
Windows Online troubleshooting service, and allowing troubleshooting to
begin on startup.

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 ACTIVITY 2-2
Exploring the Windows 7 Control Panel

Before You Begin

You are logged in to Windows as Admin##.

Scenario
In this activity, you will explore the components of the Control Panel in the Windows 7 operating
system.

1. Examine the Control Panel utilities.

a) Select Start→Control Panel. The Control Panel tools are grouped by function.
b) Select Appearance and Personalization.
c) Select Taskbar and Start Menu. The Taskbar and Start Menu Properties dialog box opens.
d) Select Cancel to close the dialog box.
e) Select the Back button.
f) Examine the other categories in the Control Panel.

2. Change the Control Panel view.

a) From the View by drop-down list, select Large icons to view the individual elements of the Control
Panel.
b) From the View by drop-down list, select Small icons to reduce the size of the icons.
c) From the View by drop-down list, select Category to return to the original view.
d) Close the Control Panel.

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 TOPIC C
Command Line Tools
In the previous topic, you identified the utilities in the Windows Control Panel. More experienced
users should understand alternative ways to manipulate elements of the operating system, such as
the command prompt. In this topic, you will identify command line tools and how they function.
The Control Panel provides a graphical interface to control many of the elements of the Windows
environment. However, more advanced users, such as support personnel, often find that using
command line tools can provide more granular control over the Windows environment.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220-802, Objective 1.1: Compare and contrast the features and requirements of various
Microsoft Operating Systems.
• Exam 220-802, Objective 1.3: Given a scenario, use appropriate command line tools.

The Command Prompt

The Command Prompt Windows provides the command prompt, which is an interface that enables you to enter text-based
commands or run command line tools. Command line tools accept only text input, and they output
information either in text format or by opening a graphic display window. You can use command
line equivalents of graphical tools to create batch programs or scripts that automate administrative
tasks. Some administrator and Power Users might also find command line management to be more
streamlined and efficient than working through a graphical interface.

Figure 2-7: The command prompt interface.

Note: The default path in Windows 7 for the prompt is the user profile folder for the current
user (C:\Users\username). In Windows XP, the default path is C:\Documents and Settings
\username.

Note: Because you can run DOS-type commands at the command prompt, it is sometimes
casually called the "DOS prompt."

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Command Interpreters
Windows provides several different command interpreters. The typical command prompt interface
is the standard Windows command interpreter, available in Windows XP and Windows 7. To access
the command prompt interface, you can either run cmd.exe or select the Command Prompt
shortcut from the Accessories menu.
Windows XP also includes the DOS command interpreter command.com to support running DOS-
based applications with an MS-DOS subsystem. There are also the Windows PowerShell™ and
Windows Recovery Console, which are used for more high-level administrative tasks.

Operating System Command Line Tools

There are a number of common command line tools that you can use to manage the operating Operating System
system. For a list of all the available commands, type help at the command prompt. Command Line Tools

Tool Function

bootrec Used to troubleshoot or repair startup issues with your operating system
(via the command prompt in the Windows Recovery Environment in
Windows Vista and Windows 7 only).
cd Used to view the drive letter and folder for your current location, and to
change to another directory or folder.
chkdsk Used to identify hard drive errors and correct the error if possible. Often
called "check disk."
[command name] /? Used to view online help at the command prompt. Because the syntax
for a tool might vary slightly between operating systems, you should
check online help for the exact syntax.
copy Used to copy a file or files.
del Used to delete a file.
diskpart Used to create, delete, or generally manage any hard drive partitions on
the system.
fdisk Used to partition or re-partition a hard drive.
format Used to format a drive using the file system specified.
kill or taskkill Used to stop or terminate a process or task that is running.
md Used to create a directory.
rd Used to delete a directory.
robocopy Used to copy files and folders/directories from one location to another,
but with more options than the simple copy command. Often called
Robust File Copy.
sfc Shorthand for System File Checker, it is used to verify system files and
replace them, if needed. Sometimes referred to as the Windows
Resource Checker.
shutdown Used to log off, restart, or shut down the system.
tlist or tasklist Used to display all processes currently running on the system.
xcopy Used to copy files or directories from one location to another.

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 Networking Command Line Tools
Networking Command Other command line tools can help you configure and manage network communications.
Line Tools
Poll students to see if Tool Function
anyone has used any of
these commands. Ask
ipconfig Used to verify the configuration of TCP/IP and to release or renew Dynamic
them when they used it Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) IP address leases. (Other operating
and how the commands systems use different commands rather than ipconfig . For example, Linux
were helpful. uses ifconfig.)
ping Used to test TCP/IP communications. With the -t switch, you can ping the
indicated host until the request gets interrupted; with the -l [number]
switch, you can send a ping of a specified buffer size.
nbtstat Used to display TCP/IP information and other important information
regarding a remote computer. Also used to troubleshoot issues with NetBIOS.
If there are issues with the NetBIOS resolution to TCP/IP addresses, then
you can use the nbstat command to remove any preloaded resolution entries.
net Used to manage Microsoft network resources from a command line. With the
use option, you can connect or disconnect the computer from a shared
resource. You can also retrieve information about current network
connections. To see all of the available commands in this suite, type net /?
netstat Used to show the status of each active network connection, netstat will
display statistics for both TCP and User Datagram Protocol (UDP), including
protocol, local address, foreign address, and the TCP connection state.
Because UDP is connectionless, no connection information will be shown for
UDP packets.
nslookup Used to verify that the computer can connect to a Domain Name System
(DNS) server and successfully find an IP address for a given computer name.
tracert Used to determine and test all points along the route the computer uses to
send a packet to a destination. If tracert is unsuccessful, you can use the
results generated to determine at what point communications are failing.

The Recovery Console

The Recovery Console Recovery Console is a minimal, non-graphical administrative version of Windows that is available in
Windows XP and Windows 2000. You can boot to Recovery Console and use a command line
interface (CLI) to manage the system even if Windows will not start normally.
In Recovery Console, you can:
• Enable and disable services.
• Manage files and disks.
• Correct boot problems.
You can use the following command line tools from the Recovery Console to address some
common issues.

Tool Description

fixboot Used to create a new partition boot sector to a hard drive partition.
fixmbr Used to repair the master boot recovery (MBR) record of the boot partition.

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 Note: You can install Recovery Console as a boot option or launch it from the Windows
installation CD-ROM.

WinRE
In Windows Vista and Windows 7, the Recovery Console was replaced by the Windows Recovery WinRE
Environment (WinRE), a set of tools used to diagnose and repair Windows errors at startup. WinRE
includes several new recovery tools accessible via the System Recovery Options menu.

Figure 2-8: The System Recovery Options menu in Windows 7.

System Recovery Tool Description

Startup Repair Repairs system files that are missing or corrupted. Corrupt or missing
system files can cause problems with starting Windows.
System Restore Restores computer settings and system files to a user-defined time.
However, System Restore does not affect the user's personal files and
data.
System Image Restores a system image created by the user. The system image is a
Recovery backup of the partition in which Windows is installed.
Windows Memory Checks the system's memory for errors. Usually, memory errors are
Diagnostic caused due to faulty computer chips. So, with the results of the
diagnostics, you should contact your computer manufacturer for possible
fixes.
Command Prompt Launches the command prompt where advanced users can perform
recovery- and maintenance-related tasks.

Note: In Windows Vista, System Image Recovery is called CompletePC Restore, and uses a
CompletePC backup image to restore the computer.

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 ACTIVITY 2-3
Exploring Command Line Tools

Scenario
In this activity, you will explore command line tools and how they are used on the system.

1. Open the command prompt.

a) Select Start, and in the Search programs or files text box, type comm
b) In the Programs (1) list, select Command Prompt.
c) Maximize the command prompt window.

2. View the available commands.

a) At the C:\Users\Admin## prompt, enter help
b) Scroll through the list of commands.

Encourage participants 3. Get help on an individual command.

to use the list of a) Enter cd /? and examine the help information.
commands and the help
information for individual 4. What command line tool would you use to make a copy of a directory structure and all the files within
commands to answer that directory structure?
the questions in this
activity.
○ copy
○ chkdsk
○ robocopy
○ md

5. What is the best command line tool to use if you want to test TCP/IP communication to a specific IP
address?
○ net
○ ipconfig
○ nbstat
○ ping

6. Which tool is used to create a new partition boot sector?

○ fdisk
○ fixboot
○ bootrec
○ fixmbr

7. Which system recovery tool restores a system image created by the user?
○ System Restore
○ System Image Recovery
○ Memory Diagnostic
○ Startup Repair

8. Which is the best description of the Startup Repair utility?

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 ○ Restores a system image created by the user
○ Checks the system's memory for errors
○ Restores computer settings and system files to a user-defined time
○ Repairs system files that are missing or corrupted

9. Close the command prompt.

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 TOPIC D
Windows Security Settings
In the last topic, you identified some command line tools that you can use to manipulate some
elements of the operating system. Another critical aspect of configuring and supporting the
operating system is managing the security settings that control the access to data and files within the
environment. In this topic, you will identify Windows security settings.
As an IT professional, your responsibilities are likely to include configuring and maintaining
operating systems for many employees within the organization. Knowing the Windows security
settings and how to properly configure them enables you to ensure that users have the proper access
to only the data and files that are applicable and appropriate to their employment status.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220-802, Objective 1.2: Given a scenario, install and configure the operating system using
the most appropriate method.
• Exam 220-802, Objective 1.8: Explain the differences among basic OS security settings.
• Exam 220-802, Objective 2.3: Implement security best practices to secure a workstation.

Types of User Accounts

Windows includes several built-in user accounts to provide you with initial access to a computer.

User Account Provides

Administrator Complete administrative access to a computer. This is the most powerful

account on a computer and should be protected with a strong password. In
some situations, you might also consider renaming this account.
Power User Fewer access privileges than administrators, but more access privileges than
standard users. Power Users might be able to install most software and updates,
but they will be restricted from making changes that affect security or the core
operating system. This account is available only in Windows XP.
Standard User Access to use most of the computing software on the computer. However,
higher permission is required to uninstall or install software and hardware. This
account also limits the configuration of security settings, operational settings,
and deletion of necessary system files. This account is sometimes referred to as a
non-privileged user account.
Guest Limited computer access to individuals without a user account. By default, the
Guest account is disabled when you install the operating system. You enable this
account only if you want to permit users to log on as a guest.

User Account Control

User Account Control (UAC) is an enhanced security feature of Windows 7 and Vista that aims to limit
the privileges of a standard user unless a computer administrator decides otherwise. The intent is to
limit accidental changes to the computer to reduce exposure to malware. Administrators can control
access by managing privilege levels, which are not the same as permissions. A user might have
administrator permissions, but still needs to be explicitly granted the privilege of running an
application.

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Figure 2-9: The UAC.

Note: Complaints from end users against Windows Vista's UAC are common because many
tasks that users were able to perform on their own in previous Windows versions require
additional privileges in Vista. However, in Windows 7, this issue has been addressed and UAC is
now less intrusive.

Changing UAC Settings

If the UAC is too restrictive for you or for your users, the settings can be changed. Open the
Microsoft Management Console (MMC) and open the Local Security Policy settings. You must be
logged on to the administrator account to modify:
• Whether the UAC is enabled or disabled.
• What the UAC behavior is for administrator or Standard Users.
• Application-specific behavior.
Reassure participants
Tasks Requiring a UAC Prompt that the MMC will be
explained in greater
Tasks that are preceded by the Security Shield icon will invoke the UAC. detail later in the course.

Group Accounts
Windows includes several built-in group accounts that you can use to control basic system security. Group Accounts

Group Account Description

Administrators Users in the Administrators group can perform all administrative tasks on the
computer.
When an account is created during the installation of Windows, it is
automatically added to this group by default.
Power Users Available only in Windows XP. Users in the Power Users group can run pre-
Windows 2000 applications, modify some system-wide settings (such as the
time), install some programs, and manage some local accounts.
Standard Users Users in the Standard Users group can run applications and perform other day-
to-day computer tasks for which the group has been granted permissions.
Guests Users in the Guests group can perform any tasks for which the group has
permissions.

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 System Files and Folders
System files are the files that are required for the operating system to function to its fullest capabilities.
These files are typically hidden because their deletion can prevent the computer from working
properly. For system files, both the file extension and the location of the file in the system hierarchy
are important, as they help the computer recognize it as a system file.
In the file system hierarchy, the terms folder and directory are used interchangeably to describe a
container that is used to organize files and other folders. System software and applications usually
create standardized directory structures at the time of installation. Users can also create their own
directory structures.

Figure 2-10: A folder in the system hierarchy.

Note: In Windows, the maximum depth of a folder structure is restricted by the 255-character
limit in the overall file path, including the character representing the drive and any file name and
extension. Otherwise, there is no set limit on the length of a particular file or folder name.

Creating a File
The most common way for a file to be created is to start a new file within a specific application and
then save it to a directory. But you can also create a file without opening an application.
• Display the pop-up menu for the Windows desktop and select New, and then select what kind
of blank file you would like to save to the desktop.
• In Windows Explorer, display the pop-up menu for the view pane of a particular folder and
select New→[filetype].
• From a Windows command prompt, you can also use the copy con [filename] command,
which creates an empty file and allows you to edit it immediately, without leaving the command
prompt. After typing the contents of the file, press Ctrl+Z and then press Enter to save and exit
the file.
• In a UNIX system, users can create files at the command line by using the touch
[filename] command, where [filename] is the name of the file.
• UNIX users can also create files by using the cat > [filename] command. Like copy
con,the cat command (which is short for "concatenate") creates the file, opens it within the )

System Files and

84 Folders
 command prompt window, and allows a user to edit the file's contents. To save and exit the file,
type Ctrl+D.

Windows Explorer
Windows Explorer is a graphical tool that enables users to manage files and folders on a computer,
including the contents of hard disks, floppy disks, CDs, DVDs, USB devices, and any other storage
devices attached to the computer. On the left side of Windows Explorer, the Explorer bar displays
the folder hierarchy tree by default, and the right pane displays the contents of the selected item.

Figure 2-11: Windows Explorer in Windows 7.

Note: You can run Windows Explorer in Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows Vista, and
Windows 7 from the Accessories group on the Start menu. In Windows XP, you can also open
Windows Explorer by displaying an object's pop-up menu and selecting Explore. Windows
Explorer open with the object selected in the folder hierarchy. For example, if you display the
pop-up menu for the Start menu and select Explore, Windows Explorer opens and displays the
contents of the Start Menu folder on the disk.

Note: In Windows XP and Windows 2000, you can choose to display other contents in the
Explorer bar. In Windows Explorer, select View→Explorer Bar and then select Search,
Favorites, History, Research, or Folders.

Computer/My Computer
Like Windows Explorer, Computer, or My Computer as it is called in Windows XP, is used to
manage files and folders on a computer and on any storage devices attached to the computer. In
Windows 7, Computer is a two-pane window, with a Windows Explorer-like navigation bar on the
left side. You can open Computer from an icon on the Windows desktop or from the Start menu.

Windows Explorer
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 Figure 2-12: Computer in Windows 7.

File Extensions
File Extensions Standard file extensions that follow the names of files can indicate whether a particular file is a
program file or a data file. If it is a data file, the extension can indicate the application category that
might be used to edit the file. Many common file extensions are three characters long, although
there is no longer a strict character limit for the file name or extension in most modern operating
systems. A period separates the extension from the file name itself.

Common File Extensions

The following table lists a number of common file extensions. Because Windows uses the file
extension to determine how the system will use a file, if you alter a file name extension, you might
find that a program file will not execute properly or that a data file will not automatically open in the
associated application.

File Extension Typically Indicates

.txt A plain text file that contains no formatting other than spaces and line breaks.
You can open .txt files in any text editing program, such as Notepad, or word
processing programs, such as Microsoft® Word.
.rtf Rich Text Format (RTF), or a text file that includes a limited amount of
formatting such as bold and italic. You can open .rtf files in various applications,
such as common word processors or Microsoft's WordPad accessory.
.doc A data file created in a word processing program, such as Microsoft Word or
WordPad. You might also see .docx, which is an Office 2010 format.
.bat A batch file; a small text file containing a list of system commands that execute
in a "batch," rather than requiring the user to enter each command in succession.
.bin A binary file, containing only binary data (1s and 0s), which cannot typically be
opened and read by a user application.
.com A command file or compiled application file.

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File Extension Typically Indicates
.exe Executable files that launch programs and applications.
.dll A Dynamic Link Library (DLL) file, containing additional application settings or
functions that are loaded by executable files, as needed.
.hlp, .chm Help files used by various applications.
.htm, .html HyperText Markup Language (HTML) files, used to indicate web pages.
.inf Setup configuration settings for operating systems and applications.
.ini Configuration settings for software and hardware components.
.msi A Windows Installer package; a file that can specify installation parameters for
an application.
.sys System files. System files are typically hidden, as their deletion can prevent the
computer from working properly. With system files, it is not only the extension
that is important because it helps the computer recognize it as a system file, but
the location as well.
.tif, .jpg, .jpeg, .g Graphic image files in various formats.
if, .bmp, .png
.xls, .ppt, .mdb Data files created in Microsoft® Excel®, Microsoft® PowerPoint®, and
Microsoft® Access®, respectively. Office 2007 and Office 2010 file formats
include .xlsx, .pptx, and .mdbx files.

Note: By default, the folder view options in Computer and Windows Explorer are set so that
common file extensions do not display. You can display the extensions by unchecking Hide
extensions for known file types on the View page in the Folder Options dialog box.

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 ACTIVITY 2-4
Viewing File Extensions

Scenario
In this activity, you will view the file extensions for the files that are stored on your Windows 7
system.

1. Open the folder that contains the Windows system files.

a) Select Start→Computer.
b) Double-click the C drive.
c) Double-click the Windows folder.

2. Display the file extensions.

a) On the menu bar, select Organize→Folder and search options.
b) Select the View tab.
c) Uncheck Hide extensions for known file types and select OK.

3. Examine the file extensions.

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 a) Scroll down to view the files. The first few files in the window have a number of different extensions.
b) To see all of the files in a list format, right-click in an open area and select View→List.
c) To see similar extensions grouped together, right-click in an open area and select Sort by→Type.
d) To return to the default view, right-click in an open area and select Sort by→Name.
e) Close the window.

File Attributes
File attributes are characteristics that can be associated with a file or folder that provide the operating File Attributes
system with important information about the file or folder and how it is intended to be used by
system users.
There are several standard attributes that can be enabled for files or folders on Windows systems.

File Attribute Description

Archive (A) Indicates that a file has not been backed up. Windows automatically sets the
Archive attribute on any file you create or modify. When you back up data, you
can choose to back up only the files on which the Archive attribute is set.
Hidden (H) Hides a file from view in file management tools such as Windows Explorer,
Computer in Windows Vista and Windows 7, or My Computer in Windows
XP.
Read-Only (R) Enables users to read the contents of a file or execute it if it is a program file, but
prevents users from changing the contents of a file.
System (S) Indicates that a file is used by the operating system. Some applications use this
attribute to restrict user access to these files. The System attribute in Windows
automatically hides the file or folder.
Index (I) This Windows-specific attribute enables the Windows Indexing Service to create
an index of the file to speed up the Search function.

Viewing and Changing Attributes

You can view or change most attributes of a file or folder object by opening the properties of the
object in Windows Explorer. You can view and manage the System attribute at the command line by
using the attrib command. For information on the functions and syntax of the attrib command,
see the Windows Help system.

Windows File System Types

A file system is an inherent organizational structure that is used to organize and store data and Windows File System
information in a logical manner on the system's storage device. It enables the system to retrieve and Types
update data efficiently when it needs to be accessed and manages the space available on the storage
device where the data will be stored. The file system is created when the storage device or drive is
formatted.
Windows supports a number of different file systems.

File System Description

File Allocation An older file system that is best suited for use with drives smaller than 4 GB in
Table (FAT) size. The primary advantages of the FAT file system are its extremely low disk
overhead (less than 1 MB), and its compatibility with many different operating
systems, including all versions of Windows and MS-DOS and UNIX systems.
You might use the FAT file system if you want to dual-boot a computer

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 File System Description
between a version of Windows and another operating system. It is primarily
used for formatting floppy disks.
FAT32 An enhanced version of the FAT file system that was designed to overcome
the size limit of FAT. It scales better to large hard drives (up to 2 TB in size)
and uses a smaller cluster size than FAT for more efficient space usage.
NT File System The recommended file system for today's Windows-based computers. NTFS
(NTFS) was introduced with the Windows NT operating system. NTFS provides many
enhanced features over FAT or FAT32, including file- and folder-level security,
file encryption, disk compression, and scalability to very large drives and files.
Media file Windows also supports various types of special media file system formats, such
systems as CD File System (CDFS) for CD-ROM devices.

Disk Clusters and File System Types

When you format drives, you organize the drive into individual data storage areas called sectors.
Sectors are grouped together into larger units called clusters or allocation units. A cluster is the smallest
unit that the system will use to store a file. If a file does not fill a cluster, the extra space in the
cluster remains empty.
The size of sectors and clusters is determined by the file system that was used to format the drive.
Smaller allocation units reduce unused space on the disk, but they can reduce disk read/write
performance because there are more locations to access on the disk. The smaller cluster sizes that
FAT32 offered were of more benefit when disk space was costly and most drives used FAT; very
large hard drives are now relatively inexpensive. In any case, you should generally use NTFS on
Windows partitions to gain the available security benefits.

Permissions
Permissions In a Windows environment, permissions are security settings that control access to individual objects,
such as files or folders. Permissions determine which specific actions users can perform on a given
object. You can assign permissions by modifying an object's properties.

Figure 2-13: Permissions.

Note: In UNIX and Linux systems, the terms "permissions" and "rights" are used
interchangeably.

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NTFS File Permissions
There are five standard NTFS permissions that you can assign to files.

Permission Enables the User To

Read Read the file and view file attributes, ownership, and permissions.
Write Overwrite the file and change file attributes.
Read & Run applications and perform Read tasks.
Execute
Modify Modify and delete the file.
Full Control Change permissions, take ownership, and perform all other tasks.

Special Permissions
Each of the standard NTFS permissions is made up of several more granular permissions called
special permissions. Standard permissions are the most frequently assigned groups of permissions;
special permissions provide you with a finer degree of control.
For example, the standard Read permission is made up of the following special permissions:
• List Folder/Read Data.
• Read Attributes.
• Read Extended Attributes.
• Read Permissions.

File Permissions in Windows XP Home

The Classic security model is not available in Windows XP Home, so you will not be able to set
individual NTFS permissions on Windows XP Home computers. However, when Simple File
Sharing is active, both Windows XP Professional and Windows XP Home provide a rudimentary
mechanism for protecting or sharing local files when multiple users use the same computer.
• To protect files, individual users can mark user profile folders such as My Documents as
Private. Other local users will not be able to access these folders.
• To share files, users can place files and folders in the Shared Documents folder in My
Computer. All local users will be able to access the contents of Shared Documents. The Shared
Documents folder is also shared on the network and can be accessed by users at other
computers.

File Compression and Encryption

File compression and file encryption are two special features of the NTFS file system that are
implemented as advanced attributes.
• File compression is a way to save disk space by removing blank or repeated characters within
files. Windows file compression is rarely used, partly because disk space on most systems today is
relatively plentiful, and partly because there are other ways to reduce file size, such as with a file-
compression utility like WinZip®, which creates a new, compressed file that you can copy to
other media or email to other users.
• File encryption is an NTFS security measure that scrambles the contents of a file so that only the
person who encrypted the file can open it, even if the disk containing the file is physically
removed from the computer and loaded into a different computer system. File encryption is a
good way to protect data on portable devices such as laptop computers.

NTFS Folder Permissions

There are six standard NTFS permissions that you can assign to folders or to drives.

NTFS File Permissions

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 Permission Enables the User To

List Folder View the names, attributes, and permissions of subfolders in the folder, but only
Contents see the names of files within the folder.
Read View names, attributes, permissions, and contents of files and subfolders in the
folder.
Write Create new files and subfolders in the folder, and change their attributes.
Read & Perform the same functions as Read and List Folder Contents tasks, as well as
Execute execute files.
Modify Delete the folder and perform Write and Read & Execute tasks.
Full Control Change permissions, take ownership, delete subfolders and files, and perform all
other tasks.

Permissions Inheritance
Permissions that you assign to a folder are inherited by files and folders within that folder. It is
generally most efficient to group similar files together in a folder and assign permissions to the
folder, rather than to the individual files. Inherited permissions are indicated by gray background
check marks in the file or folder's security properties.

Permissions Propagation
If you modify the permissions for a parent folder, you can choose whether or not to propagate the
changes downwards, which means to apply those permissions changes to all of the subfolders within
the folder. )

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 ACTIVITY 2-5
Exploring NTFS Permissions

Scenario
In this activity, you will examine NTFS file and folder permissions.

1. Turn off the Sharing Wizard.

a) Open Computer, and select Organize→Folder and search options.
b) Select the View tab. Scroll to the bottom of the Advanced settings list.
c) Uncheck Use Sharing Wizard (Recommended) and select OK.

2. Examine the NTFS permissions on a drive.

a) Select the C drive, and select Organize→Properties.
b) Select the Security tab.
c) In the Group or user names list, select the Administrators group.
d) Determine the permissions assigned to the Administrators group.
e) Select the Users group.
f) Determine the permissions assigned to the Users group and select Cancel.
Instead of leading
3. What level of permissions did the administrators group have? participants through the
○ Full Control next set of questions,
you can choose to
○ Modify facilitate a discussion
○ Write about the differences
between the permissions
○ Read & Execute assigned to the
Administrators group
4. What level of permissions did the Users group have? and the Users group.
○ Full Control
○ Modify
○ Write
○ Read & Execute

5. Examine NTFS folder permissions.

a) Double-click the C drive. Select the LocalData folder, and then select Organize→Properties.
b) Select the Security tab.
c) Select the Administrators group.
d) Determine the permissions assigned to the Administrators group.
e) Select the Users group.
f) Determine the permissions assigned to the Users group, and then select Cancel.
Instead of leading
6. How were the permissions in the LocalData folder different from the permissions on the C drive? participants through the
○ Administrators did not have Full Control to the LocalData folder. next question, you can
choose to facilitate a
○ Users could not read files in the LocalData folder. discussion about
○ The permissions on the C drive were set explicitly; the permissions on the LocalData folder were permission inheritance
inherited from the C drive. for folders and files.
○ The available permissions were different.

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 7. Examine NTFS file permissions.
a) Double-click the LocalData folder.
b) Select the New Text Document file, and then select Organize→Properties.
c) Select the Security tab.
d) Select the Administrators group.
e) Determine the permissions assigned to the Administrators group. Verify that the permissions of the
New Text Document file is the same as that of the C drive and the LocalData folder.
f) Select the Users group.
g) Determine the permissions assigned to the Users group, and then select Cancel.
h) Close the window.

8. True or False? The permissions in the New Text Document file were inherited from the LocalData folder
permissions.
☐ True
☐ False

Shared Files and Folders

A share is any network resource that is available to other computers or users on the network. Typical
shares include folders, printers, and drives. Because shares enable users to access a computer system
from a remote location, you should secure all shared resources against unauthorized access.
There are two kinds of shares: administrative shares and local shares.
• Administrative shares are hidden shares that are created and shared by default on every Windows
system. They are displayed with a "$" to indicate that they are hidden files. Although you can
delete these administrative shares, the system will re-create them every time the system restarts.
Anyone with administrator access to the system can interact with administrative shares.
• Local shares are folders that are created on the local network by system users and then shared
with other network users by using shared folder permissions. Users, including administrators, can
delete local shares, and they are not automatically created upon restart.

File Sharing with Windows

On Windows systems, you can share a folder by modifying the folder's properties. When you share a
folder, you assign it a share name that can be different from the underlying folder name. You can
share the folder more than once using different names.
Users can connect to the shared folder by browsing to the computer in Network, or by selecting
Start→Run and entering the Universal Naming Convention (UNC) path to the folder, in the form
\\computername\sharename.

Viewing Shares on the System

You can see all shares on a system, including administrative shares, by opening Computer
Management, expanding Shared Folders, and selecting the Shares node. You should see the
following administrative shares on every Windows system:
• The root of each drive on the system is shared with its drive letter. Thus, the C drive is shared
administratively as C$, the D drive is shared as D$, and so on.
• The folder where Windows is installed, usually the C:\Windows folder, is shared as ADMIN$.
• An InterProcess Communication (IPC) network object is created and shared as IPC$. This does
not represent a local folder, but it enables computers to establish network sessions using the IPC
mechanism.

File Sharing with OS X

When you use OS X, you can share files in the Public folder for your user account with up to 10
other network users. (Sharing with more users requires OS X Server.) You will need to make the

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 are Permissions

AppleTalk service active, assign a network nameto your computer, and start the file sharing service.
Other OS X users on your local network can then connect to your system by choosing Connect To
Server from the Go menu and browsing for your computer’s name. They can access files in your
Public folder, and place files in your Drop Box folder.
For more information about file sharing in OS X, including information on how to make other
folders public, share files with remote users on the Internet, and share with computers running
different operating systems, see the technical document "Mac 101: File Sharing" on the Apple
website at http://support.apple.com/kb/HT1549.

File Sharing with UNIX or Linux

UNIX and Linux are typically used as centralized network file servers, rather than for ad hoc peer-
to-peer resource sharing. These systems generally use the Network File Sharing (NFS) protocol to
share files with other UNIX and Linux systems. NFS enables clients to see the files on the shared
system as if they were part of the client’s own local file system.
The specific steps for implementing file sharing with NFS will vary depending on the operating
system version, and also depending on whether you use shell commands or your system’s GUI to
configure the service. This is also true for the commands or steps that the clients will need to use to
mount the file systems that NFS exports.
NTFS vs. Share
For a sample discussion of exporting and mounting NFS file systems on Red Hat Enterprise Linux,
Permissions
see the Red Hat Enterprise Linux 6 Storage Administration Guide: Chapter 12, Network File
System (NFS). Go to https://access.redhat.com/knowledge/docs, select Red Hat Enterprise
Linux, scroll down until you see Storage Administration Guide, select an available format, and in
the Storage Administration Guide, navigate to Section 12.1.
For additional information about Samba, see the Samba Wiki at https://help.ubuntu.com/
community/Samba.

Share Permissions
You can set three different levels of permissions on shared files and folders in Windows.

Permission Enables Users To

Read • View file and subfolder names.

• View file contents and file attributes.
• Run program files.
The Read permission is granted by default to the Everyone group when a folder is
shared and to new users when they are added to the Permissions list.
Change • Perform all Read permission tasks.
• Add files and subfolders.
• Change file contents.
• Delete subfolders and files.
Full Control • Perform all Read and Change tasks.
• Change NTFS permissions on files and folders inside the shared folder.

NTFS vs. Share Permissions

NTFS permissions apply to the actions that users can take on a file or folder either on the network
or locally. Share permissions apply only to the folders (and possibly subfolders and files) that have
been shared with other users and are being accessed over the network. Using both NTFS and share
permissions on the same files and folders may seem like overkill, but they are often used together,

95
 and it is important to understand the differences between the two permissions and how they interact
with one another.
In Windows, a shared folder has two sets of permissions: the NTFS permissions (which are on the
Security tab of that folder's Properties) and the share permissions (which are on the Shared tab of
that folder's Properties). The security permissions do not automatically change once a folder is
designated as a share, and there is no propagation between the two. A folder can have NTFS
permissions assigned, and then be shared and have share permissions assigned. When a user
accesses the folder over the network, both the share and NTFS permissions are applicable, and the
most restrictive of the two sets of permissions applies. So, if the network user has the Full Control
NTFS permission but only the Read share permission, the user will have only the ability to read the
contents of the folder.
Note: When a user accesses a file on the local system, however, only the NTFS permissions
apply. The fact that the folder is shared is not relevant when you are accessing the folder locally.

Permissions Considerations
Permissions There are some important considerations that you should keep in mind when applying permissions
Considerations to files and folders.

NTFS vs. Share Property Function and Description

Allow vs. Deny When choosing whether to allow or deny an action using permissions,
you need to choose carefully between the two. Deny is more restrictive
than Allow. If the Deny property is applied on either a file or a folder,
it will override any Allow permissions that may have been granted to
the user. Therefore, use of the Deny permission should be done
sparingly. You should deny permissions (using explicit Deny) only to a
specific user when it is necessary to override permissions that are
otherwise allowed for the group to which this user belongs.
When establishing permissions, administrators can specify whether the
entry being added should have access (Allow) or not have access (not
Allow) to the resource. It is more practical to clear all the Allow check
boxes for a group or a user, in effect denying them access to the
resource without using the absolute Deny option. “Not-Allow” access
in this way is easier to troubleshoot, manage, and configure.
Moving vs. copying files When permissions have been applied, moving a file or folder and
and folders copying that file or folder will have different results. It is important to
consider those results when choosing whether to move or to copy
your files or folders.
When you move a file or folder from one folder to another on the
same partition, it retains the permissions that were applied to it in its
original location. When you copy a file or folder from one directory to
another, it inherits the permissions of the folder or directory to which
it has been copied.
When you move a file or folder between partitions, the result is similar
to copying the file or folder: it will inherit the target folder's
permissions.
File attributes You can set file attributes on files and folders, and these attributes can
affect the actions a user can have on that specific file or folder,
regardless of the permissions that have already been set. If a file or
folder has the Read-Only attribute, the attribute will override the
permissions applied to users who are accessing that file or folder.

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User Authentication
User authentication is a network security measure in which a computer user or some other network
component proves its identity in order to gain access to network resources. There are many possible
authentication methods; one of the most common is a combination of a user name and a password.
Most authentication schemes are based on the use of one or more authentication factors. The
factors include:
• Something you know, such as a password.
• Something you have, such as a key or an ID card.
• Something you are, including physical characteristics, such as fingerprints.

SSO
Single sign-on (SSO) is an access control property that you can use to provide users with one-time
authentication to multiple resources, servers, or sites. Users log in once with a single user name and
password to gain access to a number of different systems, without being asked to log in at each
access point. Different systems may use different mechanisms for user authentication, so SSO has to
use different credentials to perform authentication. With the widespread use of SSO, it is important
to ensure that user authentication is strong for the login; with one potential user name and password
providing access to a host of systems, it is critical that this single access point is being properly
secured.

User Access Process

There are three phases in the user access process that a person or system must perform in order to
gain access to resources:
• Identification: The claim of identity made by the user when entering a user name and password.
• Authentication: The verification of that claim.
• Authorization: The action taken as a result of verifying the claim.

One-, Two-, and Three-Factor Authentication

An authentication scheme with just one factor can be called single-factor authentication, while a
two- or three-factor authentication scheme can simply be called multi-factor authentication.

User Authentication

Reassure participants
that authentication
methods are covered in
depth later in this
course.

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 TOPIC E
Windows Operating System Tools
In the previous topic, you identified Windows security settings that you can use to control access to
data and files stored in the operating system. With so many files and features available in the
operating system, a working knowledge of the toolset that is used to manage the operating system is
crucial to your success as a computer technician. In this topic, you will identify some of the
fundamental Windows operating system tools.
As an IT professional, you will need to be prepared to act on varying requests for supporting
Windows systems, from installation to configuration and beyond. The Windows operating system
provides a great many tools to assist you in supporting your Windows users. By identifying
Windows operating system tools, you can be better prepared to select the appropriate tool for the
job at hand.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220-802, Objective 1.1: Compare and contrast the features and requirements of various
Microsoft Operating Systems.
• Exam 220-802, Objective 1.4: Given a scenario, use appropriate operating system features and
tools.

Administrative Tools
Administrative Tools In Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Windows XP, the Administrative Tools folder includes several
tools that advanced users and system administrators can use to help manage the system. In
Windows 7 and Windows Vista, you can access the Administrative Tools folder by selecting
Start→Control Panel→System and Maintenance. In Windows XP, select Start→Control
Panel. The following table describes the contents of the Administrative Tools folder.

Administrative Tool Description

Component Services Component Services is the GUI that developers and administrators can use
to configure and administer Component Object Model (COM)
components.
Computer Management Computer Management is the primary administrative tool you will use to
manage and configure a Windows XP or Windows 7 computer.
Computer Management combines several administrative utilities into
a single console to provide easy access to the most common system
tools, including Event Viewer, Performance Monitor, Disk
Defragmenter, Disk Management, and more.
Data Sources (ODBC) Data Sources uses Open Database Connectivity (ODBC) to move data
between different databases on the system.
Event Viewer You can use the Event Viewer to view the contents of event logs, which
contain information about significant incidents that occur on your
computer. Examples of events that might be contained in an event log
include a program starting or stopping and security errors.
iSCSI Initiator You can use the iSCSI Initiator to configure connections between
network storage devices.
Local Security Policy You can use the Local Security Policy to view and edit the security settings
for the local computer.

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Administrative Tool Description
Performance Monitor Performance Monitor is a software tool that monitors the state of services
or daemons, processes, and resources on a system. Performance
Monitor tracks one or more counters, which are individual statistics
about the operation of different objects on the system, such as
software processes or hardware components.
Print Management You can use Print Management to view and manage all of the printers
and print servers installed on a network.
Services You can use Services to view all of the services that run in the
background on a system. For each service, you can view a description
of the service, and for some services, you can perform certain actions
such as starting, pausing, stopping, or restarting the service.
System Configuration You can use System Configuration to identify and manage issues that may
be causing the system to run improperly at startup.
Task Scheduler You can use the Task Scheduler to create and manage certain system
tasks that will be automatically carried out by your computer at
predetermined times.
Windows Firewall with You can use Windows Firewall with Advanced Security to manage advanced
Advanced Security firewall settings for the computer and any remote computers that are
connected to the network.
Windows Memory You can use the Windows Memory Diagnostic to check the RAM on the
Diagnostic system and verify that it is functioning appropriately and efficiently.

The Microsoft Management Console

Many of the administrative tools, such as Computer Management, are snap-in tools for the MMC
interface. The MMC interface provides a standard framework for a wide variety of administrative
tools within Windows, so that tools with many different functions have a similar look and feel and
so that you can access them from within a common application. All Windows XP MMC consoles
have a two-pane structure with a hierarchical console tree view on the left and a details pane view on
the right; a third Actions pane was added in Windows Vista and Windows 7. Computer
Management is just one of several preconfigured MMC consoles that are included with Windows
XP, Windows Vista, and Windows 7; you can also create custom MMC consoles by adding snap-in
tools into the MMC interface. See Windows Help for more information on creating and saving a
custom MMC console.

Event Logs in Windows XP

There are three default event logs available in the Event Viewer on Windows XP computers:
• The Application log records Information, Warning, or Error messages generated by specific
applications, and by some Windows services. The application developer determines whether or
not a particular application will post entries to the log.
• The Security log records Success Audit or Failure Audit events if an administrator has configured
security auditing on the system. If you have not configured an audit policy, this log will be empty.
• The System log records Information, Warning, or Error messages generated by system
components. For example, this log will show you if a driver or service has failed to load.

Event Logs in Windows Vista and Windows 7

Windows Vista and Windows 7 include two additional event logs in the Event Viewer: :
• The Setup log stores events relating to installation of new applications.
• The Forwarded Events log stores event IDs from other computers.

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 Additional Event Logs
In certain circumstances, additional logs may also be available; for example, a DNS server will also
have a DNS log. To access Event Viewer from the command line, enter eventvwr.exe )

100
 ACTIVITY 2-6
Exploring Administrative Tools

Scenario
In this activity, you will explore some of the options available in the Administrative Tools Control
Panel.

1. Open the Administrative Tools Control Panel.

a) Select Start→Control Panel.
b) Select System and Security.
c) Select Administrative Tools.

2. Examine the options available in the Administrative Tools Control Panel. Explain the tools as
participants examine
3. Examine system performance by using the Performance Monitor. them.
a) Double-click Performance Monitor, and in the console tree, select Performance Monitor.
b) The default configuration does not contain a counter. To add a counter, select the Add icon.
c) In the Select counters from computer drop-down list, verify that Local computer is selected.
d)
Scroll and expand the Memory object. Participants might have
e) With the Memory performance object expanded, check Show description. to scroll up or scroll
f) View the explanations for other performance counters. down to find the Memory
g) Click Memory and verify that all objects are highlighted under the Memory performance object, and object.
then select Add.
All of the Memory performance objects are transferred to the Added counters pane and are marked
with an asterisk.
h) Select OK.

4. Change the Performance Monitor report type.

a) On the toolbar, select Change graph type→Report.
b) Verify that the default line graph is replaced by a text-based report.
c) Select the Freeze Display button, to freeze the display.
When you freeze the display, the counters no longer update in real time.
d) Select the Unfreeze Display button to resume the counters.

5. Change the rate at which the system collects performance data.

a) Press Ctrl+G to change the graph type back to a line graph. Observe the time increments on the
horizontal axis.
b) Select Action→Properties.
c) In the Performance Monitor Properties dialog box, on the General tab, in the Graph elements
section, in the Sample every text box, select the text and type 5
d) In the Duration text box, select the text and type 90
e) Select OK.
f) Watch the screen for 10 seconds and verify that the sampling rate has been changed to every 5
seconds and that the graph now displays 90 seconds of information at a time. When you have
finished, close Performance Monitor.

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 Local Users and Groups
You can use Local Users and Groups to create and manage user and group accounts on the local
system. To access Local Users and Groups, open Computer Management, and expand System
Tools.

Device Manager
You can use Device Manager to manage and configure hardware devices. In Windows 7, there are
several ways to access Device Manager:
• Select Start→Control Panel→System and Security→Device Manager.
• At a command prompt, enter the mmc devmgmt.msc command.
• In the navigation pane of Computer Management, select Device Manager.
You can use Device Manager to:
• View a list of all devices attached to the system.
• See the status of a device. An exclamation point means there is a problem with a device; a yellow
question mark means the device has been detected but a driver is not installed, or there is a
resource conflict.
• Enable or disable a device. A disabled device appears with a red X.
• Determine the device driver a device is using; upgrade a device driver; roll a device driver back to
a previous version.
• Determine any system resources that the device is using, such as interrupt request lines (IRQs) or
Direct Memory Access (DMA) ports.
• Uninstall or reinstall devices.

Device Manager Log On Options

No matter which option you use to access Device Manager, if you are logged on as the built-in
administrator account, Device Manager opens immediately. If you are logged on as a member of
the Administrators group, the User Account Control dialog box opens, and you can select
Continue to open Device Manager. If you are logged on as a standard user, you are notified that
you are restricted from changing device settings, and Device Manager opens in read-only mode.

Local Users and Groups

Device Manager

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 ACTIVITY 2-7
Using Computer Management and Device
Manager

Before You Begin

The Administrative Tools Control Panel is open.

Scenario
In this activity, you will use Computer Management and Device Manager to check the status of
the various functions and devices installed in your computer.

1. Examine the Computer Management console.

a) Double-click Computer Management.
b) To view the categories of log files that Windows maintains, select Event Viewer.
c) If necessary, scroll down to view the Log Summary section. To view the contents of a log file in the
Log Summary list, select System, and in the Actions pane, select View events in this log.
d) To view the tools for managing shared network folders, in the console pane, select Shared Folders.
e) To see the shared folders on the system, in the console pane, expand Shared Folders, and then
select Shares.
f) To view the tools for managing local computer accounts, in the console pane, select Local Users
and Groups.
g) To see the local users on the system, expand Local Users and Groups, and then select Users.

2. View device status in the Device Manager.

a) In the console pane, expand Performance, and select Device Manager.
b) Expand the Keyboards node.
c) Verify that the Keyboard Device icon appears normal, and double-click the icon to open the
keyboard's property sheet.
d) Select the Driver tab.
You can view details about the driver, update or roll back the driver, or disable or uninstall the device
on the Driver page.
e) Select the Details tab.
f) On the Details tab, select a property, and view the corresponding details. Select Cancel.
g) Expand other categories, and view the status and properties of other devices.
h) Close Computer Management and the Administrative Tools and Control Panel windows.

3. Did any devices have problems?

A: Answers will vary depending upon the state of the systems.

Task Manager
Windows Task Manager is a basic system diagnostic and performance monitoring tool included
with Windows XP, Windows Vista, and Windows 7. You can use Task Manager to monitor or
terminate applications and processes, view current CPU and memory usage statistics, monitor
network connection utilization, set the priority of various processes if programs share resources, and
manage logged-on local users.

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 Task Description and Purpose

Applications Displays all of the applications currently running on the system and their
status (running, not responding, etc.). Users can use the Task Manager
to end an application that is running, switch to a different open
application, or start a new application.
Processes Displays all of the processes currently running on the system, including
the CPU and memory usage for all processes. Users can choose to end a
process from the Task Manager.
Performance Displays the current CPU and physical memory usage statistics for the
system in a graphical format and numerical format for an overall view of
the current system performance.
Networking Displays the networks that the system is currently connected to, and
graphically displays current connection utilization for all network
connections.
Users The Users tab was added in Windows Vista and is still available in
Windows 7. It displays all of the users currently logged on to the system.
Users can select another user's account and connect to that user's
session, send them a message, or disconnect or log off the user via the
Task Manager.

Viewing the Task Manager

You can view Windows Task Manager by right-clicking the taskbar and choosing Start Task
Manager, or by selecting Ctrl+Alt+Del and selecting Start Task Manager. By default, Windows
Task Manager will always remain on top of other applications.

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 ACTIVITY 2-8
Using Task Manager

Scenario
In this activity, you will use the Task Manager utility to examine your system's status.

1. Display the pop-up menu for the taskbar, and select Start Task Manager.
The Applications tab is blank because there are no application windows open.

2. Run an application.
a) To start an application, select New Task to open the Create New Task dialog box.
b) In the Open text box, type notepad and select OK.
Notepad opens in the background and the Untitled - Notepad task appears on the Applications tab.

3. Use Task Manager to review the system's status.

a) Verify that a running process count, CPU usage percentage, and committed memory value all
appear on the Task Manager status bar.
b) On the Applications tab, display the pop-up menu for the Notepad application and select Go To
Process.
There are various processes running on the system. Some are running in the background, not in
their own windows, and so they do not appear on the Applications tab.

4. From within Task Manager, close Notepad.

a) To close Notepad, verify that the Notepad process is selected, and select End Process.
b) Select End process to confirm that you want to close the application.

5. Select the Services tab, and examine the services that are running independently on the system.

6. Select the Performance tab.

The Performance tab provides a graphical report on system performance statistics.

7. Select the Networking tab.

The Networking tab provides a graphical report on network activity.

8. Select the Users tab.

This tab lets you see the other users who may be logged on to Windows 7.

9. Close Task Manager.

Disk Management
Disk Management is a snap-in utility for the MMC that you can use to manage all of the drives
installed on the system, including hard disk drives, optical disk drives, and flash drives.

105
 Figure 2-14: The Disk Management utility in Windows 7.

Note: Although any user can access Disk Management and view information about their
drives, only an administrator can use the other disk management tools available through this
utility.

Action Description

Views Displays all of the drives on the system, the drive letter assigned, the total
capacity of the drive and how much free space is available, and the current
status of the drive. It also displays the partitions for each drive.
Assign a drive letter Can be used to assign or change a drive letter for any hard drives, optical
drives, or flash drives being used by the system. The drive letter for the
partition that Windows is installed on cannot be changed.
Mount a drive Can be used to create a mounted drive or partition, in which the drive is
mapped to a NTFS-formatted folder on the hard drive and is assigned a
folder path name rather than a drive letter.
Extend partitions Can be used to create a container for logical partitions in order to extend
the volume of an existing partition, if more than four partitions are desired.
Split partitions Can be used to shrink or divide a partition on the drive to make room for
another partition to be created. In Windows Vista and Windows 7, you can
reduce the partition volume to a desired size to make free space for a new
partition to be created.
Add a drive Can be used to add a drive/disk to the machine. Once the drive has been
installed and depending on the history of the drive (already partitioned,
never been used, etc.), you can use this utility to initialize the disk or set an
offline disk to online.
Add an array Can be used to create and add an array to the system, including assigning
the drive a drive letter, mounting it to a folder, and formatting the volume.
An array is more than one physical drive on the machine that is combined
and managed as a single logical drive in the disk management utility.

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Accessing Disk Management Directly
You can access Disk Management by using an MMC snap-in, but you can also access it directly by
selecting Start→Run, and then entering the diskmgmt.msc command.

Migration Tools
There are a number of tools available through the Windows operating system to assist in migrating Migration Tools
user information between systems, including files and settings.

Migration Tool Description

User State Migration The User State Migration Tool (USMT) is a command line utility that copies
Tool files and settings from one Microsoft Windows computer to another,
including user accounts, files, folders, Windows settings, email messages,
and more. USMT can support the transfer of files and settings for
Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows Vista, and Windows 7. Not all
versions of the USMT can support all source or destination operating
systems.
Easy Transfer Easy Transfer is a built-in data-migration utility in Windows Vista and
Windows 7 that helps transfer files, data, and settings from one personal
computer to another. If the computer isn't running Windows 7, the user
will need to download and install a version of Easy Transfer for
Windows Vista or Windows XP before beginning the migration process.
Easy Transfer replaced the Files and Settings Transfer Wizard from
Windows XP. It was upgraded with Windows 7 to include a file explorer
for easy selection of files to transfer and provides a report of any files
that were not migrated to the new system.
Files and Settings The Files and Settings Transfer Wizard is a system tool that is available in
Transfer Wizard Windows XP and earlier versions of Windows. It transfers files and
settings from an old computer to a new computer. In the tool, the user
can choose what to migrate (files only, settings only, or both files and
settings) and how the selected items should be migrated (via a storage
device like a disk or other removable media device, via a direct
connection between the computers, or via a drive on a network).
The files created using the Files and Settings Transfer Wizard are not
supported in Windows Vista or Windows 7. However, to work around
this problem, a user running Windows XP who needs to transfer files to
a computer running Windows Vista or Windows 7 can download and The Registry
install a version of Easy Transfer for Windows XP, and then migrate You may want to show
data by using the Easy Transfer tool. the LearnTO Use the
Registry from the
LogicalCHOICE Course
UDMT screen or have students
The Windows NT User Data Migration Tool (UDMT) is a legacy tool that was used with the navigate out to the
Microsoft Windows NT operating system to copy files and settings from one system to another. In Course screen and
the later versions of NT derivatives, from Windows 2000 and on, it was replaced by the USMT. watch it themselves as a
supplement to your
instruction. If not, please
The Registry remind students to visit
the LearnTOs for this
course on their
Note: For additional information, check out the LearnTO Use the Registry in the LearnTOs LogicalCHOICE Course
for this course on your LogicalCHOICE Course screen. screen after class for
supplemental
information and
additional resources.

107
 The Registry is the central configuration database where Windows stores and retrieves startup
settings, hardware and software configuration information, and information for local user accounts.
Logically, the Registry is divided into five sections called subtrees; each subtree is further divided
into keys that contain individual data items called value entries. The Registry is stored on the disk as
a group of files.

Figure 2-15: The Registry.

Editing the Registry

You can view and edit the contents of the Registry directly using the Registry Editor tool,
regedit.exe. However, most changes to the Registry are made automatically by the system, by
hardware devices, and by applications. It is rarely necessary to edit the Registry directly. If you ever
need to do so, use extreme caution and back up the Registry files first, because incorrect changes
can cause irrecoverable problems with Windows.
Windows 2000 offered an alternate version of the Registry Editor, regedt32.exe, that had a slightly
different user interface. On Windows XP and the recent versions of Windows, if you enter the
regedt32.exe command, regedit.exe will launch.

Registry Files
The Registry consists of five files stored in the \Windows\System32\Config folder: Default, SAM,
Security, Software, and System. Plus, there is a Registry file named Ntuser.dat, which is unique for
each user who logs on to the computer. This file is stored in each user's profile folder.

Registry Value Entries

An individual Registry value entry consists of a name, a data type, and the actual data stored in the
value. The data types can be various types of alphanumeric strings, binary data, or hexadecimal data.

108
Registry Subtrees
The Registry consists of five subtrees, which are sometimes called "hives." Some of the subtrees are Registry Subtrees
temporary pointers to information stored permanently in another Registry location. The following
table lists and describes the subtrees.

Subtree Contains

HKEY_CLASSES_RO All the file association information. Windows uses this information to
OT determine which application it should open whenever you double-click a
file with a specific extension. For example, Windows automatically opens
Notepad whenever you double-click a file with the extension .txt.
HKEY_CURRENT_U The user-specific configuration information for the user currently logged
SER on to the computer. For example, information about the user's selected
color scheme and wallpaper is stored in this subtree.
HKEY_LOCAL_MAC All the configuration information for the computer's hardware. For
HINE example, this subtree contains information about any modems installed
in the computer, any defined hardware profiles, and the networking
configuration.
HKEY_USERS User-specific configuration information for all the users who have ever
logged onto the computer.
HKEY_CURRENT_C Information about the current configuration of the computer's hardware.
ONFIG Windows operating systems support Plug and Play (PnP), a set of
industry-standard device specifications, originally developed by Intel
Corporation, which enables computers to automatically detect and install
various types of devices without user intervention.

Run Line Utilities

The Run line appears in the Start menu by default in Windows XP. In Windows Vista and Run Line Utilities
Windows 7, the Search function in the Start menu can be used in the same manner as the Run line,
or the Run line can be added to the Start menu by customizing the properties. In all versions, you
can also access the Run line via the keyboard shortcut Windows key + R.
You can use the Run line to access various system components and utilities by entering specific
commands. These commands and their outcomes are the same for Windows XP, Windows Vista,
and Windows 7.

Run Command Description and function

cmd Opens a new instance of the command interpreter/command

prompt interface.
dxdiag Opens and runs the DirectX Diagnostic tool, which displays
hardware specifications and can be used to test that hardware’s
suitability for use with DirectX software, which handles
multimedia tasks on Windows platforms. The report generated
by running dxdiag can be used to view a list of all hardware,
drivers, codecs, and system information for a computer, and can
be a useful diagnostic tool.
explorer Opens Windows Explorer in whatever the default view is for the
system.
mmc Opens the MMC.

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 Run Command Description and function
[command].msc Opens the management console for that entry (if one is
available) when the .msc extension is added to the command.
For example,
diskmgmt.msc
opens the Disk Management console, and
services.msc
opens the Services Control Panel.
msconfig Opens the System Configuration utility.
msinfo32 Opens the System Information utility, which displays a
summary of the hardware, software, and other system
components in the environment.
mstsc Opens the Remote Desktop Connection utility.
notepad Opens an instance of Notepad.
regedit Opens the Registry Editor, where the user can view or modify
the contents of the Registry.
services.msc Opens the Services console, where the user can manage all of
the services and installed software on the system. Must be used
with the .msc extension to open the management console.

Note: You can use the Run line to open programs, folders, documents, Internet resources, or
any other system component if there is an appropriate command to use.

Using .msc Extensions in the Run Line

There are a number of management consoles that can be accessed via the Run line using the .msc
extension. When [command].msc is entered in the Run line, it will open the management console
for that utility if one is available. For example:
• devmgmt.msc opens the Device Manager console.
• diskmgmt.msc opens the Disk Management console.
• compmgmt.msc opens the Computer Management console.

MSConfig
MSConfig MSConfig is a system utility that is specifically used to troubleshoot issues that can arise during
system startup. You can use it to view and manage which files or programs are processed on startup,
including temporarily disabling and re-enabling software, programs, device drivers, or services that
run automatically upon startup.
Note: MSConfig.exe is called System Configuration in Windows Vista and Windows 7, but
was called the Microsoft System Configuration Utility in earlier versions.

Within the MSConfig utility, there are five areas that can be accessed and modified.

Option Description

General Provides the options to choose from for startup configuration modes:
• Normal startup. Windows will start in the normal manner. This is the default
configuration or is selected once the other two modes have been used to
troubleshoot an issue.

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Option Description

• Diagnostic startup. Use this mode to troubleshoot issues by ruling out

potential problem files. Windows will start running only basic services and
drivers.
• Selective startup. Use this mode to troubleshoot issues by running only the
basic services and drivers at startup, but allowing the user to launch selected
programs after startup. This enables you to begin to rule each program out as
the potential cause of the problem.
Boot Provides configuration settings for the boot process and advanced debugging
configurations.
Basic Boot options include:
• Safe boot mode, including Minimal, Alternate shell, Active Directory repair,
or Network modes.
• No GUI boot.
• Boot log.
• Base video.
• OS boot information.
• Make all boot settings permanent.
Advanced options include:
• Number of processors.
• Maximum memory.
• PCI lock.
• Debug.
• Global debug settings.
• Debug port.
• Baud rate.
• Channel.
• USB target name.
Services Displays all of the services that begin running at startup and their current status
(running or stopped) and can be used to temporarily disable or re-enable specific
programs or services to begin to determine which are potentially causing the
problem at startup.
Startup Displays all of the applications that begin running at startup, including the
publisher of the application, the path to the .exe for the application, and the
location of the shortcut or registry key for the application. You can temporarily
disable or re-enable applications upon startup to begin to determine which
application may be causing the startup issue.
Tools Displays all of the diagnostic and advanced troubleshooting tools that are
available on the system to help identify and fix the problem.

System Configuration Utility in Windows XP

While the functions were largely the same, the layout of the System Configuration Utility was
rather different in Windows XP. It previously had six tabs:
• General
• SYSTEM.INI
• WIN.INI
• BOOT.INI
• Services

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 • Startup

MSConfig vs. Services

The MSConfig tool is frequently used to test various configurations for diagnostic purposes, rather
than to permanently make configuration changes. Following diagnostic testing, permanent changes
would typically be made with more appropriate tools, such as Services, to change the startup
settings of various system services.

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 ACTIVITY 2-9
Exploring System Configuration Settings and
Information

Scenario
In this activity, you will use the MSConfig and MSINFO tools to examine the system
configuration settings and information.

1. Examine the system configuration settings with MSConfig.

a) Select Start.
b) In the Search programs and files text box, enter msconfig
System Configuration is a diagnostic and troubleshooting utility that can help automate routine
troubleshooting steps. The General page controls overall startup behavior.
c) Select the Boot tab.
System Configuration provides another way to define how you want to boot the computer.
d) Select the Services tab.
You can use System Configuration to enable or disable services that start when your computer
boots.
e) Select the Startup tab.
You can view and manage items that are configured to load at system startup.
f) To close System Configuration, select Cancel.

2. Examine the system information with msinfo32.

a) Select Start.
b) In the Search programs and files text box, enter msinfo32
c) In the System Information dialog box, in the right pane, verify that the system is running Microsoft
Windows 7 Professional.
d) In the left pane, expand Hardware Resources.
e) To view the assigned interrupts, select IRQs.
f) Collapse Hardware Resources.
g) Expand Components and select CD-ROM to view information about your CD-ROM drive.
h) Collapse Components.
i) Expand Software Environment and select System Drivers to view all the drivers installed on your
computer.
j) Collapse Software Environment.
k) Close System Information.

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 Summary
In this lesson, you identified the fundamental components and functions of personal computer
operating systems. Understanding the basics of what operating systems are, including their various
versions, features, components, and technical capabilities, is knowledge that you can use to build a
successful career as an IT support representative or PC service technician, interact confidently with
other professionals, and perform your job duties properly and efficiently.
Use the review
questions provided to What operating systems do you have personal experience with? What operating systems would you like to
generate discussion learn more about, and why?
among the participants. A: Answers will vary, but might include: Experience with operating systems formerly or currently used at
home, work, or school. If they do not differ by vendor, they will probably differ by version.

Which of the Windows system components and tools discussed in this lesson were familiar to you? Which
ones were new?
A: Answers will vary, but should contain references to Administrative Tools, the MMC, the Registry, and
so forth.

Note: Check your LogicalCHOICE Course screen for opportunities to interact with your
classmates, peers, and the larger LogicalCHOICE online community about the topics covered in
this course or other topics you are interested in. From the Course screen you can also access
available resources for a more continuous learning experience.

Encourage students to
use the social
networking tools
provided on the
LogicalCHOICE Home
screen to follow up with
their peers after the
course is completed for
further discussion and
resources to support
continued learning.

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3 Operational Procedures
Lesson Time: 1 hour, 20 minutes

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will identify the operational procedures that should be followed by
professional PC technicians. You will:
• Identify basic maintenance tools and techniques for personal computer systems.
• Identify the best practices for PC technicians to follow to promote electrical safety.
• Identify best practices for PC technicians to follow to promote environmental safety and
proper handling of materials.
• Identify best practices for PC technicians to use to communicate appropriately with
clients and colleagues to conduct business in a professional manner.

Lesson Introduction
In the previous lessons, you gained fundamental knowledge about personal computer
hardware components and operating systems. In addition to that information, every PC
technician also needs a working knowledge of tools, safety and environmental precautions,
and when professional conduct is important in the workplace. In this lesson, you will
identify the operational procedures that you should follow to ensure a safe working
environment.
As an A+ technician, you will be asked to install, configure, maintain, and correct problems
with a variety of PC components. To work with these components without damaging them
or causing physical injury to yourself or others, there are several tools to use and operational
procedures to follow in order to get the job done quickly, safely, and correctly.
This lesson covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification
objectives:
• Topic A:
• Exam 220–801: Objectives 5.1, 5.2
• Exam 220-802: Objective 1.6
• Topic B:
• Exam 220–801: Objective 5.1
• Topic C:
• Exam 220–801: Objectives 5.1, 5.2

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 • Topic D:
• Exam 220–801: Objectives 5.3, 5.4

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TOPIC A
Basic Maintenance Tools and Techniques
In this lesson, you will identify the operational procedures that can help ensure your success as an A
+ certified professional. To begin, it's critical to select the right tool or technique for the job. In this
topic, you will identify common hardware and software tools, maintenance techniques, and
resources that are used by professional PC technicians.
When it comes to computer maintenance, having the right tool will save time, trouble, and money.
Having a good collection of software and hardware tools at your disposal, a foundational knowledge
of maintenance techniques, and access to documentation or resources when you need assistance is
essential to help you perform your job tasks efficiently.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA ®A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220–801: Objective 5.1 Given a scenario, use appropriate safety procedures.
• Exam 220–801: Objective 5.2 Explain environmental impacts and the purpose of environmental
controls.
• Exam 220-802: Objective 1.6 Setup and configure Windows networking on a client/desktop.

Types of Hardware Toolkits

Because of the complexity of personal computers, there are several types of hardware toolkits that Types of Hardware
are commonly used in PC maintenance and repair. Toolkits

Toolkit Name Description and Contents

Basic This toolkit should contain the tools necessary to remove and install
computer components. Each tool should be demagnetized, and the tools
should be stored in a case to protect and organize them.
A basic toolkit should include:
• Pen and/or pencil
• Phillips screwdrivers (small and large, #0 and #1)
• Flat-blade screwdrivers (small and large, 1/8-inch and 3/16-inch)
• Flashlight
• Container for screws
• Nut driver
Basic toolkits can also include:
• Additional sizes of drivers and screwdrivers
• Torx driver (size T8, T10, and T15)
• Tweezers
• Three-prong retriever
• Ratchets
• Allen wrenches
• Cotton swabs
• Batteries
• Anti-static cleaning wipes
• Anti-static wrist band
• Compressed air canister
• Mini vacuum
• Pen knife

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 Toolkit Name Description and Contents

• Clamp
• Chip extractor
• Chip inserter
• Multimeter
• Soldering iron and related supplies
• Spare parts container
• Circuit tester
• Drive adapters (USB to IDE/SATA and SATA/PATA/IDE to USB)
Network Specialized tools, in addition to those listed previously, are needed to make
and install network cables. Kits containing these tools are available, but the
prices vary widely depending on the quality of the tools.
A network toolkit typically includes:
• Cable crimper with dies for a variety of cable styles
• Wire stripper for flat and coax cable
• Precision wire cutters
• Cable tester
• Punchdown tool
• Curved forceps
• Multi-network Local Area Network (LAN) cable tester
• Digital multimeter
Circuit board Usually circuit boards are replaced, not repaired. However, sometimes you
can fix an obviously loose connection or replace a jack with a broken pin.
A circuit board toolkit typically includes:
• 30-watt (W) ceramic soldering iron
• Desoldering braid
• Desoldering pump
• Soldering iron stand with sponge
• Solder
• Miniature pliers and wire cutters
• Heat sink

Software Diagnostic Tools

A software diagnostic tool or utility is a computer repair program that can analyze hardware and software
components and test them for problems. Some software diagnostic tools can repair software
problems and optimize settings. Most operating systems include several software diagnostic tools
integrated into them. In addition, most computer stores have at least one aisle dedicated to utility
software that has been developed by other software manufacturers.
Microsoft® Windows® 7 provides a few different software diagnostic tests that you can use to
identify and repair computer hardware and software issues. For example, you can run the
Automatically fix file system errors tool on any of your system drives by accessing the drive's
Properties, selecting the Tools tab, and pressing Check now.

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Figure 3-1: Software diagnostic tools.

Hard Drive Self-Tests

Most hard disk drive manufacturers provide a diagnostic tool that enables the drive to test itself Hard Drive Self-Tests
when you start up a PC. Some of these hard drive self-tests are built into the firmware for the hard
disk drive, while others are separate utilities that are available for download from the drive
manufacturer's website. Make sure that you download the test utility that was designed to be used
with your hard disk drive.

Software Diagnostic Tests

Software diagnostic tests are available from many different manufacturers, and they vary widely in Software Diagnostic
their capabilities, but they can all assist you in detecting, repairing, and preventing hardware and Tests
software problems. The Windows operating systems also come with their own sets of diagnostic
tools that can help you detect problems.

Examples of Software Diagnostic Tests

There are many applicable software diagnostic tests that you can use to troubleshoot computer
problems.

Hardware Component Examples of Software Diagnostics Test

Entire system PC-Doctor Service Center, PC-Diag, Norton™ SystemWorks,

QuickTech Pro, McAfee® System Mechanic, CheckIt Diagnostics,
DirectX Diagnostic Tool, Windows Device Manager, Windows
Performance Monitor
There are many additional antivirus and anti-malware software
solutions provided that detect and remove viruses, malware, and
spyware.
Motherboard Motherboard Diagnostic Toolkit, Power-On Self Test (POST), Basic
Input/Output System (BIOS) setup
Central processing unit x86test, POST, BIOS setup
(CPU)
Memory Memtest86+, DocMemory Diagnostics, POST, BIOS setup

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 Hardware Component Examples of Software Diagnostics Test
Fan SpeedFan, BIOS setup
Video adapter card Video Card Stability Test, DirectX Diagnostic Tool, POST, BIOS setup
Network adapter card 3Com Dynamic Access Managed PC Boot Agent (MBA), Intel®
PROset II Utility, DirectX Diagnostic Tool
Modem Modem Doctor Diagnostics, DirectX Diagnostic Tool, Windows
Device Manager, Windows Performance Monitor
Optical drive CDRoller, Windows Device Manager, Windows Performance
Monitor

Computer Component Maintenance Techniques

Computer Component You can choose from several maintenance techniques to maintain PC components.
Maintenance
Techniques Maintenance Technique Description
Ask students if they
have come across
Use proper power devices. Use a surge protector or uninterruptible power supply (UPS) to
computer components protect the computer from power surges, spikes, brownouts,
that were in bad and power failures.
condition due to dust
Clean peripheral components. Use to prevent problems with the computer's peripherals
and debris. Mention that
in different
resulting from dust buildup.
environments, the dust Clean internal system Use to prevent problems with internal computer components
and debris may be more components. resulting from dust buildup.
intense depending on
the location of the
computers.
Cleaning Compounds and Materials
Cleaning Compounds
Note: For additional information, check out the LearnTO Clean a Desktop Computer in the
and Materials
LearnTOs for this course on your LogicalCHOICE Course screen.
You may want to show
the LearnTO Clean a Cleaning materials for computers range from standard household cleaning supplies to supplies
Desktop Computer from specifically designed for computers and electronics.
the LogicalCHOICE
Course screen or have Cleaning Supply Description
students navigate out to
the Course screen and Wipes and cloths There are several types of wipes and cloths that you can use to clean
watch it themselves as a displays, keyboards, and other equipment.
supplement to your
instruction. If not, please • Monitor cleaning wipes are alcohol-based, lint-free, pre-moistened
remind students to visit wipes for cleaning monitor screens. Use these only on cathode ray
the LearnTOs for this tube (CRT) or TV monitors and not on plastic-coated liquid crystal
course on their display LCD screens.
LogicalCHOICE Course • Keyboard cleaning wipes are pre-moistened wipes for cleaning
screen after class for keyboards.
supplemental
information and • You can use microfiber cloths to lightly remove dust and smudges
additional resources. from LCD displays. You can also use an LCD cleaning solution with
the cloth to remove particles and smudges that are stuck to the
screen.
• If you choose not to use pre-moistened wipes, you can use rubbing
alcohol applied to a lint-free cloth to wipe down screens and
keyboards. You can also use this to clean other components.

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Cleaning Supply Description

• A toner cloth is a special cloth that you stretch that picks up toner
particles that are either in the printer or around the printer. Be
careful if you are using it inside the printer so that the cloth does not
get caught on any components and leave fibers behind.
Cleaning solutions There are a variety of cleaning solutions that you can use to clean
displays, keyboards, and other equipment.
• You can use rubbing alcohol on cotton swabs or lint-free cloths to
clean many components.
• You can use mild household cleaner to keep the exterior of
computer components clean. This helps prevent dirt and debris
from getting inside the equipment. Never spray the cleaner directly
on the equipment. Avoid using ammonia-based cleaners around
laser printers; the ammonia may react chemically with the toner.
• For older monitors, especially plastic monitors, read the device's
manual to determine the cleaning method recommended by the
manufacturer. While some recommend water or isopropyl alcohol
(IPA), others claim it is acceptable to use volatile chemicals such as
hexane or petroleum benzene, a soft detergent such as Palmolive
and water, no suds, or nothing but a dry soft cloth. While some
recommend a top-down motion, others subscribe to the circular
method.
• For flat screens such as LCDs, light emitting diodes (LEDs), and
plasmas, you can use distilled water, or an equal ratio of water and
vinegar on a microfiber or lint-free cloth. There are also specialized
cleaners available for flat screens, but make sure to check the
manufacturer's instructions before use.
• In some cases, you can use standard household window cleaner on
components if you spray it on a lint-free cloth first. You can use this
to clean smudges from optical disks. Never use window cleaner on
plastic monitor screens, and even on glass screens; this cleaner
might strip off the anti-glare protection. The best option is a damp,
clean, soft cloth with water or a cleaner specifically made for
monitors (or one that states it is safe for use with monitors) and will
not damage anti-glare finishes.
Cleaning tools Several tools are optimal for cleaning computer components.
• Tightly wound cotton swabs are useful in getting cleaning solution
into tight places. They are also useful when used dry to get dust and
debris out from between keys and around buttons or other tight
areas.
• Toothpicks come in handy in getting dirt out from around keys,
buttons, and other tight spaces. They are also useful for removing
the debris that builds up on the rollers inside of a mouse.
• You can use a small paint brush to remove dust from between keys
on a keyboard. If the brush has long bristles, they can reach under
the keys where other cleaning objects would not be able to reach.
Compressed air canister A canister with a nozzle that can be aimed at components to blow dust
out. This is often used when removing dust from the interior of a
computer or laptop. Be sure to blow the dust away from the power
supply and drives. You can also use it to blow dust out of the power
supply fan area, from keyboards, and from the ventilation holes on
various components.

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 Cleaning Supply Description

Use caution when working with compressed air. Read the instructions
on the can and follow them carefully. Tipping the can too much, which
is easy to do when you are trying to maneuver the can into place, can
cause the propellant to leave the can in liquid form and at sub-freezing
temperatures. The freezing could easily damage components,
particularly those that may still be hot from use. There is also the issue
of the corrosiveness of the chemical damaging components later on.
Also, some delicate components on the motherboard can be damaged
(literally blown off the board) if compressed air is used too close to a
component.
If you use compressed air, take the equipment to a different location,
preferably outside, so that the dust does not simply disperse into the air
in the work area and settle back on the computer equipment or other
devices.
Computer or electronics A non-static vacuum that you can use on system components such as
vacuum the power supply, fans, and in printers. (Regular vacuum cleaners can
create static, which will damage computer equipment.) The vacuum
should have a filter and bag fine enough to contain toner particles so
that you can use it to clean up toner spills from laser printers or
photocopiers. These vacuums can often be used to blow air as well as
for suction, so they can replace the need for compressed air canisters
for blowing dust out of machines. Sucking the dust up is usually better,
though, since blowing the dust can cause it to get onto or into other
components. Sucking it up into a vacuum cleaner bag gets it out of the
system without the chance of it getting into something else.
Mask and gloves A mask that fits over your mouth and nose should be worn when you
are using a compressed air canister or working around toner spills. This
will keep the particles out of your body. You should also wear latex
gloves when cleaning up a toner spill.

Documentation and Resources

Documentation and There are several types of documentation and resources that you might find helpful when you are
Resources dealing with common hardware and operating system problems. You can also share documentation
and resources with users as a means of assisting and educating them.

Method Description

User/installation manuals User and installation manuals can provide you with basic guidance
for installing, configuring, and troubleshooting hardware and
software.
By providing users with various user and installation manuals, users
can fix minor issues and problems before requesting additional
assistance from a technician. Examples include installing company-
specific applications, installing network printers, and mapping
drives.
Internet/web-based Internet and web-based resources can provide a wealth of
resources information on installing, configuring, and troubleshooting
hardware and software. Many hardware and software manufacturers
maintain knowledge bases and wikis to share information about

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Method Description

both common and unusual issues that can arise with PC hardware
and software.
Internet and web-based materials can also provide users with quick
reference materials for dealing with everyday issues on their own.
Some organizations provide a web page or wiki with user-specific
information and reference materials.
Training materials Most major hardware and software manufacturers provide training
materials on how to install and use their products. These materials
can be helpful for both new and experienced technicians.
You can provide training materials for various tasks that users may
need to complete on their own, such as virus scans, computer
maintenance tasks, and PC clean-up tasks. By providing training
materials, you empower users to be proactive in maintaining their
systems.

Compliance and Government Regulations

In the United States and many other nations, your employer is obligated to comply with government
regulations that apply to its specific business. The most common regulations are those issued by the
federal government, such as the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), and state
standards regarding employee safety. OSHA-compliant employers must provide:
• A workplace that is free from recognized hazards that could cause serious physical harm.
• Personal protective equipment designed to protect employees from certain hazards.
• Communication—in the form of labeling, Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs), and training
about hazardous materials.
Your responsibility—to yourself, your employer, your coworkers, and your customers—is to be
informed of potential hazards and to always use safe practices.
Protection of the environment is another area that is regulated by the federal and local governments
in the United States and many other nations. Many municipalities have regulations that control the
disposal of certain types of computer equipment. Your responsibility is to be aware of any
environmental controls that are applicable to your workplace, and to be in compliance with those
regulations. 3

Compliance and 123

 ACTIVITY 3-1
Examining Basic Maintenance Tools and
Techniques

Scenario
In this activity, you will examine the various tools and techniques used to maintain computer
equipment and the workplace environment.

1. You are asked to repair a motherboard in a customer's PC. Which set of tools would be best suited for
the task?
○ Phillips screwdriver (#0), torx driver (size T8, T10, and T15), tweezers, and a three-prong retriever
○ 30-W ceramic solder iron, miniature pliers, wire cutters, and a soldering iron stand with sponge
○ Wire strippers, precision wire cutters, digital multimeter, and cable crimper with dies
○ Chip extractor, chip inserter, ratchet, and Allen wrench
○ Anti-static cleaning wipes, anti-static wrist band, flashlight, and cotton swabs

2. You are asked to correct a network cabling problem at a customer site. Which set of tools would be best
suited for the task?
○ Phillips screwdriver (#0), torx driver (size T8, T10, and T15), tweezers, and a three-prong retriever
○ 30-W ceramic solder iron, miniature pliers, wire cutters, and a soldering iron stand with sponge
○ Wire strippers, precision wire cutters, digital cable tester, and cable crimper with dies
○ Chip extractor, chip inserter, ratchet, and Allen wrench
○ Anti-static cleaning wipes, anti-static wrist band, flashlight, and cotton swabs

3. You suspect that contaminants from the environment have prevented the fan on a PC from working
optimally. Which set of tools would be best suited to fix the problem?
○ Phillips screwdriver (#0), torx driver (size T8, T10, and T15), tweezers, and a three-prong retriever
○ 30w ceramic solder iron, miniature pliers, wire cutters, and a soldering iron stand with sponge
○ Wire strippers, precision wire cutters, digital multimeter, and cable crimper with dies
○ Chip extractor, chip inserter, ratchet, and Allen wrench
○ Anti-static cleaning wipes, anti-static wrist band, flashlight, and cotton swabs

4. True or False? Windows includes software diagnostic tests that help you find and correct hardware
problems.
☐ True
☐ False

5. Examine the tools that are available to you in class. Discuss how and when they may be used to repair,
Facilitate a discussion of fix, or maintain computer equipment.
the tools that you have
provided, and ask
participants to suggest
other tools that might be
helpful and that they
would want to include in
a "Dream Toolkit."

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TOPIC B
Electrical Safety
In the previous topic, you identified basic maintenance tools and techniques that you will use as a
PC technician. In addition to these basic maintenance practices, you need to be aware of specific
tools and techniques that are available to promote electrical safety. In this topic, you will identify the
best practices for PC technicians to follow to promote electrical safety.
The most prevalent physical hazards that computer technicians face are electrical hazards. Electricity
is necessary to run a computer, but it can also damage sensitive computer equipment, and in some
cases, pose a danger to humans. Following established best practices for promoting electrical safety
will protect not only the computer equipment that you work on, but also your personal safety and
the safety of others.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220–801: Objective 5.1 Given a scenario, use appropriate safety procedures.

Static Electricity
Static electricity is a build-up of a stationary electrical charge on an object. It is called "static" because
the charge cannot escape the charged body until it comes in contact with another object. Static
electricity is often caused by friction; rubbing one object against another causes a transfer of
electrons between the two. Using friction to create a static charge is called triboelectric generation. The
amount of static that can be built up in this manner depends on various factors, including the types
of materials, their surface area and texture, and the ambient humidity. If you have ever shuffled your
feet on a carpet and then gotten a small shock when you touched a doorknob or other metal object,
you have used triboelectric generation.
Note: Static charges can be as small as the sparks that come off a dry blanket in the wintertime
or as massive as a lightning strike, with its millions of volts.

ESD
Electrostatic discharge (ESD) occurs when a path is created that allows electrons to rush from a
statically charged body to another with an unequal charge. The electricity is released with a spark.
The charge follows the path of least resistance, so it can occur between an electrical ground, such as
a doorknob or a computer chassis, and a charged body, such as a human hand. ESD can damage
sensitive computer equipment.

Static Electricity and Voltage

Because air has very high resistance, a static electric discharge usually requires contact with the
statically charged object. For a static discharge to arc through the air, it requires a very high voltage,
and no other path to the ground with lower resistance. You can feel a static discharge starting at
around 3,000 volts (V). The drier the air, the greater the resistance, which is why static shocks on dry
winter days can fall within the range of 10,000 to 20,000 V. Keeping a room humidified is one way
to reduce the risk of static electricity.
If 120 V from a household electrical outlet can kill you, why does a static spark of 20,000 V just
startle you? Because, while the voltage might be high, the current is very low; very few total
electrons are transferred in a static spark. All the energy of all the electrons in a spark added together
cannot hurt you, even though it may surprise you. Each electron in a static discharge has extremely
high energy, but the human body is just too big for the very small number of electrons involved in 5

125
 the spark to cause widespread damage. A few cells in your fingertip may be damaged, but they easily
grow back.

ESD Prevention Techniques

Charges as low as 10 V can damage or destroy sensitive electronic circuits and components. This is
why ESD is such an enemy of integrated circuits. Static charges can build up on both conductors
and insulators, as well as in the human body. When you work with computer equipment, you must
take steps to protect against ESD.
There are several prevention techniques that you can use to protect yourself and equipment when
you are working with computer components.

Prevention Technique Description

Eliminate activities and By eliminating unnecessary activities that create static charges and by
tasks. removing unnecessary materials that are known charge generators,
you can protect against ESD-related damage and injuries.
Use self-grounding Use grounding conductive materials and self-grounding methods
methods. before touching electronic equipment. You can prevent ESD injuries
by using ESD straps that can be attached to your ankle or wrist.
Use equipment grounding Grounding equipment made up of dissipative material can also be used
methods. to avoid a static shock. A dissipative material is a conductor, but with
high resistance. It loses its electrical charge slowly, so when you
touch it, the electron flow is spread over time and you do not feel a
shock. Prevent ESD damage to equipment by:
• Using anti-static vacuums for cleaning computer components
(such as system units, power supplies, and fans).
• Using ESD mats and materials such as electric grounded flooring,
work benches, or surfaces.
• Using anti-static bags to store computer components that are
particularly sensitive to ESD, such as RAM and power supplies.
Maintain air quality. You can maintain air quality and prevent a high-ESD work
environment by:
• Using an air ionizer, which releases negative ions into the air.
They attract positively charged particles and form neutrally
charged particles.
• Humidifying the air to speed up the static discharge from
components. When the air is extremely dry, more static is likely. A
higher humidity is best for ESD prevention. A rate of 50 to 60
percent is comfortable for both computers and technicians.

Anti-static Bags
Anti-static bags that are used for shipping components actually conduct electricity, so keep them
away from equipment that is powered on.

EMI
Electromagnetic interference (EMI) occurs when a magnetic field builds up around one electrical circuit
and interferes with the signal being carried on an adjacent circuit, causing network communication
interference issues. All current-carrying devices generate magnetic fields, and fluctuating magnetic
fields generate electrical current in nearby wires. While ESD is the primary electrical danger to

126
computer equipment, EMI also causes problems with microcomputer circuitry and data
transmissions between computing devices.

Magnets
EMI-related issues can be a result of magnets being placed too close to computer systems. Magnets
can be harmful to computer components, and components should not be placed in close proximity
to any magnets or items that contain magnets. It's important that you inform users to keep magnets
away from their computer equipment.

EMI Prevention Techniques

There are many different methods that you can use to prevent EMI damage to the internal circuitry
of devices and systems.

Method Description

Twisted-pair Twisted-pair cables are made with both sending and receiving conductors
implementations twisted together within the same cable. This method of manufacturing
cable minimizes the chances of EMI interference because the conductors
within the wire cancel each other out. For extra protection in multi-pair
cables, such as Ethernet, each pair is twisted together at a different rate,
and the multiple twisted pairs are then twisted together.
Cautious wiring The types of cables you use and how you place them can prevent certain
techniques devices and wires from interfering with each other. Fluorescent lights and
alternating current (AC) electrical cables, for example, emit signals that are
a source of EMI, so when you are running network cable in or along walls
or ceilings, avoid running them near fluorescent fixtures, and try to cross
electrical cables at right angles, rather than follow them. This minimizes
the "cross-section" of interference from these sources. Electronic
components themselves may generate or be susceptible to EMI; however,
their leads serve as the antennae that radiate or receive such interference.
SMD technology Surface Mount Devices (SMDs) are electronic components that are
implementation designed to be soldered directly onto circuit boards without legs. This
technology minimizes EMI transmissions to and from such devices.
Electromagnetic Shielding is used to prevent electromagnetic transfers from cables and
shielding devices by creating a conductive material protective barrier. For example,
a shielded cable contains electromagnetic shielding within the cable that
directly protects the inner core conductor from producing electromagnetic
discharge.

Network Interference
Network interference is the disruption of normal data transmissions over a network. EMI can cause
intermittent network issues and can be avoided by applying EMI prevention techniques such as
shielding, wiring techniques, and using twisted pair cables to connect network components.

An ESD Toolkit
Some people who work on computer equipment never use a single piece of ESD safety equipment.
They discharge themselves by touching an unpainted metal part of the computer case before
touching any components. In other instances, a company policy might require that you use a
properly equipped ESD-free work area. The minimum equipment in this case would be a grounded
wrist ESD strap. Other ESD-protection equipment includes leg ESD straps, anti-static pads to
cover the work surface, and grounded floor ESD mats to stand on. The mats contain a snap that

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 you connect to the wrist or leg strap. Anti-static bags for storing components might also be included
in an ESD toolkit. If the technician's clothing has the potential to produce static charges, an ESD
smock, which covers from the waist up, can be helpful.
To ensure that the ESD equipment remains effective, you should test it frequently. A minor shock
that you cannot feel can compromise ESD-sensitive equipment.

Figure 3-2: An ESD strap.

Electrical Hazards
Electrical Hazards Because computers are powered by electricity, there are some common potential electrical hazards
that you should be aware of when you are servicing them.

Electrical Hazard Description

Electric shock If you touch a high-voltage source, and if you are either grounded or
in contact with another electrical circuit, your body may complete an
electrical circuit, permitting electrons to flow through you. Water is a
better conductor than air or dry skin, so touching an electrical contact
with wet hands reduces resistance and increases the current flow even
more. Depending on the conditions, this may cause pain, burns, or
even death.
Electrocution (fatal shock) Electrocution results when the body is exposed to a lethal amount of
electrical energy. For death to occur, the body must become part of
an active electrical circuit with a current capable of overstimulating
the nervous system or damaging internal organs. The extent of
injuries received depends on the current’s magnitude (measured in
amperes), the pathway through the body, and the duration of flow.
The resulting damage to the human body and the emergency medical
treatment determine the outcome.
Burns Contact with a source of electrical energy can cause external and
internal burns. Exposure to higher voltages will normally result in
burns at the sites where the electrical current entered and exited the
body. High-voltage contact burns may display only small superficial
injuries; however, the danger of these deep burns is destruction of
internal tissues.

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Electrical Hazard Description

Electricity can hurt you even if you are careful and avoid becoming
part of an electrical ground circuit. The heat generated by an electric
arc or electrical equipment can burn your skin or set your clothes on
fire.
Collateral injuries Collateral injuries occur when involuntary muscle contractions caused
by the shock cause the body to fall or come in contact with sharp
edges or electrically live parts. You instinctively pull your hand back
from the doorknob when you get a static shock. Electricity flowing
through your body can also cause your muscles to twitch
uncontrollably. These motions can cause you to hurt yourself on
objects around you.

Power Supplies and Electrical Hazards

Most of the internal circuitry in a computer is low voltage (12 V or less) and low current, so there is
not much of a threat to your personal safety. However, there are exceptions to this, and these
exceptions can be very dangerous. The main exceptions that you need to be aware of are power
supplies.
• The computer’s power supply outputs a relatively low voltage, but the high-voltage input can be
hazardous. PC technicians who have diagnosed a bad power supply should simply replace it,
rather than open it to troubleshoot the internal components.
• The power supply in older CRT computer monitors increase the voltage, because CRT monitors
contain circuits that require 35,000 V with a high current. In any power supply, the current is
stored on capacitors that do not discharge, even when the component is turned off or
unplugged. Even after months of inactivity, the capacitors may have enough stored electrical
energy to kill you. Today, it is less likely than in the past that you will be working with CRT
monitors, but if you find yourself in a situation where repair or maintenance is needed, leave the
internal workings of the monitor to specialists who have the extra training and special equipment
that are required to safely remove a monitor cover and make repairs. In most cases, it is less
costly and faster to simply replace a defective monitor.

Laser Printer Electrical Safety

Laser printers contain high-voltage electronic components inside the case, and these components
can be harmful if not handled properly. Components such as the rollers and wires can hold a charge,
and you should avoid contact with them. Follow proper cleanup and safety guidelines to prevent
electrical shock when you are working with laser printers.

ESD and Electrical Hazards

All of the precautions that you use to prevent ESD increase your danger when you work near high
voltages. An anti-static wrist band is specifically designed to provide a low-resistance path for
electricity to a ground. If there were ground problems or shorts, your body and your static
protection equipment could provide a path from the problem device to ground—the circuit would
be completed through your body, causing electrocution.
This is precisely why you must unplug devices that you are servicing. Even when devices are turned
off, the power supplies in most devices continue to produce voltage if the device is plugged into an
outlet. You and your anti-static devices could provide a better path to ground than the device’s
wiring, leading to your electrocution. If there is a chance of coming in contact with a high-voltage
source, you are advised to insulate yourself from ground by wearing rubber-soled shoes or standing
on a rubber mat, and avoiding contact with any other grounded mass.

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 Power Inverter Electrical Safety
A power inverter converts direct current (DC) voltage to AC voltage. For example, you can use a
power inverter in a car to provide a normal wall-style outlet for a laptop. The power inverter unit
has no user-serviceable parts within it, so after you determine that the inverter is a problem, there is
no need for further diagnosis and troubleshooting; the unit must be replaced.

Electrical Safety Precautions

Electrical Safety Working on a computer can be safe and enjoyable if you protect yourself from electrical hazards by
Precautions using some common sense and by taking appropriate precautions.

Category Guidelines

Personal safety • Make sure that you disconnect the power before repairing
computer equipment.
• Do not attempt repair work when you are tired; you may make
careless mistakes, and your primary diagnostic tool, deductive
reasoning, will not be operating at full capacity.
• Do not assume anything without checking it out for yourself.
• Remove jewelry or other articles that could accidentally contact
circuitry and conduct current.
• Wear rubber-soled shoes to insulate yourself from ground.
Environment conditions • Suspend work during an electrical storm.
• Do not handle electrical equipment when your hands or feet are
wet or when you are standing on a wet surface. Perform as
many tests as possible with the power off.
Anti-static equipment • Prevent static electricity from damaging components by
standing on a totally insulated rubber mat to increase the
resistance of the path to ground. In some cases, workstations
are located in areas with grounded floors and workbenches, so
static electricity has a low-resistance, non-destructive path to
ground.
• When removing circuit boards, place them on a dissipative
ground mat or put them in an anti-static bag.
• Use an anti-static wrist strap when you are handling static-
sensitive components such as system boards, sound cards, and
memory chips.
Disassembly safety • After cleaning a keyboard, be completely sure it is dry before
powering it up.
• Label wires and connectors as you detach them, and make sure
you that plug them back into the proper sockets in the proper
order.
• When you replace the computer's case, make sure that all of the
wires are inside. The case may have sharp edges that can cut
through exposed cables.
Power supply safety • Power supplies have a high voltage in them any time the
computer is plugged in, even if the computer power is turned
off. Before you start working inside the computer case,
disconnect the power cord and press the power button to
dissipate any remaining power in the system circuitry. Leave the
power off until you are done servicing the system unit.

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Category Guidelines

• Never stick anything into the power supply fan to get it to

rotate. This approach does not work, and it is dangerous.
CRT monitor safety • Do not take the case off a monitor. The risk to your life is not
worth any repairs you might make.
• Do not tap or bang on the monitor screen with your tools; an
implosion will propel shards of glass in every direction.
• To clean the monitor, turn it off and unplug it; do not wear an
anti-static wrist strap. Use isopropyl alcohol, rather than a
general-purpose cleaner; alcohol does not create a safety hazard
if small amounts are dripped inside the case, as it will evaporate
rapidly. Use an anti-static cleaner to clean the glass on the
monitor.
• Follow proper disposal guidelines if the CRT monitor cannot be
repaired.
Electrical fire safety Electrical fires in computer facilities are especially dangerous. The
damage done to computers is extremely expensive, and the
chemicals used in the machines may emit toxic substances. It is not
practical to fight these fires with small extinguishers or to douse
fires with water. Special gases should be used to extinguish fires in
computer facilities. To prevent electrical fires:
• Check the electrical wiring of computer systems and
components regularly.
• Implement a strategy to make sure any old, worn, or damaged
cables, network appliances, and computer systems are checked
and replaced regularly.
• Verify that smoke detectors are installed to sense the presence
of smoke.
• Use heat sensors that are triggered either when a target
temperature is reached or when there is a high rate of increase in
temperature.
• Use flame detectors with optical sensors to record incoming
radiation at selected wavelengths.
Commercial fire detection systems should be connected to a central
reporting station where the location of the suspected fire is
indicated. In some cases, the detection system or monitoring station
is connected directly to a fire department.

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 ACTIVITY 3-2
Identifying Electrical Safety Issues

Scenario
In this activity, you will identify electrical safety issues.

1. True or False? If you are using an anti-static ESD floor mat, you do not need any other ESD safety
equipment.
☐ True
☐ False

2. Electrical injuries include electrocution, shock, and collateral injury. Would you be injured if you are not
part of the electrical ground current?
A: Yes, you could receive a thermal burn from the head of an electric arc or electric equipment. Your
clothes can catch on fire, or your skin can be burned.

3. Which computer component presents the most danger from electrical shock?
○ System boards
○ Hard drives
○ Power supplies
○ System unit

4. Have you had any personal experience with any of the electrical hazards covered in this topic? What
safety precautions could have prevented the incident?
A: Answers will vary depending on individual experiences. Common precautions include
disconnecting a computer from the electrical outlet or power strip before servicing it, using anti-
static equipment to protect computer components, and implementing smoke and flame detectors
to alert you of electrical fires.

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TOPIC C
Environmental Safety and Materials Handling
In the previous topic, you identified best practices for safely dealing with electricity. Electrical safety
is just one factor that you need to consider to ensure a safe work area. In this topic, you will identify
best practices for promoting environmental safety and proper materials handling.
In addition to electrical issues, there are other environmental issues that computer technicians must
deal with on a regular basis. The health and safety of you and those around you should always be
your highest priority. Recognizing potential environmental hazards and properly dealing with them
in a safe manner is a critical responsibility for an A+ technician.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220–801: Objective 5.1 Given a scenario, use appropriate safety procedures.
• Exam 220–801: Objective 5.2 Explain environmental impacts and the purpose of environmental
controls.

Environmental Considerations and Controls

Certain environmental conditions can be extremely dangerous to you and those around you. Environmental
Considerations and
Consideration Description and Controls Controls

Ozone gas Laser printers produce ozone gas, usually when the corona wire
produces an electrical discharge during printing. Depending on the
levels, ozone can be a mild-to-severe irritant. Regulatory agencies have
established limits regarding the amount of ozone that employees can
be exposed to. Be sure that your laser printers operate in a well-
ventilated area. Some laser printers have a filter to control ozone
emissions.
Temperature and humidity Computer equipment and performance are both affected by
temperatures and humidity levels.
• Too much moisture can be problematic and cause physical damage
to equipment. On the other hand, low humidity can contribute to
more electrostatic charge into the air. High humidity levels can also
have an effect on tapes and paper media.
• Extreme temperatures can also be an issue. Low temperatures can
cause condensation on computer system components that generate
heat while turned on, while high temperatures can cause the
components to overheat. Proper ventilation systems must be used
to help prevent overheating of computer systems.
Be aware of the humidity level and temperatures of the environment
where devices will be installed and running to prevent these types of
issues.
Dust and debris Dust can be a more subtle hazard. The buildup of dust particles over
time can cause problems with different types of equipment. Dust
buildup causes resistance in moving parts, such as fans, drives, and
printer motors. Dust buildup on circuit boards, heat sinks, and vents
creates insulation that reduces heat dissipation. Dusting equipment
often with compressed air and vacuums can prevent these types of
issues. Make sure that printers and paper products are kept in a

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 Consideration Description and Controls
separate area from computer equipment to prevent paper dust from
getting into the equipment.
Airborne particles The conditions surrounding computer equipment can be an issue
when there is a large number of airborne particles flowing in and
around various devices. Contaminants can be either gaseous, such as
ozone; particles, such as dust; or organic, which comes from industrial
processing of fossil fuels, plastics, etc. All these contaminants can
cause damage to computer equipment, such as corrosion and
overheating. To protect your computing environment from airborne
particles, you can:
• Install computer equipment enclosures that will prevent
contaminants from entering the devices.
• Install air filters throughout the facility to catch excess particles as
the air flows through the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
(HVAC) system.

Workplace Safety Issues

Workplace Safety Issues Various workplace situations can be a hazard to you and your coworkers.

Safety Issue Description

Falling and tripping Within your work area alone, a number of things can cause you to fall or
trip. While working with computer equipment, you need to keep in mind
the location of hardware, cables, and devices.
Equipment storage CPUs and other hardware should not be stacked on top of one another.
Make sure the equipment is secure, whether it is on the floor or on a desk
or shelf.
Component handling Whenever you are handling computer equipment, you must follow the
and protection proper handling guidelines. Use an anti-static bag to store any computer
component that can carry ESD. For example, when you are removing or
replacing RAM, motherboards, or CPUs from inside a computer,
immediately place the component in an anti-static bag until it is either
replaced or disposed of.
Cable management In office environments where there are many computers, there can also be
many cables and power cords. If these cords and cables are lying on the
floor, they could possibly cause a person to trip on them.
Lasers Lasers are used in printers, CD drives, DVD drives, and Blu-ray drives
and players. "Laser" is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation. A laser produces an intense, directional beam of
light by stimulating electronic or molecular transitions to lower energy
levels. This powerful beam can cause damage to the human eye or skin.
Lasers have many uses and, like other tools, are capable of causing injury
if improperly used. The most likely injury is a thermal burn that will
destroy retinal tissue in the eye. Because retinal tissue does not regenerate,
the injury is permanent.
Repetitive strain injury Repetitive strain injuries involve damage to muscles, tendons, and nerves
(RSI) caused by overuse or misuse. Computer users suffer mostly from
repetitive strain injuries to the hand, wrist, and arm. Unlike strains and
sprains, which usually result from a single incident—called acute trauma—

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Safety Issue Description

repetitive strain injuries develop slowly over time. The type of injury
depends on whether the muscle, tendon, tendon sheath, or nerve tissue
has been irritated or damaged. Any or all of the following symptoms may
appear in any order and at any stage in the development of an injury of
RSI:
• Aching, tenderness, and swelling
• Pain, crackling, and tingling
• Numbness and loss of strength
• Loss of joint movement and decreased coordination
Eye strain Many computer tasks are done at a close working distance, requiring the
eyes to maintain active focusing. This can cause stress and strain on the
eyes and the muscles that control them. A very common health problem
reported by users of computer monitors is eye strain—including the
following symptoms:
• Blurred vision
• Difficulty focusing
• Double vision
• Tiredness
• Headaches
• Burning, sore, or itchy eyes
Dry eyes can also be a concern for computer operators. The eye surface
becomes dry because computer users tend to blink less and tears
evaporate faster during monitor use. Symptoms associated with dry eyes
are redness, burning, and excess tearing.
Radiation Radiation is a broad term used to describe energy in the form of waves or
particles. Electromagnetic radiation comes from both natural and
manufactured sources, including CRT computer monitors. Circuits within
the monitor are responsible for the horizontal and vertical movements of
the electron beam. This movement occurs tens of thousands of times each
second (Very Low Frequency, or VLF) for the horizontal scan, and 50 to
60 times each second (Extremely Low Frequency, or ELF) for the vertical
scan. The VLF and ELF field intensities have been extensively evaluated
in many different models of monitors for possible biological effects. CRT
computer monitor users have expressed concerns about the possible
health effects from the electromagnetic radiation that monitors produce.
While the research continues, current scientific information does not
identify a health risk from exposure to these electromagnetic fields. With
CRT monitor use decreasing, concerns about radiation exposure have also
declined.
Noise Noise levels produced by computers and most printers are well below
those that cause adverse health effects. The equipment has minor noise
sources such as the hum of cooling fans and the clicking of keys.
Excessive noise from a computer may indicate an internal malfunction.
Certain industrial high-speed line printers may produce noise at a level
which is uncomfortable for prolonged exposure; in these cases, sound-
deadening covers are often used.
Hot components Hot computer components within the system unit can be problematic.
For example, any component carrying a high electrical voltage can get very
hot and could cause burns. High-speed processors are also known heat
generators; heat sinks and fans keep them cool enough to prevent a

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 Safety Issue Description
burnout, but they may still be uncomfortably hot to touch. You must
exercise caution when working with any part of a computer or printer that
may be hot to the touch, or that might be holding an electrical charge.
Food and drink Eating and drinking around computer equipment can be problematic.
Food particles and liquids can get inside and harm the inner mechanics of
the hardware. Your employer may have policies in place that prohibit
eating and drinking around computer equipment for these reasons.
Moving equipment Lifting and moving computer equipment can be one of the more
strenuous parts of your job. For example, when you need to work on a
CPU, you may have to lift and relocate the machine to your work area.
Always assess the situation first to determine if you can lift or move items
safely.

Laser Safety Standards

To provide a basis for laser safety, standards are established for Maximum Permissible Exposure
(MPE). Lasers and laser systems and devices are grouped into classes:
• Class 1 lasers do not emit harmful levels of radiation and are exempt from control measures.
• Class 2 lasers are capable of creating eye damage through chronic, continuous exposure; this
class includes bar code readers.
• Class 3 lasers pose severe eye hazards when viewed through optical instruments (for example,
microscopes) or with the naked eye.
• Class 4 lasers pose danger to eyes and skin, and are fire hazards.
Frequently, lasers are embedded in laser products or systems with a lower hazard rating. For
example, laser printers, CD drives, and DVD drives are Class 1 laser products; however, they
contain Class 3 or Class 4 lasers. When the printer or drive is used as intended, the controls for the
device’s class (Class 1) apply. When the system is opened—for example, for service—and the
embedded laser beam is accessible, precautions must be based on the classification of the embedded
laser (Class 3 or 4).

Environmental Safety Best Practices

Environmental Safety To minimize the personal safety issues associated with computing environments, follow the
Best Practices recommended safety best practices and use the appropriate repair tools at all times.

Best Practice Safety Precautions

Cords and cables If cords and cables must traverse a floor area where people need to walk,
it is recommended that cord protectors be used to shield the cords and
cables from being damaged by pedestrian traffic, as well as to minimize
the chance of someone tripping on the cords and cables. You can also use
cable management techniques and tools to group and organize cables
together to keep them out of the way and hidden from the general
working space.
Lasers Precautions include the following:
• Never point a laser beam in someone’s eyes.
• Never look directly at a laser beam.
• Never disable safety mechanisms when servicing a device with an
embedded laser.
RSI If an individual has even mild RSI symptoms, action should be taken. If
symptoms are allowed to progress, a person with RSI can develop

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Best Practice Safety Precautions
chronic symptoms. The key to RSI management is to remove an
individual from the exposure that causes injury. A period of time away
from the keyboard and mouse is followed by a gradual return to keying in
an ergonomically correct work setting. Occasionally, a physician will
prescribe a medication to help reduce symptomatic inflammation and
pain. People with more severe forms of RSI may be referred by their
medical provider to an occupational therapist who can do further
evaluation and recommend a program of localized treatments, stretches,
and exercises. Referral to an orthopedic hand specialist may be needed to
determine treatment options. If the individual displays symptoms even at
rest, splints may be recommended; while these are useful in the first
stages of recovery, they are not the long-term solution. The best
treatment for RSI, of course, is prevention through proper arrangement
of computer workstations and reasonable project design.
Eye strain A vision examination is recommended. A specific eyeglass prescription
for computer use may help compensate for the strain involved in looking
at a close and fixed point for periods of time.
Artificial tears—used to supplement the eye’s natural tear film and
lubricate the dry surface—alleviate dry-eye symptoms for some computer
users.
Noise Impact printers and even the paper handling mechanisms on other
industrial high-speed printers can be noisy and should be placed in rooms
away from operators, where possible. Noise reduction hoods are
recommended.
Lifting techniques Before lifting anything:
• Know your own strengths and weaknesses. You need to be aware of
what your weight limitations are.
• When you lift, bend at your knees and not at your waist. This will
prevent strain on your back muscles and pressure on your spine.
• Assess the equipment you are moving. If you feel that physically the
equipment is too heavy or awkward for you to move alone, then get
help from a coworker, or use a cart to relocate the equipment. If you
use a cart, make sure the equipment is tightly secured during transport.
• The equipment may be unstable for lifting. You may need to take
special precautions and may require help moving it to a cart.
• Equipment should never be stacked too high while moving to avoid
hardware falling and breaking on the floor. This can cause damage to
other devices or to you.
• Plan ahead. While moving equipment from one area to another, be
aware of narrow doorways or columns that you will encounter on the
way. Also, make sure to prep the space before delivering the
equipment so that you are not trying to reconfigure the space with all
the equipment in the way.

General Power Issues

Power issues can cause a number of problems for computer equipment and the working
environment. Computer equipment, printers, network devices, and other resources require power,
so any disruption in electricity will present a number of issues. There are several power problems
that can occur.

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 Power Problem Description

Blackout A blackout involves a complete loss of power.

Brownout A brownout is a temporary power reduction that is often used by electrical
power companies to deal with high power demands. It is called a brownout
because the lights dim during the event.
Sag A sag is a momentary low-voltage power failure.
Spike A spike is a short-term, high-voltage power malfunction.
Surge A surge is a long-term, high-voltage power malfunction.
In-rush An in-rush power problem is a surge or spike that is caused when a device
that uses a large amount of current is started.

Power Protection Systems

There are several protection systems that can restore power to some operational capacity, decrease
failures, or monitor power sources.

Power Protection Description

System

UPS or battery backup An uninterruptible power supply (UPS), also referred to as a battery backup, is a
device that continues to provide power to connected circuits when the
main source of power becomes unavailable. Depending on the design,
UPSs can be battery operated, AC powered, or both. They are meant for
temporary use and are intended to support computer systems until they
can be powered off normally. Power is likely to be interrupted when the
batteries or other power sources are discharged.
Generators A generator creates its own electricity through the use of motors.
Generators provide long-term power and are often started while a UPS
system supports equipment through the initial power loss. Generators
can fail when motor fuel runs out or when a mechanical failure occurs.
Surge suppressor A surge suppressor is a device that provides power protection circuits that
can reduce or eliminate the impact of surges and spikes.

UPS Types
Depending on the needs of an organization, different types of UPSs might be used. Common types
include:
• A standby UPS, which is primarily AC-powered, until the power source fails. When the power
source fails, it switches to the backup power source or battery. This UPS is used most often with
personal computers.
• A line interactive UPS is commonly used in smaller business settings to provide power through a
constant AC connection. When the AC power fails, the inverter switches to battery power. This
UPS is unique in that while the AC power is available, it is used to also charge the battery.

Liquid Hazards
There are many different professional situations when you may come in contact with a hazardous
liquid. Some such compounds are used to clean or condition equipment, including the computer’s
case, adapter card contacts and connections, and glass surfaces. They may present safety or
environmental problems. Make sure you read the labels and follow the instructions carefully when
you are disposing of hazardous materials.

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Chemical Hazards
Working with personal computers can cause you to come in contact with some chemical hazards.

Chemical Hazard Description

Laser printer toner Made of fine particles of iron and plastic, toner presents its own set of
problems due to its reactions with heat. If you spill toner, do not clean
it up with a regular vacuum; the particles will get into the motor and
melt. Do not use warm water to wash toner off your hands or arms;
the toner could fuse to your skin. Instead, brush off as much as you
can with a dry paper towel, rinse with cold water, and then wash with
cold water and soap. In addition, do not use ammonia-based cleaners
on or around laser printers, as the ammonia may react chemically with
the toner.
Batteries Batteries maintain the data in complementary metal oxide
semiconductor (CMOS) chips and supply power to remote controls,
portable computers, and other devices. These batteries may contain
mercury, cadmium, and lithium, as well as other dangerous chemicals.
Capacitors Capacitors store electricity by using two or more conducting plates
separated by an insulator. There are capacitors in various personal
computer components, including microprocessors. The electrolytes in
capacitors are very caustic; treat them as you would any hazardous
chemical. Thoroughly wash your hands after handling ruptured
capacitors.

Caution: The capacitors in power supplies and monitors do not discharge when they are turned
off or unplugged, and contain enough charge to kill you. Do not open or attempt to service
internal components of power supplies or monitors.

MSDS Documentation
A Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) is a technical bulletin that is designed to give users and
emergency personnel information about the proper procedures for the storage and handling of a
hazardous substance. This applies to any situation in which an employee is exposed to a chemical
under normal use conditions or in the event of an emergency. The manufacturers supply MSDSs
with the first shipment to a new customer and with any shipment after the MSDS is updated with
significant and new information about safety hazards. You can get MSDSs online; the Internet has a
wide range of free resources. OSHA regulations govern the use of MSDSs and the information an
MSDS must contain.

Chemical Hazards

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 Figure 3-3: An MSDS.

Required Information in an MSDS

Every MSDS is required to include information about the following items:
• Physical data
• Toxicity
• Health effects
• First aid
• Reactivity
• Storage
• Safe-handling and use precautions
• Disposal
• Protective equipment
• Spill/leak procedures

Incident Reports
An incident report is a record of any instance where a person is injured or computer equipment is
damaged due to environmental issues. The report is also used for accidents involving hazardous
materials, such as chemical spills, that could have an impact on the environment. Any time an
accident occurs at a work site, you should submit an incident report. Reporting these occurrences is
often part of company policy and can help provide protection against liability. )

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Figure 3-4: Sample incident report.

Hazardous Material Disposal Procedures

Proper disposal of hazardous materials is an essential part of maintaining a safe work environment. Hazardous Material
Disposal Procedures
Hazardous Material Disposal Recommendations

Liquid cleaning materials Follow your company's guidelines for disposing of liquid cleaning
and empty containers materials and their containers. Each municipality has its own disposal
regulations that you must learn and follow. You can find out about
these regulations by contacting your local government's environmental
office or department for trash disposal and recycling.
Toner Empty toner cartridges should not be discarded in the trash because of
the damage that the residual chemicals can do to the environment.
Used toner cartridges should be refilled or returned to the
manufacturer for recycling and/or disposal. Follow your company's
guidelines for disposal procedures.
Display devices The CRTs in older computer monitors contain lead, which is
considered a hazardous material. Follow your company's guidelines for
disposing of display devices. Many municipalities have regulations for
disposal and recycling of old monitors and television sets; contact your
local government's environmental office or department for trash
disposal and recycling to determine if there are specific rules you need
to follow.
Ozone filter Follow the manufacturer's recommendations for replacement and
disposal of a laser printer's ozone filter.
Batteries Used batteries should not be discarded in the trash; they should be
recycled or disposed of following your company's guidelines.

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 ACTIVITY 3-3
Identifying Environmental Safety Issues

Scenario
In this activity, you will identify the best practices for promoting environmental safety and proper
handling of materials.

1. You are on a service call, and you accidentally spill some liquid cleaner on the user's work surface.
What actions should you take?
☐ Refer to the MSDS for procedures to follow when the material is spilled.
☐ Wipe it up with a paper towel and dispose of the paper towel in the user's trash container.
☐ Report the incident.

2. Ozone is classified as an environmental hazard. Which device produces ozone gas?

○ Laser printer
○ CPU
○ Laptop
○ Power supply

3. What item reacts with heat and ammonia-based cleaners to present a workplace hazard?
○ Capacitor
○ Laser
○ Toner
○ Battery

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TOPIC D
Professionalism and Communication
So far in this lesson, you have identified best practices for working directly with computer
equipment. On almost every service call, you will also need to interact with users who are
experiencing problems. In this topic, you will identify best practices for PC technicians to use to
communicate appropriately with clients and colleagues and to conduct business in a professional
manner.
You are a representative of your profession, as well as your company. Working with customers is a
fundamental job duty for every A+ technician. How you conduct yourself will have a direct and
significant impact on the satisfaction of your customers, and your level of professionalism and
communication skills can directly affect whether or not you will do business with them again in the
future.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220–801: Objective 5.3 Given a scenario, demonstrate proper communication and
professionalism.
• Exam 220–801: Objective 5.4. Explain the fundamentals of dealing with prohibited content/
activity.

Communication Skills
Using the proper communication skills when dealing with clients and colleagues creates a Communication Skills
professional environment that is conducive to solving the problem at hand.

Communication Skill Description

Use proper language • Use clear, concise, and direct statements. This will help you get to
the crux of the matter more quickly, and it will help the user
understand what you are saying.
• Avoid using jargon, abbreviations, acronyms, and slang. Many users
will not have the same level of technical knowledge as you and your
colleagues, and using terminology that is beyond their level of
knowledge can confuse or upset them.
• Use timing to set the pace of a conversation. A pause may be more
valuable than an immediate answer, as it allows you time to
formulate your response. If a situation escalates and your customer
becomes agitated, you may ask him or her to slow down so that you
can get all the information. When a customer is having difficulty
ending a call to the help desk, you may gently step up the pace to
indicate your need to move on.
Non-verbal • Be aware of the non-verbal clues you use, whether you are talking
communication or listening. Body language communicates more than actual words.
Studies show that up to 70 percent of a message is conveyed
through actions. Even when you are talking on the phone, non-
verbal characteristics—such as tone of voice—will add meaning to
your message and help you interpret your customer's concerns.
• Use the proper level of eye contact. You and your customer will
make, maintain, and break eye contact as you talk with each other.
When attention is directed to the problem at hand, eye contact may
be minimal. Avoid staring directly at your customer—a form of

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 Communication Skill Description

invading personal space—or letting your gaze wander, which

indicates disinterest, or even worse, inappropriate interest.
• Use gestures and facial expressions to reinforce your spoken
message. Broad, friendly gestures indicate being open to the
conversation, while sharp or jabbing gestures usually mean anger.
The variety, intensity, and meaning of facial expressions are almost
endless. You and your customer read each other's faces to gain
insight into the spoken words. Your expression must match the
content of your words; if there is a mismatch, your customer will
believe the message in your face, rather than what you say.
• Use non-verbal encouragement to gather information. Encourage
your customer to continue with "Mm-hmm" and a slight nod of
your head. You convey that you are listening and want to know
more.
• Be aware of physical positioning and posture. Respect your
customer's personal space. Depending on the circumstances, you
may be from 1.5 to 4 feet away from your customer. If the
customer backs up, you are too close. You may be working in close
quarters; ask permission before you move into your customer's
personal space—for example, sitting in the office chair. Messages
are conveyed by body position. Slouching indicates: "I am bored
with this conversation." Holding one's arms across the chest says: "I
am closed off to what you are saying." Watch your body's signals, as
well as those of your customer.
• Be aware of the effect of tone of voice, which can indicate many
internal moods: excitement, boredom, sarcasm, fear, or uncertainty.
A rise in your voice at the end of a sentence makes it sound like a
question, implying lack of assurance instead of competence. Listen
to your customer's tone. Volume—loudness or softness—colors
the spoken message. If your customer's agitation escalates, try
lowering your volume to re-establish a sense of calm.
• Use the appropriate level of physical contact. A firm handshake is
appreciated and may be expected in some business dealings. Other
forms of touching are generally unnecessary, inappropriate, and
risky.
Listening skills • Listen and do not interrupt the customer. If your attention drifts or
you interrupt, you run the risk of missing some important
information that can help you solve the problem.
• Allow the user to complete statements—avoid interrupting. This
will convey the message that you respect the user and want to hear
what he or she is saying.
• Employ passive listening techniques. Your message is: "I am
listening. Tell me more." You are alert, attentive, and accepting, but
do not participate actively in the conversation. Your silence may
help your customer to collect his or her thoughts, especially if he or
she is upset or angry. Listen for factual data and be alert for feelings
and attitudes, which are conveyed non-verbally. It may be difficult
to keep from jumping in with a question or a "Yes, but..." Resist the
temptation by writing down your thoughts to refer to later.
• Employ active listening techniques. When your customer is
describing the problem, listen actively to elicit as much information
as you can. Clarify user statements by asking pertinent questions.

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Active Listening
Active listening techniques can enhance your communications skills. These techniques may feel
awkward at first, so you might want to try them out in a situation outside your job. With practice,
you will use active listening skills more easily and creatively.

Action Description

Questioning Ask questions to gain information, clarify what you have heard, and
direct the conversation. Open-ended questions can elicit a lot of
information. Close-ended questions limit the amount of information by
giving a choice of answers. Yes/no questions further limit the
information exchange and can be used when you need to get closer to a
conclusion. Examples of each of these question styles are:
• Open-ended: "What happened after you pressed Ctrl+Alt+Delete?"
• Close-ended: "What kind of a printer do you have, laser or inkjet?"
• Yes/no: "Are you on a network?"
What if the answer to your open-ended question is "I do not know" or
"I am not sure"? Go down the list—using close-ended and then yes/no
—until you reach the customer's level of expertise.
Examples of less helpful question styles:
• Confusing multiple questions: "What did you do next? Did you
try...? What happened?"
• Accusations: "What did you do that for?"
Empathizing Let your customer know that you perceive and support what they are
feeling. Try to be specific in naming the emotion and link it to the
customer, using "you," not "I." Examples of helpful empathetic
responses include:
• "This delay is frustrating for you."
• "You are afraid you will lose business while your computer is
down."
• "You must be worried about the cost."
Examples of less helpful empathetic responses include:
• "I know how you are feeling."
• "I can identify..."
Paraphrasing Restate what the customer says in your own words to make sure that
you interpreted correctly, to bring order to the customer's thoughts, and
to relay that their message is important. Use statements, not questions,
and do not add or change anything. Examples of starters for
paraphrasing include:
• "You are saying that..."
• "It sounds like..."
• "I am hearing you say..."
Summarizing Outline the main points of your conversation to summarize what has
been said. You can begin by summarizing your understanding of the
problem and then checking for clarification. During the conversation,
you can re-establish the focus by listing the important facts. Bring
closure by summing up the work performed. If a follow-up plan is
needed, restate the responsibilities and timeline. Helpful starters for
summarizing include:

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 Action Description

• "Let's see what we have so far."

• "Why don't we back up a minute and go through that again?"
• "Let's go over our plan."

Organizational Policies and Procedures for Appropriate Use

AUP Organizational policies are documents that convey the corporate guidelines and philosophy to
employees. Policies can be either high-level corporate documents distributed to the entire
organization, or lower-level operational documents that affect only certain departments, divisions,
individuals, or roles in an organization. For example, most organizations will have an acceptable use
policy (AUP) that includes practices and guidelines that management expects all employees to follow
when they are using and accessing company-owned computer equipment and information-related
resources.

Figure 3-5: An AUP.

Professional Conduct
Professional Conduct Acting in a professional manner when dealing with colleagues and clients provides a work
environment where problems can be solved efficiently.

Facet Description

Appearance Exhibit a professional appearance. Your work environment may be in a

repair shop, at a help desk, or on-site at the customer's business.
Whatever the situation, you will want to present a neat, clean, business-
like appearance. On-site work may take you into many settings, from
muffler repair shops to executive offices. You may be asked to remove

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Facet Description
your shoes or put on a hard hat. Be aware of the corporate culture and
respond accordingly.
Respect Be respectful of the customer and the environment in which you are
working.
• Maintain a positive attitude when talking with users. Avoiding arguing
or getting defensive with users will make it easier for you to solve the
problem to the user's satisfaction.
• Be culturally sensitive. Always be conscious of who you are working
with, and how your actions can be conveyed.
• Do not minimize the customer's problem. What seems simple to you
could be a mission-critical problem to the user.
• Never insult a customer or call the customer names. No matter how
frustrating a service call might become, rudeness is never the answer.
• When you are dealing with customers, avoid distractions and
interruptions. Repeatedly answering a mobile phone, talking to
coworkers, or attending to any other personal distractions while you
are supposed to be working on a problem sends the message that the
user's problem is unimportant to you.
• Ask open-ended questions and try and narrow the scope of the
problem. Restate the issue or question to verify understanding. This
will show the customer that you are listening and care about resolving
the issues at hand.
• Be sure to keep your work area at the customer site neat. Do not pile
materials on your customer's books and files. Clean up after yourself.
When you are on-site, ask where to dispose of materials; find out
where the recycling bin is for printer test-run paper.
• Be on time. Tardiness can give the customer a negative impression of
you. If you are going to be late, always call and communicate with the
customer.
• Be respectful of the property at the customer site. Always ask
permission before entering an office or workspace, using the
telephone, sitting down at a computer, or adjusting the workspace.
Accountability Be accountable. Do not misrepresent your credentials, competence, or
training. Take responsibility for your actions, and admit your mistakes. In
questions of conflict of interest between your company and the customer,
refer to your supervisor or follow your company's procedures. Be aware
of your company's policy for accepting gifts or samples, and for
socializing with customers.
Confidentiality Treat any information located on a desktop, a computer, or a printer that
pertains to your customer's business as confidential. Know your
company's policies concerning confidential information—and follow
them. Many fields—including medicine, social work, and special
education—are regulated by federal and state laws concerning the
confidentiality of their customers, consumers, or clients. All companies
have personal information about their employees. Many corporations
have sensitive information about the development of their products or
services.
Honesty Be forthright with your customers about what is occurring and the
actions you will take. Clients have a right to understand the process you
are following and how it will affect them.

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 Facet Description

Discourage software pirating. Software copyright infringement, or

pirating, relates to the legal issues surrounding the distribution and use of
software. The Federal Copyright Act of 1976 protects the rights of the
holder of a copyright. Typically, a backup copy of software is allowed and
a site license allows for the use of multiple copies at one facility. You are
responsible for upholding the law by complying with the license
agreements that both your company and your customer hold. Learn your
company's policies and adhere to them. Pirating carries penalties and
risks, including fines, imprisonment, corrupted files, virus-infected disks,
discontinued technical support, and upgrade unavailability.
Prioritizing Set priorities. You will often need to set priorities and make judgment
calls. You will recommend whether your customer should repair or
replace equipment. You will rank the urgency of your customers’ needs.
Base your decisions on common courtesy, fundamental fairness, and
keeping promises. Be familiar with your company's policies and follow
them.
Expectations You should set and meet customer expectations up front. Set a timeline
and a communication plan that both you and the customer agree to at the
start of the business relationship. Always communicate repair and
replacement options, and provide the proper documentation needed for
the services provided. Always follow up and get customer feedback on
the work completed. This information allows you to improve customer
satisfaction.
Ethics Practice ethical conduct. You have an obligation to take responsibility for
ethical conduct within your delivery of service. Ethical issues are complex
and ever-changing in the computer industry. An unethical practice may
become so routine that it is falsely assumed to be acceptable behavior.
Learn your company's policies and adhere to them.

Prohibited Content
As an A+ technician, you may come across situations when you may encounter prohibited activities,
such as viewing pornography on work-issued devices by users either within your organization or by
a customer. There are different levels of prohibited content, which can be described as distasteful,
inappropriate, or illegal. Every organization will have different guidelines and restrictions based on
the type of content. For example, some organizations will discourage access to social networking
sites, or websites that contain questionable words or phrases, but will not explicitly forbid it. On the
other hand, restrictions on content or data that can be categorized as inappropriate or illegal, such as
pornography, will be enforced heavily, and accessing such content will have immediate
consequences. In each of these cases, it is your responsibility to follow organizational procedure to
report the incident. When reporting potentially illegal activities, you must follow the organization's
policy on reporting, collecting, and documenting the specifics of the situation and what evidence
was found.

Best Practices Related to Prohibited Content or Activity

The process of identifying and reporting prohibited content or activity can be complicated,
especially when an organization does not have sufficient policies and documented guidelines. There
are some fundamental methods that can be applied to help properly report, document, and resolve
issues.

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Phase Description

First response First response refers to the immediate actions that follow an incident, as
well as the individual or individuals who perform these actions. There
are a few actions that take place during the first response to an incident:
• Identifying the data and/or hardware.
• Reporting the details of the discovery and evidence through the
proper channels. This will vary depending on the specific
organization's policies and reporting instructions.
• Preserving the data and/or device as evidence. This can sometimes
be also be called computer forensics.
Chain of custody The chain of custody is the record of tracking evidence from collection
through presentation in court. The evidence can be hardware
components, electronic data, or telephone systems. The chain of
evidence reinforces the integrity and proper custody of evidence from
collection, to analysis, to storage, and presentation in a court of law.
Every person in the chain who handles evidence must log and
document the process, methods, and tools they used.
Documentation In the process of identifying and reporting incidents with prohibited
content, you should follow the organization's documented procedures
to ensure that you are carrying out the correct response tasks and
guidelines. You must also be aware of any changes made to the
documentation so that you are always following the right procedures in
handling incidents, managing evidence, and reporting findings to the
appropriate individuals.

Computer Removal
When computer crimes are reported, one of the first response activities is removing computers from
the crime location. They are tagged with a chain of custody record to begin the process of making
the evidence secure for future presentation in court.

Computer Forensics
Computer forensics is the practice of collecting and analyzing data from storage devices, computer Computer Forensics
systems, networks, and wireless communications and presenting this information as a form of
evidence in a court of law. Primarily, forensics deals with the recovery and investigation of potential
evidence. Computer forensics is a fairly new field, so there is little standardization or consistency in
practicing it across organizations and courts. Basically, computer forensics is a blend of the elements
of law with computer science in analyzing evidence in a way that is permissible in the court of law.

Basic Forensic Response Procedures for IT

Forensic response procedures for IT help security professionals collect data evidence in a form that
is admissible in a court of law.

Forensic Response Description

Procedure

Capture system image One of the most important steps in computer forensic evidence
procedures is to capture exact duplicates of the evidence, also known as
forensic images. This is accomplished by making a bit-for-bit copy of a
piece of media as an image file with high accuracy.
Examine network traffic Attackers always leave behind traces; you just need to know how and
and logs where to look. Logs record everything that happens in an intrusion

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 Forensic Response Description
Procedure
prevention system (IPS) or intrusion detection system (IDS), and in
routers, firewalls, servers, desktops, mainframes, applications, databases,
antivirus software, and virtual private networks (VPNs). With these logs,
it is possible to extract the identity of hackers and provide necessary
evidence.
Capture video Video forensics is the method by which video is scrutinized for clues.
Tools for computer forensics are used in reassembling video to be used
as evidence in a court of law.
Record time offset The format in which time is recorded against a file activity, such as file
creation, deletion, last modified, and last accessed, has developed to
incorporate a local time zone offset against GMT. This makes it easier
for forensic examiners to determine the exact time the activity took
place, even if the computer is moved from one time zone to another or
if the time zone has deliberately been changed on a system.
Take hashes Federal law enforcement agencies and federal governments maintain a
list of files such as files relating to components of Microsoft®
Windows® and other application software. The hash codes generated by
a file or software can be compared to the list of known file hashes and
hacker tools if any are flagged or marked as unknown.
Take screenshots You should capture screenshots of each and every step of a forensic
procedure, especially when you are retrieving evidence by using a
forensic tool. This will ensure that data present on a compromised
system is not tampered with and also provides the court with proof of
your use of valid computer forensic methods while extracting the
evidence.
Identify witnesses Courts generally accept evidence if it is seconded by the testimony of a
witness who observed the procedure by which the evidence was
acquired. A computer forensics expert witness is someone who has
experience in handling computer forensics tools and is able to establish
the validity of evidence.
Track man hours and When the first incidents of computer crimes occurred, it would usually
expense take less than 40 man hours to complete a forensic investigation because
incidents usually involved single, standalone computers. Now, with
advances in technology and the advent of new digital media such as
voice recorders, cameras, laptop computers, and mobile devices,
computer forensics procedures can require a much greater amount of
time and expense. Also, the increase in storage device capacities and
encryption affect the amount of man hours that it can take to assess any
damage, and consequently increase the expenses incurred in any
computer forensics investigation. Capturing this expense is part of the
overall damage assessment for the incident.

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 ACTIVITY 3-4
Examining Professionalism and Communication
Techniques

Scenario
In this activity, you will examine different professionalism and communication techniques.

1. What is an example of verbal communication skills? What is an example of non-verbal communication

skills?
A: Answers will vary, but might include: For verbal communication skills, use clear, concise, and
direct statements. For non-verbal communication skills, maintain the proper amount of eye
contact.

2. Select the correct response.

Which is a good example of listening skills?

○ Maintain a neat and clean appearance.
○ Keep sensitive customer information to yourself.
○ Interrupt the customer to ask for more details.
○ Let your eyes wander around the room as the customer is speaking.
○ Allow the customer to complete statements without interrupting.

3. While answering a service call on a computer that is located in a common area of the office, you come
across information showing that some unauthorized websites have been viewed. The activity has been
linked to a particular user account. What is the appropriate action to take?
A: Answers will vary, but will most likely include referring to procedures and guidelines documented
by your specific organization and following the best practices used when responding to an
incident, such as first response procedures, chain of custody guidelines, and documenting the
entire process.

4. When a service technician does not share sensitive customer information with others, which skill or
behavior is being practiced?
○ Confidentiality
○ Ethical behavior
○ Respect
○ Active listening

5. You have received an off-site service call to service a network printer at a customer location. When you
arrive, the user is at the printer and starts talking about how the printer is not working properly, and he
cannot get his reports handed in on time. As a result, you start asking more clarifying questions to
gather more information, so you can identify the specific issue with the printer. What type of technique
are you using to gather information?
○ Passive listening
○ Non-verbal communication
○ Active listening

6. Which are examples of displaying respect during a service call?

151
 ☐ Asking permission before changing display settings
☐ Asking "What happened just before you noticed the problem?"
☐ Sitting in a user's chair without permission
☐ Silencing your pager or mobile phone

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Lesson Summary
In this lesson, you identified best practices that are followed by professional PC technicians. With
the proper tools, awareness of safety and environmental issues, and basic communication skills, you
are prepared to do your job in a safe, effective, and professional manner.
Use the review
Which of the best practices discussed in this lesson apply in your workplace? questions provided to
A: Answers will vary, but may include silencing phones and pagers, using active listening techniques, generate discussion
acting in a professional manner, and treating clients with respect. among the participants.

Have you ever been in a situation where you uncovered inappropriate conduct or prohibited activity?
A: Answers will vary, but may include finding inappropriate content on a user's machine while you are
performing general maintenance on the machine.

Note: Check your LogicalCHOICE Course screen for opportunities to interact with your
classmates, peers, and the larger LogicalCHOICE online community about the topics covered in
this course or other topics you are interested in. From the Course screen you can also access
available resources for a more continuous learning experience.

Encourage students to
use the social
networking tools
provided on the
LogicalCHOICE Home
screen to follow up with
their peers after the
course is completed for
further discussion and
resources to support
continued learning.

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154
4 Peripheral Components
Lesson Time: 2 hours, 15 minutes

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will install and configure peripheral components. You will:
• Install and configure display devices.
• Install and configure input devices.
• Install and configure expansion cards
• Install and configure multimedia devices.

Lesson Introduction
So far in this course, you have identified the hardware and software that makes up a
personal computer system and examined some general best practices for working with
them. Now that you have a solid base of background information, it is time to roll up your
sleeves and start working with some of those hardware components. In this lesson, you will
install and configure peripheral computer components.
Much of the work that you will perform as a PC technician will involve installing and
configuring various hardware and software components. As an IT professional, you will
often find yourself setting up end-user workstations or helping those end users with the
hardware they need to make their daily lives easier. Installing and configuring peripheral
components—like display devices, keyboards and mice, or even more specialized devices—
are some of the more common tasks that you will perform.
This lesson covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification
objectives:
• Topic A:
• Exam 220–801: Objective 1.10
• Topic B:
• Exam 220–801: Objective 1.12
• Topic C:
• Exam 220–801: Objective 1.4
• Topic D:
• Exam 220–801: Objective 1.12

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 TOPIC A
Install and Configure Display Devices
In this lesson, you will install and configure peripheral components. Generally, one of the most
common peripherals that you will be asked to install is the display device. In this topic, you will
install and configure display devices.
The display device provides visual output from the computer system. Without the display device,
you can't see any images on screen to guide your interactions with programs or see the results of
your input. Correctly installing and configuring the display device enables you to meet the basic user
need to see what they are working on.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220–801: Objective 1.10: Given a scenario, evaluate types and features of display devices.

Display Device Types

Display Device Types There are several different types of display devices that you might be asked to install or configure.

Display Device Description

CRT Cathode ray tube (CRT) displays use electron beams within a vacuum tube to
create images on a fluorescent screen. The intensity of three electron beams,
one for each primary color (red, blue, and green), are manipulated to display
the image on the screen.
CRT monitors are larger, heavier, and boxier than their more modern
counterparts due to the components used to build them, especially the thick
glass used for the screen. The screen may be curved or flat, but CRTs are not
considered flat-panel monitors.
CRT monitors have for the most part been replaced by more modern and
efficient displays like LCD, LED, or plasma screens, though many may still be
in use in organizations who have yet to upgrade their devices.
LCD Liquid crystal display (LCD) flat-panel displays are a compact, lightweight
alternative to traditional CRT displays.
LCDs consume much less energy than CRTs and do not emit nearly as much
electromagnetic radiation as CRTs do. LCD monitors use a cold cathode fluorescent
lamp (CCFL) as the backlight source. CCFLs use electrodes and mercury vapor
to create ultraviolet light that is used as the light source.
Depending on the LCD screen, the user may need to sit directly in front of the
screen to see the display properly.
A unique feature of LCD displays is that the screen auto centers. There is
typically no center alignment needed.
LED Light emitting diode (LED) displays utilize the same screen as an LCD display,
but use a different backlighting technique/technology. Instead of the CCFLs
used in LCD, LED screens use one of two types of light emitting diodes as a
backlighting source: dynamic RGB LEDs, which are located behind the panel;
or white edge-LEDs, which are located around the edge of the screen and use a
diffusion panel to evenly distribute the light source.
LED displays consume even less power than LCD displays. However, LED
displays are currently more expensive to purchase.

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Display Device Description
OLED Organic light emitting diode (OLED) displays utilize the same technology as LED
displays, but use organic compounds that emit light when subjected to an
electric current as the light source.
However, OLED screens can be used in a larger variety of dimensions than
LED screens, and are currently utilized in computer monitors, television
screens, tablets, and mobile phones.
Plasma Plasma displays use xenon and neon rays and a flat panel of glass to provide
visuals with high contrast, brightness, and vibrant colors that can be viewed
from a multitude of angles.
However, plasma displays can suffer from image burn-in from repeated, long-
term use. They are currently only available in very large dimensions, typically 40
inches or more, and are mostly marketed and utilized as television displays.
They can also be incredibly heavy and cumbersome due to the technology.
Projector Video projectors are often used to display the video output onto a whiteboard
or other surface so that a larger audience can see it.

Other Display Devices

There are a number of other display device types that you may encounter in your personal or
professional experience:
• Touch screen monitors enable input by touching images on the screen. This technology is used
in bank ATMs, some point-of-sale terminals at fast food restaurants, and other situations where a
separate keyboard for input is not appropriate. Touch screens are also found on many
smartphones, tablets, and laptops sold for general public use.
• Virtual reality games and special-purpose imaging needs led to the development of glasses/ Let students know that
goggles that substitute for a monitor. more information about
• Video display systems can be used to display one image to several monitors (often used in touch screens will be
provided later in this
training situations) or to display an image covering a huge screen (often used at trade shows). lesson.

Display Device Settings and Features

You can configure several features and settings for a display device, either through the Control Display Device Settings
Panel utility in the Windows® system or through controls on the physical device. and Features
Traditional wide-screen
Display Setting or Description monitors were 16:10, but
Feature 16:9 is becoming more
popular due to sharing
Resolution The number of pixels that make up the dimensions of a display. The manufacturing with TVs.
resolution value is given as the number of horizontal pixels by vertical
pixels, or width by height, traditionally in the ratio of 4:3. For wide
screen displays, the ratio is 16:10. Common resolutions are 640 x 480,
800 x 600, 1024 x 768, and 1600 x 1200. The higher the resolution, the
more objects or information you can fit on the screen at once. Just as
widescreen televisions have become popular, video monitors with
higher aspect ratio are also becoming more common.
Native resolution A fixed resolution for LCD or other flat panel display devices. Unlike a
CRT, which can change resolution to match that of the signal being
received, display devices with native resolution will only display the best
quality image when the input signal and the native resolution are the
same. Other resolutions may display on a device where that signal input

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 Display Setting or Description
Feature

is not the same as the native resolution, but it will result in image quality
loss.
Refresh rate The number of times per second that the entire monitor is “refreshed,”
or scanned to illuminate the pixels. Each scan is referred to as a frame.
The rate is expressed in hertz (Hz). Typical refresh rates are 60 to 70 Hz
or 60 to 70 times per second. Any setting lower than 60 Hz usually
produces noticeable flickering.
Brightness The amount of light that is being emitted from a display device.
Brightness is measured in lumens, which is the unit of measurement for
visible light that is being emitted from a light source. On a display
device, brightness can be increased or decreased for the display. If the
brightness is set too high, you might get an "aura" effect displayed on
the screen. If it is set too low, you might not see anything on the screen.
Multiple displays Many users choose to use more than one display device to increase the
amount of display space. The typical setup is two displays, though more
than two displays can be configured with the appropriate expansion
card that can support that setup. Multiple displays are most commonly
used for either a professional computer workstation or for gaming
environments, where an extended desktop is useful.
Within the monitor's display properties, you can designate one of the
two monitors as the primary monitor, which controls where the
desktop administrative features (Start menu, taskbar, etc.) appear. The
other monitor would contain extra desktop space. While it is far more
common to have the desktop span both monitors and contain a
different window in each, it is also possible to have the two monitors
display the same image, which is useful for presentations.
Analog vs. digital Depending on the type and make of the display device, it may support
either analog or digital inputs. Most devices providing the input signals
(like a computer) are inherently digital. CRT display devices are analog,
and will need a video card and VGA cable to receive the digital input
and convert it to analog. Newer display devices such as LCD or LED
can innately support digital input signals, and do so via Digital Video
Interface (DVI) connections between the input device and the display
device.
Privacy/antiglare filters Privacy or antiglare filters are physical accessory screens that can be
attached onto or over a display device and provides a number of
benefits:
• Reduces glare from the screen for the user sitting in front of the
display device.
• Protects the display device screen from scratches or dust.
• Prohibits others not sitting in the front of the device from viewing
information being displayed, protecting confidentiality and
providing privacy.
Color depth (quality) The number of bits used to store the color of a pixel: the more bits per
pixel, the more colors can be displayed.
Font A size and style of typeface. Computers use fonts to display text on the
screen. Common font faces include Arial (which is a sans serif font),

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Display Setting or Description
Feature
Times (which is a serif font), and Courier (which looks like legacy
computer output).
Contrast The difference in intensity between adjacent colors in an image. If the
contrast is not set correctly for the display device and the lighting
conditions in the room (for example, a really bright or really dark
room), you might not be able to see anything on the screen, or you
might get strange results.
Image position The location or size of the display in relation to the physical device.
Sometimes the image is not centered on the display screen. Other times
the image does not fill the screen, leaving a black band around the edge.
Or, part of the image can scroll off the screen. There are usually
separate buttons or menu options to adjust each of these issues.
Distortion control Distortions can appears as curves, waves, or moiré patterns in the video
image. These are typically caused by electromagnetic interference or a
defect with hardware, usually with the video card or video cable. If lines
do not appear straight on the screen, you might need to adjust settings.
Electromagnetic issues, however, are resolved by eliminating the source
of interference. Refer to the display device documentation for how to
resolve such issues. Distortion control is configured on the display
device itself, not through a system utility.

Aspect Ratio
The aspect ratio is the ratio of width to height of a display. Most software expects a 4:3 ratio, and
the display will appear to be distorted if other ratios are used. The aspect ratio is found by
determining the proportion of the number of pixels across the screen to the number of pixels down
the screen. For example, a resolution of 640 x 480 has a 4:3 aspect ratio.

Resolution Number of Pixels Aspect Ratio

320 x 200 64,000 8:5

640 x 480 307,200 4:3
800 x 600 480,000 4:3
1,024 x 768 786,432 4:3
1,280 x 1,024 1,310,720 5:4
1,600 x 1,200 1,920,000 4:3

Note: For a demonstration, check out the LearnTO Adjust Display Output Settings in the
LearnTOs for this course on your LogicalCHOICE Course screen.

Device Drivers
A device driver is a type of software that enables the operating system and a peripheral device to
communicate with each other. Also referred to as simply a driver, a device driver takes generalized
commands from the system software or an application and translates them into unique
programming commands that the device can understand. It also provides the code that allows the
device to function with the operating system, and it is generally installed as part of the installation
process for a new piece of hardware. Device drivers can be generic for a class of device or specific
to a particular device.

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 Where to Get Device Drivers
Device drivers can be:
• Included with the operating system. New operating systems include thousands of drivers that
allow them to work with all current, popular devices. Peripherals that are designed after the
operating system comes out must supply their own drivers.
• Supplied with the device on a CD-ROM when you purchase the hardware.
• Downloaded from the Internet from an operating systems vendor's site, such as Windows
Update, or from the hardware manufacturer’s website.

Display Device Selection Tips

There are hundreds, if not more, of display devices from which you can choose, depending on your
needs. Selecting the display device to use may depend on a number of things.

Criteria Description

Size Depending on the space available for the display or a user's personal
preferences, you may choose a display based on the physical size or
footprint of the device. Because they take up less space, flat-panel devices
like LCD, LED or OLED, may be preferred or needed for small work
spaces. Plasma screens are still rather large, and may not be practical for a
workstation.
Technical needs Depending on what the display device will be used for, technical
requirements for programs, or personal preferences, a specific type of
display device may be required or desired. LCD, LED/OLED, and
plasma monitors support high resolutions, which make them a better
choice for users who work in high-end graphics applications such as
Adobe® Photoshop®. However, some users still prefer CRT monitors
because their display is brighter.
Efficiency As the technology used in display devices evolves, the devices tend to be
more energy efficient than its predecessors. LEDs consume less energy
than LCDs, which may make them preferable if you are trying to be more
energy efficient and cost efficient.
Cost The newer the technology, the more expensive the device. LCDs are still
fairly low cost, as the most common and in-demand type of display.
LEDs and OLEDs are more expensive, but as they become more
common, the cost is decreasing as well. Plasma displays are currently the
most expensive option.

Display Device Installation Considerations

When you are ready to install a display device, keep the following considerations in mind:
• Do you have the necessary cables and connectors available to connect the display device to the
machine?
• Do you have the necessary expansion cards, such as a video card, installed on the machine to
support the display device you have selected?
• Do you have the necessary drivers for the display device installed on the machine?
• Do you have a power source available for the display device?

160
 You may want to show
Note: For a demonstration, check out the LearnTO Install a Display Device in the LearnTOs
the LearnTO Install a
for this course on your LogicalCHOICE Course screen. Display Device from the
LogicalCHOICE Course
screen or have students
Access the Checklist tile on your LogicalCHOICE course screen for reference navigate out to the
information and job aids on How to Install and Configure Display Devices Course screen and
watch it themselves as a
supplement to your
instruction. If not, please
remind students to visit
the LearnTOs for this
course on their
LogicalCHOICE Course
screen after class for
supplemental
information and
additional resources.

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 ACTIVITY 4-1
Examining Display Devices

Scenario
In this activity, you will examine display devices.

1. What step should you complete first when you are installing a monitor?
○ Secure the monitor to the port by tightening the screws on each side of the connector.
○ Turn off the computer.
○ Plug in the monitor power cord.
○ Locate the monitor port on the computer.
○ Align the pins on the monitor cable with the holes in the adapter port and plug in the monitor.

2. What kind of video is component video?

☐ Analog
☐ Digital
☐ HD
☐ Brightness only

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 ACTIVITY 4-2
Installing Display Devices

Before You Begin

You have a working monitor with either a 15-pin VGA-style monitor cable and a computer
equipped with a VGA port, or you have a digital flat-panel monitor (LCD or LED) that uses the 29-
pin DVI connector, High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI) connector, or a universal serial
bus (USB) display. The computer is turned off and the monitor is unplugged.
To prepare student
Scenario computers for this
The marketing department of your company is moving to new offices, and you have been assigned activity, power off the
computers, disconnect
the task of setting up the computers in their new offices. The computers and monitors have been
the monitors from the
delivered to each office. Employees want to begin using their computers as soon as possible. system units, and unplug
the monitors from the
electrical source.
1. Install the monitor.
a) Verify that the power is off at the computer.
b) Locate the monitor cable and examine the connector.
c) If you have a standard VGA CRT monitor, locate the VGA adapter port on the computer. If you have
an LCD display, locate the VGA, 29-pin DVI, or the USB port on the computer.
d) Insert the monitor connector into the appropriate port, being sure to align the pins carefully.
e)
Tighten the screws. Do not over-tighten them. Remind students that it
f) Plug in the monitor. is easy to bend the pins.

2. Check whether the monitor is functional.

a) Turn on the computer power.
b) Turn on the monitor power.
c) After the system has started to boot, verify that the power light on the monitor is green and is not
flashing.
d) Watch the monitor and verify that the display is clear.

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 ACTIVITY 4-3
Configuring Display Devices

Before You Begin

Your instructor has altered the display settings for your monitor. The computer is running and the
Welcome screen is displayed.
Before having students
begin this activity, adjust Scenario
the following settings on An employee recently had to move the location of his workstation. The employee reports that, since
their monitors so they
the move, the display does not appear in the center of the monitor. The images are too dark, making
are not correct:
them difficult to see, and he cannot see as much on the screen as he would like. The employee needs
• Brightness you to resolve these issues so that he can get back to work.
• Contrast
• Vertical and
horizontal display
1. Adjust the monitor display.
position
• Height and width of a) Referring to the monitor's documentation as necessary, locate the physical controls to adjust the
image brightness of the display image.
• Screen resolution b) Adjust the brightness so that the monitor is comfortable to view.
c) Adjust the contrast so that you can view all the screen elements easily.
Then, restart the
computers.
2. Change the resolution.
a) To open the Screen Resolution window, right-click the desktop and select Screen resolution.
b) In the Resolution section, select the current resolution to display the drop-down list.
c) In the Screen Resolution window, drag the slider or click to select the appropriate resolution.
d) Select OK.
e) In the Display Settings message box, select Keep changes to set the new resolution.

3. Adjust the horizontal and vertical positions of the image.

a) Referring to the documentation as necessary, locate the controls to adjust the size and centering of
the display image.
b) Adjust the vertical display position so that the display is centered top-to-bottom on the screen.
c) Adjust the horizontal display position so that the display is centered side-to-side on the screen.
d) Adjust the height and width of the image so that there is either no border or the smallest border
allowed.

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TOPIC B
Install and Configure Input Devices
In the previous topic, you examined display devices and how to install and configure them so that
users can see the computer system's output. Users also need to be able to interact with the computer
system by using input devices. In this topic, you will install and configure input devices.
Computers need user input such as directions or commands and user interaction with the programs
that are included in order to produce something of use. Keyboards and pointing devices are the
standard input devices for personal computers these days, but there is an ever-growing number of
input devices available for the user to interact with in a variety of ways. As an A+ technician, part of
your responsibilities will include installing and configuring all types of input devices.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220–801: Objective 1.12: Install and configure various peripheral devices.

Standard Input Device Types

Common input devices include mice and keyboards, but even these two components come in a Standard Input Device
variety of implementations. Types

Input Device Description

Standard keyboard Standard keyboards are rectangular in shape, and

have 84, 101, or 104 keys.
• The original PC keyboard, the XT, has 84 keys. A
numeric pad is integrated to the right of the
alphabetical keys. Function keys are along the left
side of the keyboard.
• The AT keyboard also has 84 keys and is very
similar to the original PC keyboard. However, on
the AT keyboard, the numeric pad is separate
from the alphabetical keys.
• The AT Enhanced keyboard has 101 keys. The
function keys are integrated across the top. Arrow
keys have been added, as well as a set of six keys
—Insert, Delete, Home, End, Page Up, and
Page Down. There are also additional command
keys such as Esc and Ctrl.
• The Windows 104-key keyboard is similar to the
AT Enhanced keyboard, but adds two Windows
keys and a Menu key. The Windows keys are
analogous to clicking the Windows Start button
and the Menu key performs the same functions
as right-clicking the mouse.
Ergonomic keyboard Natural or ergonomic keyboards usually split the
keyboard in half so each hand can comfortably use
its own set of keys. Built-in wrist rests are common,
and some ergonomic keyboards also have an
integrated pointing device such as a trackball or
touch pad.

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 Input Device Description

Dvorak keyboard Dvorak keyboards rearrange the keys into a more

efficient arrangement that makes faster typing
possible for users who have become familiar with it.

Mouse A mouse is a small object that runs across a flat

surface and has at least one, but typically two or
three, buttons that send electronic signals to the
graphical user interface (GUI). Its name is derived
from its appearance—a small rounded rectangle
shape with a single cord attached at one end. Mice
can be:
• Mechanical—A ball on the underside runs along a
flat surface. Mechanical rollers detect the
direction the ball is rolling and move the screen
pointer accordingly.
• Optical—A laser detects the mouse’s movement.
Optical mice have no mechanical moving parts,
and they respond more quickly and precisely than
other types of mice.
Trackball mouse A trackball is basically an upside down mouse. The
ball is mounted on the top of the case instead of the
bottom and signals are sent to the computer by
moving the ball with your thumb, fingers, or palm
instead of by rolling the ball across a flat surface.
Like a mouse, a trackball has at least one button that
is used to send electronic signals to the computer.

Touch pad A touch pad is a small, touch-sensitive pad where

you run your finger across the surface to send
electronic signals to the computer to control the
pointer on the screen. Touch pads can have buttons
like a mouse or trackball, or the touch pad can be

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Input Device Description
configured to detect finger taps on its surface and
process those signals like button clicks.

Trackpoint A trackpoint, or pointing stick, is most commonly

found on laptops. Located in the center of the
keyboard, the trackpoint is a small joystick-like
button that responds to user force in all directions in
order to move the mouse pointer on screen.

Specialty Keyboards
Specialty keyboards include:
• Keyboards for children or users with special needs. These may have enlarged or specially
constructed keys.
• Foreign language keyboards, which have a variety of different keys.
• Custom application keyboards, which can have multimedia access buttons, video/audio editing
software buttons, and gaming devices.

Ports, Cables, and Connections

Keyboards and mice can use several types of ports and connections:
• Serial (now largely obsolete)
• Standard DIN (5-pin, and largely obsolete)
• PS/2 (6-pin mini-DIN)
• USB
• Wireless infrared
• Wireless radio frequency (RF)
• Bluetooth

Function Keys
Function keys, typically positioned horizontally along the top length of the keyboard, allow a user to
do two things: they launch operating system commands, and they allow a user to customize the
input from the keyboard. For example, when booting a PC, a user can change Basic Input/Output
System (BIOS) settings by choosing certain function keys. A user can also customize how certain
programs interpret function keys. On smaller devices, such as laptops, a user might notice a key
labeled "Fn." This key is usually labeled in a different color from the rest of the keyboard, and is
used in conjunction with other keys to increase the number of distinct inputs a keyboard can offer.
Many of the Fn inputs control video or sound settings since there are not usually separate monitor
buttons on a laptop.

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 Biometric Input Device Types
Biometric Input Device Biometrics is an automated method of recognizing a person based on a physiological or behavioral
Types characteristic unique to the individual, such as a retina pattern, fingerprint, or voice pattern.
Biometric technologies are becoming the foundation of an extensive array of highly secure
identification and personal verification solutions. Biometric input devices can add an additional layer
of physical security or information security by verifying the identity of the person attempting to gain
access to a location or device.
Several types of biometric input devices might be used in an organization.

Biometric Device Description

Fingerprint scanner/reader Scans a person's fingerprint(s) and matches it

against a database of fingerprints to verify that
person's identity. Once verified, that person will
be able to access a building, location, or device
or can be used with point-of-sale applications to
complete a transaction.
If not hard-wired into a system (such as a
security system), fingerprint scanners/readers
used with smaller devices like a personal
computer typically connect via a USB
connection.
Some laptops have a fingerprint scanner
integrated into the system as well, which is
usually placed near the keyboard area of the
laptop. The scanner is used to verify the identity
of the user and grant them the ability to use the
laptop.
Retina scanner Scans a person's retina or iris and matches it
against a database of retina scans to verify the
person's identity. Once verified, that person will
be able to access a building, location, or device.
If not hard-wired into a system (such as a
security system), a retina scanner used with a
smaller device like a personal computer typically
connects via a USB connection.

Voice recognition Uses a spoken phrase called the "pass phrase"

and compares it against a person's "voice print,"
a recorded and stored version of that person
saying the pass phrase, to verify identity. Once
verified, that person will be able to access a
building, location, or device.

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Biometric Device Description

If not hard-wired into a system (such as a

security system), a voice recognition system used
with a smaller device like a personal computer
typically connects via a USB connection.

Signature recognition Uses a signature pad and a database of approved

signatures. A user signs the signature pad, and
the recognition system analyzes the individual
behavior of the person signing, such as the
strokes used and the pressure applied while
signing, to verify the identity of the user.
If not hard-wired into a system (such as a
security system), a signature capture pad used
with a smaller device like a personal computer
typically connects via a USB connection.

Keyboard Using a biometric keyboard, only authorized

users would be able to use the keyboard, and
only once their identity was verified through the
verification program.
The keyboard and a special program monitor
the individual's typing behaviors, such as key
press duration or pressure, key strokes, and so
forth, to create a baseline for normal typing for
the individual. The program can challenge a user
to verify identity by typing, and compares the
keystroke behavior of the typist to that stored in
a database for the user.
Most biometric keyboards connect via a USB
connection.

Mouse Using a biometric mouse, only authorized users

would be able to use the mouse and access or
navigate the computer system, and only once
their identity was verified through the
verification program.

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 Biometric Device Description

A biometric mouse uses biometric

authentication, typically a built-in fingerprint
reader, to verify the identity of the user and
provide them control over the mouse.
Most biometric mice connect via a USB
connection.

Storage devices Using a biometric storage device, such as flash

drive or hard drive, only authorized users would
be able to access files or data stored on the
storage device.
Biometric flash drives or hard drives use another
kind of biometric authentication, typically a
built-in fingerprint reader, to verify the identity
of the user and provide them access to the flash
drive files.
Most biometric storage devices connect via a
USB connection.

Biometric devices will need to be installed and configured, and then initialized for the specific end
user that will be using the device. The initial biometric authentication “object” for the user (be it a
fingerprint, retina scan, pass phrase, etc.) must first be captured and stored. Then the user will have
to test the device to make sure that it accurately verifies his or her identity against the authentication
object, permitting them access to the location or device.

Specialized Input Device Types

Specialized Input Device Although keyboards and mice are the most popular of the input devices for personal computers,
Types there are some specialized input devices that you might encounter in your workplace.

Input Device Description

Touch screen Touch screens enable users to enter inputs by touching areas on a monitor
screen. They can be activated by a finger touch or a stylus touch.
Touch screens are composed of:
• Touch sensors. The sensors can be a panel that lays over a standard
monitor or can be built into a special touch screen monitor where the user
actually touches the glass on the monitor.
• A controller. If using an overlay panel, the controller connects to the panel
and then to a PC port. Many use a COM or USB port, although there are
special instances where the controller connects to a drive or other device or
port. For touch screens with built-in touch sensors, the controller is built
into the monitor. In this case, the monitor contains two cables—one to the
monitor port and one to the COM or USB port (or other port).
• A device driver or specialized software. This enables the operating system
to receive and interpret information from the touch screen device.

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Input Device Description
Scanner A scanner is used to take a photo-identical copy (scan) of a physical hard copy
of any kind of document, such as a piece of paper or a photo, and create a
digital-format copy of the document.
A scanner is similar to a photocopy machine or copier, but with a much
smaller footprint. Scanners can be attached directly to a personal computer to
import scanned copies of documents. With the proper software or program
installed, scanned versions can be manipulated and edited once they have been
imported.
A scanner typically uses a USB or high-speed USB connection to connect
between devices.
Barcode reader Barcodes provide a simple and inexpensive method of encoding text
information that is easily read by inexpensive electronic readers. A barcode
reader decodes a barcode by scanning a light source across the barcode and
converting the pattern of reflected light to an electronic signal that is decoded
back to the original data by electronic circuits. There are currently four
different types of barcode readers available: pen-type readers (or barcode
wands), laser scanners, Charge Coupled Device (CCD) readers, and camera-
based readers.
Barcode scanners or readers connect to a device via a USB connection or are
wireless.
Microphone Microphones record any type of sound and convert it to a electronic or digital
format. Once in this format, the recorded sounds can be manipulated or
edited, and used in a variety of ways.
Microphones typically connect to a device through a MIC jack, although some
connect with a USB connection. Some laptops may have a built-in
microphone.
Gamepad A gamepad is a game controller used to interact with a video game console or
program, typically held and manipulated with two hands. It uses a number of
buttons and toggles, each of which controls a different action within the game
program.
The latest versions of many gamepads also include sensors and pointing
devices that sense directions of movement and rotation, and use a combination
of these movements to control actions within the game program.
Gamepads typically connect to a device via a USB connection. The latest
technology in gamepads is unique in its wireless capabilities: many gamepads
do not attach to a device via a connector, but rather transmit inputs wirelessly
to the receiving device or console.
Joystick A joystick is a pivoting stick or lever attached to a base that is used to control
movement on a device. It typically also includes push buttons, toggles, or
switches that control other actions associated with the program or device that
the input is controlling. The joystick inputs the angle and direction of a desired
movement.
Joysticks are most commonly used to control video games or other computer
programs, but are also used to control machines and devices such as cranes
and unmanned vehicles.
Legacy joysticks connected to a computer via a game port, a device port
designed specifically for connecting this input device. However, most modern
joysticks connect to the device via a USB connection.

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 Input Device Description
Digitizer A digitizer is any device that performs digitization, which is the conversion of
any type of analog signal into its digital form. This includes images, objects,
text, and so forth. However, the term is most commonly used in reference to
the device used to convert audio and video data into a digital format that can
be edited, manipulated, and viewed on a computer, television or other device.
A digitizer typically uses a USB or high speed USB connection to connect
between devices. Some older versions may use an S-Video and Composite-to-
USB connection.
Interactive An interactive whiteboard looks similar to a traditional whiteboard; however, it
whiteboard connects to a computer using a wired USB cable, or connects wirelessly
through a Bluetooth® connection. A projector is typically used with it to
display the computer's desktop, and it can be used as an input device once the
correct device drivers are installed on the computer. You can manipulate the
computer directly on the whiteboard using a special stylus or by using your
finger. Interactive whiteboards are used in many schools today, and have
become a very popular teaching tool.

Touch Screen Technologies

Touch screens can gather input through a number of different technologies:
• Capacitive: Uses electrical conductors to manipulate the screen. The screen is coated with a
conductor and, as the human body is also a conductor, contact on the surface of the screen by a
finger or other body part results in a change to the screen's electrostatic field. The change in the
field provides a horizontal and vertical coordinate, pinpointing the location of the touch on the
screen.
• Resistive: Uses electrically resistive layers to comprise the screen. When the touch object (finger
or stylus) pushes down on the first outer layer, it depresses and touches the second layer, creating
an electrical charge between the two layers that provides a horizontal and vertical coordinate,
determining the location of the touch on the screen.
• Surface Acoustic Wave: Uses ultrasonic waves that are disrupted when the screen is touched.
The change in the wave is absorbed and registers where the screen was touched, determining the
location of the touch on the screen.
• Infrared: Uses infrared LEDs and photodetectors that are disrupted when the screen is touched.
The LED beams are set up in a cross-hatch pattern that are disrupted when the screen is
touched, and determine the location of the touch on the screen.
• Optical imaging: Uses image sensors placed around the screen that detect the touch on the
screen based on the shadow that is created when the screen is touched. The image sensors
compare the information about the shadow to determine the location of the touch on the screen.
• Dispersive signal: Uses sensors that detect vibrations that occur when the screen is touched. The
vibrations created by the touch are analyzed to determine the location of the touch on the
screen.
• Acoustic pulse recognition: Uses unique acoustic sounds that are associated with a specific
location on the screen to determine the exact location of the touch on the screen.

Specialized Input Devices in Everyday Life

Many people might encounter specialized input devices during a trip to the grocery store. It is
increasingly common to see the cashier use a barcode scanner to account for the item's price, and to
use a touch screen to enter any additional information (such as whether there is more than one item
at that price, or to enter the correct produce code). Additionally, most grocery stores use a touch
screen device to capture the customer's credit card number and accept any additional user input,
such as a PIN. Finally, the touch screen device often has a stylus attached so that the customer can
sign the screen; there will be no paper at all in this entire transaction. )

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KVM Switches
A keyboard, video, mouse (KVM) switch is a device that enables a computer user to control multiple KVM Switches
computers with a single keyboard and mouse, with the display sent to a single monitor. This feature
is particularly useful in managing multiple test environments, or in accessing multiple servers that
have no need for dedicated display or input devices. KVM switches are available with PS/2 or USB
connections, and come in desktop, inline, or rack-mount varieties. Higher-end rack-mount models
can be uplinked to connect dozens of computers.

Figure 4-1: A KVM switch.

Input Device Selection Tips

Windows operating systems support a variety of input devices, so you should select an input device Input Device Selection
based on user requirements. Tips

Input Device Description

Keyboard When selecting a keyboard for a user, in addition to considering its

ergonomics, you should also consider whether the keyboard offers additional
features (such as customizable hot keys and scrolling) as well as wireless
connectivity. Many users now prefer to use a wireless keyboard as it gives
them the freedom to locate the keyboard anywhere on their desks. In some
cases, users might be able to use a Bluetooth-enabled keyboard to
communicate with both their desktop computers and a mobile device such as
a tablet or a smartphone. Be sure to determine the potential keyboard's
connector requirements; if the keyboard uses USB, you will need to make
sure the user's computer has an available USB port.
Pointing device When selecting a mouse for a user, most users prefer optical mice because
they are less susceptible to problems such as dirt interfering with the
rollerball. As with keyboards, you will also find that users prefer wireless
mice over wired mice because of the freedom it gives them to move around
while working. Besides these factors, choosing between a mouse, a trackball,
and a touch pad comes down to the personal preference of the user.
Biometric device Whether or not a biometric device is being deployed will likely be a decision
made based on an organizational security policy or standard. If biometric
devices will be deployed at individual workstations, you will need to
determine the specific biometric device's connector requirements; as most
use a USB connection, you will need to make sure that the user's computer
has an available USB port to connect the device.
Specialty device Using a specialty device will be determined by two main factors: is the device
needed by the end user as a matter of productivity (to complete job tasks)?
Or is the device desired by the end user as a personal preference?

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 Input Device Description

If any specialty devices will be deployed on the system, you will need to
determine the device's connector requirements. Most specialty input devices
use a USB connection, so you will need to make sure that the user's
computer has an available USB port or ports if multiple specialty devices will
be connected.

Input Device Installation Considerations

Input Device Installation Before you attempt to install an input device, you should consider certain factors.
Considerations
Factor Considerations

Drivers Be sure that you have the most current drivers for the input device for the
operating system of the computer on which you plan to install it. If you install a
USB device, you might get a HID message (which stands for "Human Input
Device"). Either let the PC find the right driver, or restart the computer and see
if the issue resolves itself. If that does not work, you will need to find a driver for
the device.
Ports Make sure that the computer has an available port to which you can connect the
device. Input devices can use a variety of ports, including PS/2, serial, parallel,
USB, infrared, and FireWire/IEEE 1394. If a large number of input devices will
be connected using the same connector type, you may need to consider using a
hub, splitter, or extender that creates multiple accessible ports via one port on
the device. For example, a USB hub expands one USB port into several available
USB ports, using an upstream port that connects to the device USB port and
multiple downstream ports on the hub.
Manufacturer's Review the manual or quick start guide that came with the device. In some cases,
instructions the manufacturer might require you to install the device drivers before
connecting the device to the computer.

Access the Checklist tile on your LogicalCHOICE course screen for reference
information and job aids on How to Install and Configure Input Devices

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 ACTIVITY 4-4
Installing Input Devices

Before You Begin

For this activity, you will need a replacement keyboard and mouse or other pointing device.
Provide replacement
Scenario keyboards and mice to
the students. If no
You have received a service call to replace a user's mouse and keyboard. replacements are
available, you can have
students swap
1. Replace the keyboard. components with one
a) Shut down the computer. another.
b) Determine the connection type used by the replacement keyboard.
c) Unplug the old keyboard from the system unit.
d) Plug the new keyboard into the appropriate PS/2 or USB port.

2. Replace the mouse or pointing device.

a) Determine the connection type used by the replacement mouse.
b) Unplug the old mouse from the system unit.
c) Plug the new mouse into the appropriate PS/2 or USB port.
d) Start the computer.

3. Test the installed devices.

a) Use the keyboard to access the Start menu.
b) Move the mouse around to verify that it is working properly.

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 ACTIVITY 4-5
Configuring Input Devices

Scenario
You just replaced a user's mouse and keyboard. The user is left-handed and prefers a slow-blinking
cursor. She also has a hard time distinguishing the mouse pointer from other screen elements, and
asks if you can adjust the pointer to something more easily discernible.

1. Configure the keyboard settings.

a) Select Start→Control Panel.
b) In the Control Panel window, in the Adjust your computer's settings section, from the View by drop-
down list, select Large icons.
c) Select the Keyboard link.
d) In the Keyboard Properties dialog box, on the Speed tab, reduce the cursor blink rate by dragging
the Cursor blink rate slider to the left.

e) Select Apply.
f) Select OK.

2. Configure the mouse settings.

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a) In the Control Panel window, select the Mouse link.
b) In the Mouse Properties dialog box, on the Buttons tab, check the Switch primary and secondary
buttons check box.

c) To verify that the right mouse button is now the primary button, right-click the Pointers tab.
d) Right-click the Buttons tab.
e) Select the Pointers tab.
f) From the Scheme drop-down list, select Magnified (system scheme).

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 g) Select OK.

3. Reconfigure the mouse settings to suit your personal preferences, and close the Control Panel.

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TOPIC C
Install and Configure Expansion Cards
In the previous topic, you installed input devices, such as mice and keyboards, that are most
commonly connected and used on a computer system. These devices typically connect using
standard ports that are available on most machines, such as a USB port. You can expand the
functionality of your computer by adding expansion cards that provide additional ports for a variety
of peripheral devices. In this topic, you will install and configure expansion cards.
Display devices, keyboards, and other pointing devices are the most common devices you are likely
to install and configure; these devices are typically included in a standard workstation environment
when a PC is requested. When a user needs to connect a peripheral component that doesn't have an
existing interface, like a multimedia device, you will need to install an expansion card. As an A+
technician, your responsibilities are likely to include upgrading users' computers by installing a
variety of components, including expansion cards.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220–801: Objective 1.4: Install and configure expansion cards.

Expansion Card Types

Expansion cards extend the capabilities of a computer. There are many different types of expansion Expansion Card Types
cards, each of which provide different capabilities.

Expansion Card Type Description

Sound cards A sound card or audio card provides the interface necessary for the
input and output of audio signals both to and from the computer.
Video cards A video card, sometimes called a display card or graphics card,
provides the interface necessary to generate the visual output that is
sent to the display device.
Network cards A network card, sometimes called a network interface card (NIC),
provides the interface necessary for network communications, whether
for wired or wireless connectivity.
Serial and parallel cards A serial or parallel card provides the interface necessary for the
computer to recognize and interact with any devices that connect to
the computer via a serial or parallel connection. Devices that utilize
serial or parallel connections include modems, display devices, barcode
scanners, point of sale devices, and more.
USB cards A USB card provides the interface necessary for the computer to
recognize and interact with all devices that connect to the computer
via a USB connection. Devices that utilize USB connections include
keyboards, flash drives, cameras, and more.
FireWire cards A FireWire card provides the interface necessary for the computer to
recognize and interact with all devices that connect to the computer
via a FireWire connection. FireWire is mainly used for high-speed data
transfer. Devices that use FireWire connections include external hard
drives, video and audio recording devices, and more.
Storage cards A storage card provides the interface for the computer to recognize
and interact with a storage device such as a disk. Systems with multiple
disk drives, especially of different types, may require multiple storage

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 Expansion Card Type Description
cards to manage the communication between the disks and the system
board.
Modem cards A modem card provides the interface necessary for remote
communications over phone or data lines that have been provided by
a cable or Internet service provider.
Wireless/cellular cards A wireless or cellular card provides the interface necessary for remote
communications, such as Internet over mobile phone or wireless data
lines such as Wi-Fi, 3G, or 4G Internet that have been provided by a
cellular service provider.
TV tuner cards A TV tuner card provides the interface necessary for the computer to
receive television signals and display the output on a display device.
Video capture cards A video capture card provides the interface necessary for the computer
to input video feeds, including digital video, and interact with the
software necessary to process and edit video.
Riser cards A riser card provides the interface necessary for adding expansion
cards to a system board while saving space within the system case. A
riser card allows the cards to stack horizontally rather than vertically
within the system.

Extended Capabilities for Sound Cards

Because so many computer manufacturers now build sound capabilities into motherboards, many
sound card manufacturers add extended features to their cards in order to justify their purchase.
These features might include digital output so that you can integrate the computer into a home
entertainment system, or FireWire connections so that you can play MP3 recordings directly from
an MP3 device.

Card Selection Tips

Before selecting an expansion card for a computer, you must verify that its bus type is compatible
with the computer. In addition, you must also make sure that the expansion card's drivers are
compatible with the computer's operating system. Typically, most expansion cards on the market
today support Plug and Play (PnP) standards. PnP is a functionality of many buses that automatically
detects new hardware, and automatically assigns resources for the device, without the need for
manual configuration. If you plan on using PnP when adding expansion cards, make sure that the
computer's BIOS and operating system support it.

Card Installation Considerations

Before you attempt to install an expansion card, verify that the computer has an available slot that
matches the expansion card's bus type and that you have the device's latest drivers for the
computer's operating system. Be sure to unplug the computer and discharge any static electricity
before installing the card. If you are installing a card that has its own cooling system, such as a fan,
make sure there is enough room for the card's airflow system to function properly.

Expansion Card Configuration

Once the expansion card is installed, there are a number of means for configuring the expansion
card. Depending on the type and manufacturer, you may need to use one or a combination of these
methods.

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Configuration Method Description

PnP installation If the expansion card, the device, the BIOS, and the operating system
(Windows® 95 and newer) are all PnP compatible, the expansion card
will be automatically configured and the system will automatically assign
resources to the card when the system starts.
Manufacturer driver If Windows does not automatically detect an expansion card, you can
manually install a driver from the manufacturer.
The Add Hardware You can use the Add Hardware wizard to install and configure PnP
wizard devices, although to install most unrecognized devices, you will typically
just run a setup program provided by the manufacturer.
Hardware scan When using the wizard, you should initially let Windows try to scan for
new hardware (this is the default selection).
Device list If Windows cannot find the device, you can then choose the device
from a list of devices offered by Windows and Windows will install the
appropriate driver.

Note: Read the installation instructions for the expansion card to determine if any software is
required prior to the installation. Failure to do so could cause the installation to fail or the card
and system to behave erratically.

You may want to show

Note: For additional information, check out the LearnTO Install Expansion Cards in the the LearnTO Install
LearnTOs for this course on your LogicalCHOICE Course screen. Expansion Cards from
the LogicalCHOICE
Course screen or have
Access the Checklist tile on your LogicalCHOICE course screen for reference students navigate out to
the Course screen and
information and job aids on How to Install and Configure Expansion Cards
watch it themselves as a
supplement to your
instruction. If not, please
remind students to visit
the LearnTOs for this
course on their
LogicalCHOICE Course
screen after class for
supplemental
information and
additional resources.

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 ACTIVITY 4-6
Examining Expansion Cards

Scenario
In this activity, you will examine expansion cards.

1. Which expansion card provides interfaces necessary to connect Small Computer Systems Interface
(SCSI) devices?
○ Input/output card
○ Multimedia card
○ Video card
○ Modem card

2. True or False? Before attempting to install an expansion card, verify that the computer has an available
slot that matches the expansion card's bus type.
☐ True
☐ False

3. What is the first step in installing an expansion card?

○ Turn off power to the system and unplug the power and peripheral cables.
○ Remove the system cover and access the slots on the system board.
○ Remove the slot cover from an empty slot.
○ Read the quick start guide to see if drivers or other software should be installed before or after
installing the card.

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 ACTIVITY 4-7
Installing Expansion Cards

Before You Begin

You have open expansion slots on the system board. You have been given one or more expansion
card types and device drivers.
Encourage students to
Scenario practice the electrostatic
You have been asked to install several expansion cards on a user's system. The appropriate drivers discharge (ESD)
techniques they learned
for the cards are also available to you should you need them.
earlier in the course
whenever they open a
computer case.
1. Open the system cover and access the slots.
If possible, have a
a) Turn off the system power.
container full of various
b) Unplug the computer from the electrical outlet. card types and have
c) Unplug peripherals from the system. students pick several
d) Remove the cover. different card types from
e) Determine if you need to move or remove any components in order to access the slots. the container to install in
this activity. Be sure to
2. Insert the card in an available slot. provide enough cards for
each student to install at
Note: Some manufacturers suggest installing a driver prior to inserting the least one expansion
adapter card. It is therefore important to read the manufacturer’s instructions card, access to drivers
before installing the card. for the card, and, if
necessary, a device to
a) Locate an open slot. connect to the card to
b) Remove the slot cover. test its functionality.
c) Firmly press the card into the slot.

Caution: Do not rock the card side to side when installing or removing it.

d) Secure the card to the chassis with the screw from the slot cover. Normally, you would now secure
the cover back on to the system, but because you will be doing more work inside the system, leave
it off.

3. Configure the card for the computer.

a) Reconnect the peripherals and cables that you disconnected in step 1.
b) Power on the system.
c) Install any required drivers.

4. Check whether the card is functioning properly.

a) Connect any devices to the card that are required for testing the card functionality.
b) Access or use the device connected to the card.
c) In Device Manager, verify that the device's properties show that the device is working properly and
that there are no conflicts, and then select Cancel.

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 TOPIC D
Install and Configure Multimedia Devices
In the previous topic, you installed and configured expansion cards to support additional computer
functionality. Once you have the right expansion cards in place, you can add peripheral components
such as multimedia devices that provide users with additional and expanded capabilities such as
recording music. In this topic, you will install multimedia devices.
As an A+ technician, you might support corporate users, such as marketing or sales representatives,
who will need to create multimedia business presentations. Or, you might work for a retail computer
outlet, supporting home users who like to play music and games on their PCs. Add to that the sheer
number of multimedia devices that are now available for personal computer systems, and you will
likely be tasked at some point with connecting and configuring a variety of multimedia devices for
various types of end users.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220–801: Objective 1.12: Install and configure various peripheral devices.

Multimedia Devices
Multimedia Devices A multimedia device is a computer peripheral or internal component that transfers sound, images or a
combination of both to or from a personal computer. Multimedia devices can be input devices or
output devices.

Figure 4-2: Multimedia devices.

Common Multimedia Devices

Common Multimedia Common multimedia devices include different types of cameras and sound devices.
Devices
Multimedia Device Description

Digital camera A digital camera uses electronic signals to capture and store
photographic images or video images. The resulting files are often
stored on embedded memory cards, removable memory cards, or
optical disks. Connecting the digital camera or its removable memory
card to a PC enables you to save, transfer, print, and otherwise work
with the images.

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Multimedia Device Description

If the digital camera has a removable memory card, the card itself may
need to be connected to a computer through a media reader. Most
digital cameras also offer USB and FireWire cables and connections.
Camcorder A video recording camera captures and stores visual images and sounds
in the form of either analog or digital signals. Video files are stored
either on an internal storage device or on removable memory cards.
Most digital camcorders available for personal (commercial) use also
offer USB and FireWire cables and connections. If the camcorder has a
removable memory card, the card itself may need to be connected to a
computer through a media reader. Professional-grade cameras are more
likely to use tapes or disks that will need an alternate transfer method,
often including digitizing.
Webcam A web camera, or webcam, is used to send periodic images or
continuous frames to a website for display. Webcam software usually
captures the images as JPEG or MPEG files and uploads them to a
web server. Webcam images can also be accessed using some instant
messaging software and by some video applications. Some
corporations use webcams as a security measure.
Webcams commonly use USB or FireWire cables and connectors.
MIDI-enabled device The Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) connection enables
you to connect and control musical devices such as electric keyboards,
synthesizers, guitars, drum kits, and mixers. Sound cards usually
include built-in synthesizers as well, to produce MIDI sounds. MIDI
devices can be connected to each other and then to the computer.
MIDI devices can connect to the computer using a number of ports.
MIDI to USB interface, MIDI to serial, or MIDI to FireWire
connections are most commonly used, allowing for faster
communication between the musical instrument and the computer or
controller device.
Microphone A computer microphone is used to input audio into the device, either
for recording the audio as data or for use in real-time, such as the audio
input that accompanies a webcam or video conferencing chat.
Microphones can be connected to the microphone port or jack of any
sound card. If the card is color-coded, it will be pink. Otherwise, it will
be labeled MIC or have a picture of a microphone. Many microphones
have a 1/8-inch phono plug built into the attached cable.
Speakers Speakers can be attached to the device to play the audio out loud,
without the need for headphones.
Speakers are connected to the line out port or jack on the sound card.
Some speaker sets are permanently connected to each other. Other
speaker sets are connected by the user to each other or to a subwoofer.
A cable runs from one of the speakers to the line out port to connect
both speakers to the computer. If the card is color-coded, the speaker
port will be lime. The port might be labeled as Line Out, Out, Spkr, or
Speaker, or it may have an image with an arrow indicating the direction
of the audio (out).
Speakers typically have a 1/8-inch phono plug built into the attached
cable.

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 Line In
On many devices, there will be a third auxiliary port available: line in. Most PCs will have at least
one line in jack, which provides a connection for a music player or other audio input device. If the
sound card is color-coded, the line in port will be light blue. The port might be labeled as Line In or
In, or it may have an image with an arrow indicating the direction of the input (in).
Note: Most desktop computers will have three auxiliary jacks available: microphone, line out,
and line in. Most laptops don't have a line out or line in jack, but will typically have a
microphone jack and a headphone jack.

Media Readers
A media reader functions as an interface between a removable memory card and a PC. Commonly
connecting to the computer via a USB cable, a media reader is a small device that a user inserts a
memory card into if that card does not have an interface of its own. For example, a Secure Digital
(SD) card cannot be inserted directly into a computer, but by inserting the SD card into a media
reader and then connecting the media reader to the computer, the computer will recognize the SD
card as another external storage device.

Multimedia Device Selection Tips

Multimedia Device You will need to select a multimedia device that meets the user's needs and that can be supported on
Selection Tips the user's machine. Depending on the multimedia device, there are a number of criteria to consider
when making a selection.

Multimedia Device Considerations

Digital camera Determine what type of output the user needs from the camera. If the
user plans to use the images only for viewing online, you can select a
lower quality (fewer megapixels) camera. If the user also wants to print the
images, particularly if the user wants large prints (such as 11-inch x 17-
inch and higher), you should select a camera with as many megapixels as
the user can afford.
Keep in mind that you also need to have a means for the user to move
photos off the device and onto the computer. Common techniques you
can use include:
• Connecting the camera directly to the computer via a USB or FireWire
port.
• Connecting the camera's memory card directly to the computer via a
memory card slot. Not all computers have this feature, but many home
PCs do.
• Using a memory card reader that connects to a USB or FireWire port.
Determine if you have the appropriate cables or connectors available that
will be needed to connect the camera. Depending on the connector
needed, make sure that there is also a port available on the device to
connect the camera.
Camcorder Determine what type of recording format/output the user needs from the
camcorder. The format (analog or digital) can determine the cost of the
device, the type and cost of any additional storage devices used with the
device, how much video can be recorded, and the quality of the
recordings and copies. Specifically, converting analog recordings to digital
formats can be time consuming and usually results in degradation of
quality.

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Multimedia Device Considerations

You should also consider the additional costs for the tapes or disks that
will be used to record videos. which will vary depending on the
manufacturer or type of device used.
Determine if you have the appropriate cables or connectors available that
may be needed to connect the camcorder. If the camcorder does not have
external or removable storage, you may also need to have a solution for
moving video files from the device and onto the computer, such as a
FireWire cable.
If a camcorder that records analog signals is being used, the user will likely
need a digitizer (and the accompanying cables and connectors) to convert
the files to digital format.
Webcam Ensure that the user's computer has the necessary hardware, operating
system, and memory required to support the device. Older computers may
not meet the requirements.
Different webcams offer different features: image quality can vary, lens
quality and focus (manual versus automatic) can vary, they can be color or
monochrome, some come with audio integrated and some need an
external microphone. Determine what the user needs to do with the
webcam and what features are indispensable.
You will also need to determine if you have the appropriate cables or
connectors available that may be needed to connect the webcam. You
may also need to install an expansion card if the required port is not
available on the computer.
Many laptops will have a built-in webcam that is integrated into the
system already.
MIDI-enabled device Determine what kind of device is needed based on what the user needs or
wants to do with the device. Once you know what kind of device they
need, ensure that the user's computer has the necessary hardware and
software to support the device.
Determine if you have the appropriate cables or connectors available that
may be needed to connect the device. You may also need to install an
expansion card if the required port is not available on the computer.
Microphone Users use microphones to complete tasks such as making phone calls
through their computers and dictating to the computer using voice
recognition software. For such users, the higher the quality of the
microphone, the better they will be able to accomplish these tasks.
Determine if you have the appropriate cables or connectors available that
will be needed to connect the microphone. You will also need to make
sure that there is an available port or jack available on the device to
connect the microphone.
Many laptops will have a built-in microphone that is integrated into the
system already.
Speakers If users plan to listen to music or play games on a computer, it is
important to help them select higher-quality speakers. Key speaker
standards include:
• Stereo: Specifies a left and right speaker that connects directly to a
single jack in a sound card. These types of speakers are usually the least
expensive.

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 Multimedia Device Considerations

• 2.1 Systems: Specifies a pair of stereo speakers plus a subwoofer.

These systems do not support surround sound.
• 5.1 Systems: Specifies five channels of sound: front-left, front-center,
front-right, rear-left, and rear-right speakers, plus a subwoofer.
• 7.1 Systems: Specifies seven channels of sound: front-left, front-center,
front-right, middle-left, middle-right, rear-left, and rear-right speakers,
plus a subwoofer.
Determine if you have the appropriate cables or connectors available that
will be needed to connect the speakers. You will also need to make sure
that there is an available port or jack available on the device to connect
the speakers.

Multimedia Device Installation Considerations

There are some considerations you should be aware of when installing multimedia devices.

Consideration Description

Expansion card slots If the device requires a specific expansion card, do you have an available
slot on the motherboard? Also, try to place this expansion card in such a
way as to avoid reducing the airflow in the computer.
Device drivers Do you have the appropriate device drivers for the computer's operating
system? If not, download them before starting the installation.
Cables and connectors Do you have the necessary cables and connectors to connect devices,
such as speakers, and place them where the user wants them?
Cameras and card Although you can connect a digital camera directly to a computer to
readers download its photos, you can use a memory card reader instead. The user
will also see faster download performance when downloading photos
using a memory card reader.

Note: Read the installation instructions for the device to determine if any software is required
prior to the installation. Failure to do so could cause the installation to fail or the device and
system to behave erratically.

Note: For additional information, check out the LearnTO Install Multimedia Devices in the
LearnTOs for this course on your LogicalCHOICE Course screen.

Multimedia Device Configuration

You can use multimedia device-specific software and either the Device Manager or the appropriate
utility in the Control Panel to configure multimedia devices. Options you can configure for these
devices include:
• Enabling and disabling a device.
• Selecting a default device for performing certain tasks, such as audio playback.
• Viewing and configuring features and properties for specific devices.

188
• Updating the device's driver.

Access the Checklist tile on your LogicalCHOICE course screen for reference
information and job aids on How to Install and Configure Multimedia Devices

189
 ACTIVITY 4-8
Examining Multimedia Devices

Scenario
In this activity, you will examine multimedia devices.

1. If you want to watch TV on your PC, but you do not need to record the transmission on your hard drive,
which multimedia adapter should you use?
○ TV tuner card
○ Capture card
○ Video card
○ NIC

2. True or False? When you are installing a sound card, you do not have to worry about the available slots
on the motherboard.
☐ True
☐ False

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 ACTIVITY 4-9
Installing Multimedia Devices

Before You Begin

If your computer does not have integrated (onboard) sound support, a sound card has been
installed. You have speakers, a microphone, and possibly other MIDI devices available to install.

Scenario
A group in the marketing department is responsible for creating and presenting audio-visual
presentations. These users have sound cards installed on their systems. They all have speakers and
microphones connected to their sound cards. Some of them also have MIDI instruments and
instruments that connect through an 8-inch stereo jack. The users have just received these sound
devices and want to begin using them.

1. Connect the speakers to the computer.

a) Determine if you need to connect the speakers to each other, and if so, connect them to each other.
b) Locate the speaker jack on the computer and plug the speaker cable into the jack.
c) Test the speakers to ensure they are working properly.

2. Connect a microphone to the MIC jack.

a) Locate the MIC jack on the computer and connect the microphone to the MIC jack.

3. Test the microphone.

a) To test the microphone, select Start→Control Panel→Sound.
b) Select Sound Recorder.
c) In the Sound Recorder window, select Start Recording.
d) Speak a few words into the microphone.
e) Select Stop Recording.
f) Save the file as Test Audio
g) Browse to the folder where the audio file is saved.
h) Open the Test Audio file.

4. If you have a MIDI device, connect the MIDI device through the USB-to-MIDI device or a MIDI
expansion card.
a) Locate the appropriate port and connect the MIDI adapter to the appropriate port.
b) If necessary, connect MIDI cables to the MIDI adapter.
c) Connect the MIDI cable to the MIDI instrument.
d) If necessary, install drivers for the MIDI instrument.
e) Test the MIDI device by playing a few notes to ensure that it is working properly.

5. If you have another external multimedia device, connect it to the Line In jack.
a) Locate the line in jack and connect an 1/8-inch stereo jack from the device to the computer.
b) Test the device to ensure that it is working properly.

6. Close Sound Recorder.

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 Summary
In this lesson, you installed and configured various types of peripheral computer components,
including input and output devices and the expansion cards that may be necessary to connect them.
As an IT professional, having the ability to successfully install and configure these components is an
integral part of a your daily work life, as you will be expected to set up workstations or assist users in
installing anything that they may need to perform their job duties effectively.
Use the review
questions provided to What types of peripheral components do you anticipate having to install and configure most often in your
generate discussion current job role?
among the participants. A: Answers will vary, but might include multimedia, storage, display devices, or expansion cards.
Depending on how data is input into a company's databases, input devices could include a stylus,
mobile device, or touch pad.

Will there be any specialty input devices that you will need to install or configure at your workplace? How
might this affect your day-to-day activities as an IT professional?
A: Answers will vary according to the type of business where the individual works or expects to work. If
the company has a great need for security, biometric devices may be incorporated at many key levels
of entry, including computers. Specialty input devices might include touch screens, bar code readers,
gamepads, or interactive whiteboards. Having knowledge of various types of devices, how they work,
and how they are installed and configured will be necessary. Keeping up with evolving technology will
likely be necessary as well.

Note: Check your LogicalCHOICE Course screen for opportunities to interact with your
classmates, peers, and the larger LogicalCHOICE online community about the topics covered in
this course or other topics you are interested in. From the Course screen you can also access
available resources for a more continuous learning experience.

Encourage students to
use the social
networking tools
provided on the
LogicalCHOICE Home
screen to follow up with
their peers after the
course is completed for
further discussion and
resources to support
continued learning.

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5 Managing System
Components
Lesson Time: 4 hours, 35 minutes

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will manage system components. You will:
• Identify motherboard installation and replacement methods.
• Select CPUs and cooling systems.
• Select and install power supplies.
• Identify the characteristics of RAM.
• Install and configure storage devices.
• Configure the system BIOS.

Lesson Introduction
In the previous lesson, you worked with peripheral components such as display devices,
input devices, expansion cards, and multimedia devices. As an A+ technician, you are not
only responsible for the components outside the system unit, but all the internal
components as well. On the job, you may be asked to connect peripheral components for a
user, or you may be asked to swap out a motherboard. In this lesson, you will explore the
components that reside within a computer system.
A large part of your time as an A+ technician will be helping users to install and configure
new software and hardware components. Having the knowledge and skills to properly install
and configure the internal system components is crucial because, in most cases, users will
not have the knowledge or the experience to install the components themselves. It will be
your professional responsibility to know the technical specifications for these components
and how to manage them appropriately.
This lesson covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification
objectives:
• Topic A:
• Exam 220–801: Objectives 1.2, 1.3
• Topic B:

193
 • Exam 220–801: Objectives 1.2, 1.6
• Topic C:
• Exam 220–801: Objective 1.8
• Topic D:
• Exam 220–801: Objective 1.3
• Topic E:
• Exam 220–801: Objective 1.5
• Topic F:
• Exam 220–801: Objective 1.1

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TOPIC A
Motherboards
In this lesson, you will dive inside the computer system and take a closer look at the internal
components that enable the computer to run successfully. In this topic, you will start by examining
motherboards.
The most important system component in a computer system is the motherboard. Although you
can argue a case for almost any system component as being most important, without the
motherboard, the computer simply cannot run. As an A+ technician, you must be knowledgeable
about motherboards and their purpose within the computer system.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220–801: Objective 1.2: Differentiate between motherboard components, their purposes,
and properties.
• Exam 220-801: Objective 1.3: Compare and contrast RAM types and features.

Motherboard Sizes/Form Factors

Motherboards come in several different sizes. This is often referred to as the board's form factor. The Motherboard Sizes/Form
form factor describes the size, shape, and configuration of the motherboard. Factors

System Board Form Factor

ATX ATX boards are an older motherboard standard that was introduced by Intel® in
1995 to provide better I/O support, lower cost, easier use, and better processor
support than even earlier form factors. Some of the features of the ATX board
are as follows:
• Power supply with a single, keyed 20-pin connector. Rather than requiring
Voltage Regulator Modules (VRMs) to reduce voltage down from 5 volts (V)
to 3, 3 VDC is available directly from the power supply.
• The central processing unit (CPU) is closer to the cooling fan on the power
supply. Also, the cooling circulation blows air into the case instead of blowing
air out of the case.
• Input/output (I/O) ports are integrated into the board along with PS/2
connectors (instead of 5-pin DIN connectors).
• You can access the entire motherboard without reaching around drives. This
was accomplished by rotating the board 90 degrees.
• This board cannot be used in Baby AT or LPX cases.
• The board is 12 inches by 9.6 inches.
Mini-ATX The mini-ATX board has a maximum size of 11.2 inches by 8.2 inches. The main
difference between the mini board and the full-size ATX board is its smaller size.
For example, it uses the same power supply form factor and case mounting holes
as the full-size board.
microATX The microATX board introduced in late 1997, is often written as μATX, and has
a maximum size of 9.6 inches by 9.6 inches. MicroATX boards with integrated
graphics are often used by system board manufacturers as a basis for small form
factor and home entertainment PCs. MicroATX boards are backward compatible
with the full size ATX boards and often use the same chipsets, so they can usually
use the same components. However, because the cases are generally smaller, there

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 System Board Form Factor

are fewer I/O ports available than in ATX systems, so it might be necessary to
use external USB hard drives, CD burners, and so forth.
mini-ITX The mini-ITX motherboards are small, compact boards that fit the same form
factor as the ATX and the micro-ATX boards. They have a maximum size of 6.7
inches by 6.6 inches. ITX boards were developed by a company named VIA
technologies in 2001 to provide a compact board that does not drain system
power. The boards are unique in that they are uniquely designed to consume less
power while providing adequate processing power. Because of this, the board
itself does not demand excessive cooling components. Due to their small size,
and low power consumption, the boards can be implemented in a number of
cases and electronics, and are popular among the industries that purchase
motherboards in bulk to be incorporated into a number of different products.

Legacy System Boards

There are also a number of older model system board form factors that you might encounter on the
job while supporting or repairing legacy systems. This information may be helpful to you in those
situations and can be used as a reference.

System Board Form Factor

Full-size AT This form factor is usually used in older tower systems. Originally, it was
designed from an even older system, the original XT motherboard, which
itself was designed for use in the second version of the IBM® PC, released in
1983. These original full-size systems took up a large amount of desktop
space. Vertically oriented tower systems using the AT board can stand on the
floor and not take up desktop space, and they can still use the full-size system
board. The board is 12 inches by 13.8 inches. A transfer bus of 16-bit or
better is required. It uses complementary metal oxide semiconductors
(CMOS) to retain configuration settings. It has a 5-pin DIN keyboard
connection.
Baby AT This form factor is usually used in older desktop systems. In an effort to free
up desk space, manufacturers wanted to build a computer that was smaller
than systems with full-size AT motherboards. The popular AT motherboard
was scaled down to create the Baby AT motherboard. It fits into a smaller
case than the full-size AT board, but it is otherwise the same. It works in any
case except for those considered low profile or slimline. This was an
extremely popular design. This board is usually 13 inches by 8.5 to 9 inches.
It was never developed as a standard, so there are variations on the size of
this particular board.
LPX Slimline and low-profile cases, which are today’s typical desktop cases, were
being developed about the same time as the Baby AT motherboard was
introduced. However, these smaller cases could not use even the Baby AT
board. The LPX and Mini-LPX motherboards were developed for these
cases. A riser card is used to plug expansion cards into the motherboard. This
riser card enables the expansion cards to lie sideways, in the same orientation
as the system board. Thus, the case does not have to be as high as the card.
Another difference in this board is that it uses a PS/2-style keyboard
connector rather than the 5-pin DIN connector used on the AT boards.
Video, parallel, and two serial ports were placed at the rear of the board in
standard locations. This board is 9 inches by 11 to 13 inches. A mini-LPX
board was also designed, which was 8 to 9 inches by 10 to 11 inches.

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System Board Form Factor
NLX The NLX system board was developed to replace the LPX system board
initially in 1997. It is a small form factor designed around the Pentium II
processor. It supports advances in memory and graphics technology such as
dual in-line memory modules (DIMMs) and accelerated graphics port (AGP).
This board was designed to fix all the known issues with the LPX board and
still fit slimline design systems. The board is 8 to 9 inches by 10 to 13.6
inches.
The use of the NLX system board never really gained any headway with
computer system manufacturers and was later replaced by the micro-ATX,
FlexATX, and Mini-ITX boards.
BTX Intended to be the replacement for the ATX system board form factor in
2005, the BTX form factor was designed to fix some of the issues that arose
from using newer technologies (which often demand more power and create
more heat) on system boards compliant with the circa-1996 ATX
specification. BTX features include:
• A low profile: The backplane is inches lower than the ATX.
• Thermal design: The BTX layout establishes a straighter path of airflow
with fewer obstacles, resulting in better overall cooling capabilities.
• Structural design: The emerging need for heat sinks, capacitors, and other
components dealing with electrical and thermal regulation has resulted in
devices that can physically strain some motherboards. The BTX standard
addressed this issue by specifying better locations for hardware mounting
points. For example, the chips that make up the system's chipset are
located closely to each other and to the hardware they control to reduce
delays in data transfer. The BTX was discontinued by Intel in 2006.
MicroBTX (μBTX) The MicroBTX is similar to the standard BTX system board, measuring 10.4
by 10.5 inches. The main difference between the standard board and the
micro board is the smaller size and that the micro board has fewer expansion
slots.
PicoBTX The PicoBTX system board form factor is a smaller version of the standard
BTX board measuring 10.5 inches by 8 inches. The pico board is designed
with the same rear panels as the standard board and is used for half height or
riser cards applications. Pico boards usually include only one or two
expansion slots.

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 ACTIVITY 5-1
Identifying Motherboards

Scenario
In this activity, you will analyze and identify common motherboards in use today.
This activity is designed
to be an exploration of
common motherboard 1. Examine the graphic and answer the following question.
types. If you have some
sample motherboards
available to you during
the class, then have the
students identify them as
a group. If there are no
boards available, you
can walk the students
through identifying
motherboards using the
images presented in this
activity.
Make sure that remote
students can see your
work area so they can
see the sample
motherboards.
After step 3, have
students keep the case
cover off their systems,
because they will be What type of motherboard is displayed here, and what characteristics did you use to help you identify
taking a look at the the board type?
expansion slots in the
A: Based on its small size dimensions and compact component design, this motherboard is a mini-
next activity.
ITX.

2. Examine the graphic and answer the following question.

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 What type of motherboard is displayed here, and what characteristics did you use to help you identify
the board type?
A: You can tell by the large size and vast number of available components and slots that this
motherboard is an ATX.

3. Take the case off of the computer you are using for this course to identify the type of motherboard Assist participants in
installed in the system. Use the descriptions presented in this topic to help you. identifying their
motherboards.

Expansion Slots
Expansion slots allow you to add expansion cards to your motherboard in order to extend the Expansion Slots
capabilities of a computer system. Motherboards generally include several of these slots so that the
adapters can transfer data to and from the different computer components that have been installed
in a system.
If applicable, show
Expansion Slot Type Description students examples of
the different expansion
PCI The Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) expansion slot is the most common card slots and what the
expansion slot used on system motherboards. The specifications include: cards look like.
• Physical characteristics of cards: 33 or 66 MHz. 133 MBps throughput at
33, 66, or 133 MHz. Up to eight functions can be integrated on one
board.
• Configuration: Supports up to five cards per bus and a system can have
two PCI buses for a total of 10 devices per system. Can share interrupt
requests (IRQs). Uses Plug and Play (PnP).
• Used for all current adapters in client and server systems.
• Number of data lines: 64-bit bus often implemented as a 32-bit bus.
• Communication method: Local bus standard; 32-bit bus mastering. Each
bus uses 10 loads. A load refers to the amount of power consumed by a
device. The PCI chipset uses three loads, while integrated PCI controllers
use one load. Controllers installed in a slot use 1.5 loads.

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 Expansion Slot Type Description

PCI-X PCI-eXtended (PCI-X) is a motherboard expansion slot that improves upon

some of the PCI expansion capabilities and is the latest version of PCI
technology. The specifications include:
• Provides increased bandwidth and faster speeds by doubling the bus
width from 32 bits to 64 bits.
• Clock rate ranges from 66 megahertz (MHz) to 133 MHz, depending on
the card.
• Commonly found in server machines to provide faster transfer rates
required.

PCIe The PCI Express (PCIe) slot and bus is an implementation of the PCI bus
that uses a faster serial physical-layer communications protocol. It is the
most common system bus found in PCs today. There are four versions of

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Expansion Slot Type Description
the PCIe standard—1.x, 2.x, 3.x, and 4.x. PCIe version 3.x is the current
standard, which will eventually be replaced by version 4.x.
• Used for high-speed graphics cards and high-speed network cards.
• Number of data lines: Each device has a serial connection consisting of
one or more lanes. The data rate depends on the PCIe version.
• PCIe version 1.x: Each lane offers up to 250 MBps of throughput. An
x16 slot (16 lanes) can handle 4 GBps of bandwidth in one direction.
• PCIe version 2.x: Each lane offers up to 500 MBps of throughput. An
x16 slot (16 lanes) can handle 8 GBps of bandwidth in one direction.
• PCIe version 3.x: Each lane offers up to 1 GBps of throughput. An
x16 slot (16 lanes) can handle 16 GBps of bandwidth in one direction.
• PCIe version 4x: Specifications are not expected to be released until
2014, but the transfer rates are targeted to reach 16 gigatransfers per
second (GT/s).
• Communication method: Local serial interconnection.

MiniPCI MiniPCI is a standard that was based on the PCI specification 2.2. It was
specifically for use in laptops to implement a number of devices. The cards
are attached to the motherboard and are not accessible from the outside of
the laptop. There are three card form factors available:
• Type I: Uses a 100-pin stacking connector
• Type II: Uses a 100-pin stacking connector
• Type III: Uses a 124-pin edge connector

CNR A Communications/Networking Riser (CNR) supports audio, modem, and

local area network (LAN) functionality.
• Physical characteristics of cards: Two rows of 30 pins, with two possible
pin configurations. CNR Type A uses an 8-pin network interface, while
Type B uses a 16-pin interface. Both types carry USB and audio signals.
The slot is often brown and is usually located in the back-left corner of
the system board.
• Used for connecting audio, network, and modem cards, but is being
phased out in favor of on-board components.

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 Expansion Slot Type Description

AGP The Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) bus was developed by Intel® specifically
to support high-performance video requirements, especially fast 3D
graphics.
• Physical characteristics of cards: Brown slot on the system board. AGP
1.0 is a 1x/2x slot. This is the shortest of the AGP slots with a small
separator that divides it into two sections. AGP 2.0 is a 2x/4x slot that
has extra pins at one end. There is also an AGP Pro slot. See http://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AGP for more information.
• Have their own processors and cooling units attached.
• Used for video cards.
• Number of data lines: 32 bits wide with a throughput of 266 MBps for
AGP 1x. Faster modes with throughput of 533 MBps are available on
AGP 2x, 1.07 GBps for AGP 4x, and 2.1 GBps for AGP 8x.
• Communication method: Directly accesses Random Access Memory
(RAM) rather than needing to transfer data to video RAM first.

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 ACTIVITY 5-2
Identifying Expansion Slots

Scenario
In this activity, you will examine and identify the expansion slots on your system's motherboard.
You may have to help
the students identify the
1. With the case removed from your computer, examine the expansion slots on your motherboard. slots on their system
boards, because it may
2. Try to identify the different types of expansion slots. be difficult to identify
them with all the
connections made.

RAM Slots Have students keep the

case cover off of their
RAM slots come in several form factors, and each module will connect to the system board through systems in preparation
a RAM slot of a compatible type. for the next activity.

RAM Slots
RAM Form Factor Description

SIMM Generally found in older systems, Single In-line Memory Modules

(SIMMs) have a 32-bit data path. Because most processors now have a
64-bit bus width, they required that SIMMs be installed in matched
pairs so that the processor could access the two SIMMs
simultaneously. SIMMs generally have 8 memory chips per module.
Only SIMMs can be installed into SIMM slots on the system board.
DIMM Dual In-line Memory Modules (DIMMs) are found in many systems,
and they have a 64-bit data path. The development of the DIMM
solved the issue of having to install SIMMs in matched pairs. DIMMs
also have separate electrical contacts on each side of the module, while
the contacts on SIMMs on both sides are redundant. DIMMs generally
have 16 or 32 chips per module.
SODIMM Small Outline Dual In-line Memory Modules (SODIMMs) are half the
size of DIMMs, and therefore cannot fit into a DIMM slot. SODIMMs
are most often seen in laptops, small networking devices (such as
routers), and PCs with smaller system boards. They have either 32- or
64-bit data paths.
RIMM Rambus Inline Memory Modules (RIMMs) have a metal cover that acts
as a heat sink. Although they have the same number of pins, RIMMs
have different pin settings and are not interchangeable with DIMMs.
RIMMs can be installed only in RIMM slots on a system board.

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 ACTIVITY 5-3
Identifying RAM Slots

Scenario
In this activity, you will examine and identify the RAM slots on your system's motherboard.

1. With the case removed from your computer, examine the available RAM slots on your motherboard.

2. How many RAM slots are on your motherboard? Are they all being used?
A: Answers will vary depending on the individual computers.

Integrated I/O Port Types

System boards can include any or all of a number of integrated input/output controllers or ports:
sound, video, network, modem, USB, serial, IEEE 1394/FireWire, parallel, and PS/2.

Figure 5-1: I/O ports on a motherboard.

Chipsets
The chipset is the collection of chips and integrated circuits that support basic functions of the
computer. PC chipsets are housed on one to four chips and include built-in controllers for the
system board’s buses and all the integrated peripherals.
The chipset architecture, including the number, function, name, and placement of the various chips
in a chipset, will vary depending on the type and manufacturer of the system board. For example, on
many Intel Pentium computers, the two main chips in the chipset are known as the Northbridge and
the Southbridge.
• The Northbridge controls the system memory and the AGP video ports, and it may also control
cache memory. The Northbridge is closer to the processor and communicates directly with it
using the system bus )

204
• The Southbridge controls input/output functions, the system clock, drives and buses, advanced
power management (APM), and various other devices. The Southbridge is further from the CPU
and uses the PCI bus to communicate with the Northbridge.

Newer Intel systems employ the Intel Hub Architecture (IHA) chipset. This also has two main
chips, now named the Graphics and AGP Memory Controller Hub (GMCH) and the I/O
Controller Hub (ICH), which perform functions roughly analogous to the Northbridge and
Southbridge, but the communication between the two new chips is designed to be faster.

Figure 5-2: A chipset on a system board.

CMOS Battery
The complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) battery is a small battery on the motherboard that
provides power to the real-time system clock when the computer is turned off. You may find cases
when the CMOS battery fails, which will result in a CMOS Battery Failure message (or possibly a
CMOS Read Error). Replacing a CMOS battery is not difficult, but it is not always necessary. Start
by leaving the computer on for a day, and see if this helps the battery recharge. If this does not
work, and you need to replace the battery, immediately write down all of your CMOS settings, as
you will need to re-enter them later after replacing the battery. Note that not all motherboards can
have their CMOS batteries replaced; in these cases you can add a new CMOS battery, but not
remove the old one. Consult the documentation for your motherboard. 5

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 Figure 5-3: A CMOS battery.

CMOS Settings
CMOS settings can be changed if needed in the system setup program that is loaded from the BIOS
setup utility. The CMOS battery supports the Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) utility by
providing enough power to save critical system settings.

CMOS Setup Setting Description

System date and time You can set the system's real-time clock using DOS date and time
commands, or by setting the clock in Windows, which will adjust the
real-time clock.
Password You can specify whether a user or administrator password is required to
start up the system.
Boot sequence You can specify the order that Power-On Self Test (POST) checks
drives for an operating system.
Memory Some systems require you to specify in CMOS how much RAM is
installed on the system. You might also be able to specify whether the
system uses parity memory or non-parity memory. Most modern
systems automatically detect and report the installed RAM.
Hard drive You can specify the number, type, and size of the hard drives attached
to the system.
Floppy drive You can adjust the speed and density settings for the floppy drive. You
can also disable or enable a floppy drive.
Display You can specify the monitor type and port.
Parallel/LPT ports You can specify settings such as unidirectional or bidirectional printing,
Enhanced Capability Port (ECP) options, and Enhanced Parallel Port
(EPP) options. You can also disable or enable a parallel port. If you
know that a parallel or serial port will not be used, you can disable the
port, thereby freeing up the resources for use by other devices.
Conversely, if you connect a device to a port and the device will not
work at all, you might want to check the CMOS to ensure that the port
has not been disabled.
Serial/COM ports You can specify settings such as what memory addresses and interrupts
are used by a port. You can also disable or enable a serial port.
Power management In most modern computers, you can specify settings such as powering
down components (such as the monitor, video card, and hard drives)
when the components have not been used for a specified time period,

206
CMOS Setup Setting Description
as well as options and time limits for standby and suspend modes. You
can also disable or enable global power management.

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 ACTIVITY 5-4
Identifying Other Motherboard Components

Scenario
In this activity, you will locate and identify various components on the motherboard of your system.
Have students keep the
case cover off of their
systems in preparation 1. Look closely at the I/O ports on your system board and try to identify each one. You may need to look
for the next activity. on the back of the system unit to identify all the ports.

As participants attempt 2. On the motherboard, identify the chipset. How is it configured? Can you see the Northbridge and
to find the chipset, Southbridge chips? Or does this computer have the newer GMCH/ICH chipset?
discuss the differences
between the 3. Try to find the CMOS battery on the motherboard.
Northbridge/Southbridge
configuration and the
GMCH/ICH
configuration.
Jumpers and DIP Switches
Jumpers and DIP Jumpers and dual in-line package switches (more commonly called DIP switches) are used to configure
Switches older system boards by shutting off an electrical circuit located on the motherboard. Using jumpers,
this is accomplished by sliding a jumper shunt over the jumper pins on the jumper block of the
motherboard. When using DIP switches, the numbered notches located on the switch can be moved
to cut off the electrical circuit it is attached to. Newer motherboards are being designed to use
software to configure these values (through the BIOS Setup program) instead of jumpers and DIP
switches.

Front Panel Connectors

Front Panel Connectors Many different components connect to the motherboard. It is important to understand where each
component is supposed to be attached. Always check the manufacturer's information for your
motherboard before you disconnect or reconnect a component to the pins on the various panels of
the board.

Motherboard Description
headers

USB header The USB header contains the pins that the USB cable connects to. This
connects the USB drive installed in the computer case directly to the
motherboard. USB headers will have one pin missing from the second row on
the end. This can be a visual guide when identifying the different headers.

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Motherboard Description
headers

Front panel header The front panel header of the motherboard contains many system connection
pins that are used to connect components installed in the computer case to
the motherboard. Most front panel headers will include:
• Power switch
• Power light emitting diode (LED)
• Reset switch
• Hard drive LED
• Speaker

Audio header The audio header contains the pins to connect the system audio cable to the
motherboard.

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 Motherboard Description
headers

Fan Connectors
There are a number of uses for fans within a computer. The components installed and how much
heat they produce will determine what type of fans are installed. Full size desktop systems will
generally have a case fan that will pull the hot air out, letting the cooler air circulate through the
chassis. There is no current standard that dictates the size and form factor of the fan connector.
Common connectors include:
• A 3–pin Molex KK connector, commonly used to connect a fan directly to the motherboard.
• A 4–pin Molex KK connector is similar in function to the 3–pin KK connector, except that it
has an extra pin to provide the ability to control the speed of the fan.
• A 4–pin Molex connector that connects directly to the system's power supply.

Fan Connectors

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 ACTIVITY 5-5
Identifying the Front Panel and Fan Connectors

Scenario
In this activity, you will identify the front panel connectors on the system board and any fan
connections within the system unit.

1. On the motherboard, try to identify the front end connectors.

2. Check for any fans installed within the system. Locate the case fan and see how it is connected to the
motherboard. Also check for any fans connected directly to the motherboard, and identify where the
connections are made.

Bus Speeds
The motherboard bus speed determines how fast circuits will carry data simultaneously from one
area of the motherboard to another. Speed can vary based on the capacity of the specific bus. The
bus speed will depend on what components are installed in the computer.

Motherboard Power Connectors

The modern ATX power supply connection to the system board is a keyed connection that enables
the power supply to provide power to the internal components of the system. Keyed connectors are
designed so that the plug and socket have notches that must line up in order for the plug to fit into
the socket. Older AT power supplies used two connectors, labeled P8 and P9. Be sure not to switch
them when you plug them in or you could damage the system board. Most systems today have a
single, keyed connector that can be inserted only one way, which prevents damage to the system
board.
Power supplies have connections to other internal components as well. There are Berg and Molex
connections, and older AT power supplies also had a connection to the power switch for the
system.

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 Figure 5-4: System board power supply connectors.

Specific Connectors
There are specific connectors, depending on the motherboard requirements, usually tied to the CPU
type. There is the 20-pin (ATX), a 24-pin ATX connector, and the 20+4 combo (which you can
separate, or not, depending on the motherboard). This includes a 20-pin for the main power, plus a
4-pin connector for additional CPU power. This 4-pin is sometimes known as the Intel® Pentium®
4 connector. There is also an 8-pin CPU connector that requires an ATX 2.02 or an EPS12V PSU.

Motherboard Selection Tips

Motherboard Selection You will most likely select a motherboard based on what components you will need within the
Tips system. Use the table to help identify the system components you need and what impact that may
have on the type of motherboard you choose.

System Component Questions To Ask

Clock speed Does the motherboard operate at a high enough frequency to support
the processor you want to use?
CPU What type of processor can you install? Can you install more than one
CPU?
Drive interfaces Does the motherboard include drive interfaces? If not, does it have
enough available expansion slots to accommodate the user's hard disk
requirements?
Expansion slots How many expansion slots will the user need? What types of slots
does it include? What type of expansion cards will you be installing?
Form factor Will the motherboard fit inside the case of the computer?

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System Component Questions To Ask
Ports Does the motherboard have the necessary ports to meet the user's
needs? Specifically, does it have the parallel, serial, or multiple USB
ports, and possibly FireWire ports needed?
RAM Does the motherboard support enough Random Access Memory
(RAM) to meet the user's needs?

Motherboard Installation Considerations

When you are replacing a motherboard, there are specific system requirements such as form factor, Motherboard Installation
power needs, and component connections, that need to be considered. The process can be Considerations
challenging based on a number of different requirements. The type of board you choose can also
depend on the manufacturer's requirements for the system and you need to make sure you get one
that fits your case. Cases will all have predetermined holes for the system board to line up to secure
screws to the case.

Configuration and Optimization Requirements

When replacing and installing a new motherboard, you must ensure that it is properly configured to
match the processor that it will host. In essence, you must configure the system board so that the
internal and external frequencies of the processor are compatible. You can accomplish this by
specifying a frequency multiple. Most system boards operate at a specific speed, but some enable
you to select the speed via DIP switches, jumpers, or the BIOS setup software.
You may want to show
Note: For additional information, check out the LearnTO Remove and Install Motherboards the LearnTO Remove
in the LearnTOs for this course on your LogicalCHOICE Course screen. and Install Motherboards
from the LogicalCHOICE
Course screen or have
Access the Checklist tile on your LogicalCHOICE course screen for reference students navigate out to
the Course screen and
information and job aids on How to Install and Configure Motherboards
watch it themselves as a
supplement to your
instruction. If not, please
remind students to visit
the LearnTOs for this
course on their
LogicalCHOICE Course
screen after class for
supplemental
information and
additional resources.

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 TOPIC B
CPUs and Cooling Systems
In the last topic, you identified the various types of motherboards used in computer systems. Now
that you understand the purpose of the motherboard, you can take a closer look at the components
that make up the board. Two of these components are the central processing unit, or CPU, and the
cooling systems that service it. In this topic, you will examine CPUs and cooling systems.
Much like the motherboard, the CPU is another important component of the computer system that
actually carries out all the tasks requested by the applications installed in the computer. The CPU is a
heat generator, so part of understanding the CPU includes understanding how to manage heat inside
the computer case by managing the airflow and temperature. Keeping the system cool is an easy but
important way to maintain or even increase its productivity. A computer that runs too hot risks
damaging its own components. As an A+ technician, you need to be familiar with these essential
components of the computer system.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220–801: Objective 1.2: Differentiate between motherboard components, their purposes,
and properties.
• Exam 220–801: Objective 1.6: Differentiate among various CPU types and features and select
the appropriate cooling method.

CPU Sockets
CPU Sockets CPUs use either sockets or slots to connect to the motherboard. Older slot-based processors
plugged into a system board in much the same way as an expansion board, while socketed
processors plug into a system board using a pin grid array (PGA). Modern CPUs usually fall into
either the AMD or Intel category. While there are other CPU manufacturer brands available, Intel
and AMD technologies tend to dominate in the marketplace.

Intel CPU Socket Types

Intel CPU Socket Types While you may encounter older socket types on the job, most computers will use more recent socket
types and processors. Common Intel CPU sockets include:

Socket Type Description

LGA 775 The land grid array (LGA) 775 CPU is also referred to as Socket T.
• Uses 775 copper pins with no socket holes to attach to the
motherboard's pins. The CPU is connected via a load plate that the
CPU attaches to and is lowered onto the board by a lever.
• Proper cooling is accomplished by the design of the CPU
connection to the motherboard. By using the load plate to connect,
the CPU is properly seated into place and is perfectly level. This
ensures that the CPU is making full contact with the heat sink or
liquid cooling method.
• Commonly used in consumer desktop computers.
• Used for Pentium 4, Celeron D, Pentium Extreme Edition, Core 2
Duo, and Core 2 Extreme processors.
LGA 1155 The LGA 1155 is also referred to as Socket H2.

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Socket Type Description

• Uses 1,155 copper pins to attach to the processor pads on the

motherboard.
• Used for Intel's Sandy Bridge and Ivy Bridge microprocessors.
LGA 1156 The LGA 1156 is also referred to as Socket H.
• Uses 1,156 copper pins to attach to the processor pads on the
motherboard.
• Commonly used in consumer desktop computers.
• Designed to replace the LGA 1155 socket type.
• Used for Core i3, Core i5, Core i7, Xeon, Celeron, and Pentium
processors.
LGA 1366 The LGA 1366 is also referred to as Socket B.
• Uses 1,366 copper pins that connect to the bottom of the processor.
• Commonly used in higher-end desktop systems that require high
performance.
• Used for Intel's X58 processor.
LGA 2011 The LGA 2011 is also referred to as Socket R, and was designed to
replace LGA 1366.
• Uses 2,011 copper pins that connect to bottom of the processor.
• Commonly used in higher-end desktop computers and servers.
• Used for Intel's Sandy Bridge and Ivy Bridge microprocessors.

AMD CPU Socket Types

Similarly to the Intel socket types, there will be, on occasion, an older socket and processor used, AMD CPU Socket Types
but in more cases, you will be supporting computers that contain newer-model AMD sockets and
processors.

Socket Type Description

940 The 940 was designed primarily for use in 64–bit server machines.
Commonly found used with the Opteron and Athlon 64 FX processors.
AM2 The AM2 is similar to the 940 in design with the exception that it uses a
DDR2 controller, instead of DDR used by the 940. This socket replaces the
older Socket 939 and 754. This socket is commonly used with Athlon 64,
Sempron, Athlon 64 X2 and Athlon 64 FX.
AM2+ The AM2+ was designed to replace the AM2. They are similar in design and
are, in some cases, interoperable with the processors they support.
AM3 The AM3 was designed to replace AM2+. The socket is not compatible with
the previous versions AM2 and AM2+ because of the pin layout being
slightly different than the older models. The AM3 has 941 pins, while the
AM2+ has 940.
AM3+ The AM3+, also referred to as AM3b, is designed to be more efficient and
use less power.
FM1 FMI is AMD's next generation socket type that is designed to be used with
the Fusion and Athlon II processors.
F An older model socket type that was designed specifically for the Operton
and Athlon 64 FX processors that used the LGA connection method.

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 Cache
Cache Cache memory, or CPU cache, is a type of memory that services the CPU. It is faster than the main
memory, is physically located closer to the processor, and allows the CPU to execute instructions
and read and write data at a higher speed. Instructions and data are transferred from the main
memory to the cache in blocks to enhance performance. Cache memory is typically static RAM
(SRAM) and is identified by level. Level 1 (L1) cache is built directly into the CPU chip. Level 2
cache (L2) feeds the L1 cache. L2 can be built into the CPU chip, reside on a separate chip, or be a
separate bank of chips on the system board. If L2 is built into the CPU, then a level 3 cache (L3)
may also be present on the system board.

CPU Cache Types

There are three main types of cache found in modern computer systems:
• Instruction cache, which is used to retrieve and execute instructions faster.
• Data cache, which is used quickly retrieve and store data.
• Translation lookaside buffer (TLB), which is used to provide faster address translation for both
data and instruction cache.

CPU Operational Characteristics

CPU Operational There are many different characteristics and technologies that can affect a CPU's performance.
Characteristics
You may want to focus CPU Characteristic or Description
on the more relevant Technology
CPU characteristics from
the table. Architecture The CPU architecture is a description of the width of its front-side bus.
A CPU's front-side bus width is either 32 or 64 bits.
Clock speed The number of processing cycles that a microprocessor can perform in a
given second. Some CPUs require several cycles to assemble and perform
a single instruction, whereas others require fewer cycles. The clock speed
is a technical rating; actual performance speeds can vary from the
published clock speed rating. The clock speed is typically referred to as
the processor performance.
Overclocking Overclocking is configuring your system board to run at a speed greater
than your CPU is rated to handle. Doing so can cause the CPU to
overheat, produce random results, or be damaged or destroyed.
CPU speed CPU speed is an umbrella term for the overall rate at which instructions
are processed. There are two factors that affect the CPU speed. One is
the core clock speed, which is the internal speed at which instructions are
processed within the CPU. The other is the bus clock speed, which is the
actual speed at which instructions are transferred to the system board.
Throttling Used to adjust CPU speed. A CPU throttle is typically used to slow down
the machine during idle times to conserve the battery or to keep the
system running at a lower performance level when hardware problems
have been encountered.
Hyperthreading (HT) A feature of certain Intel chips that makes one physical CPU appear as
two logical CPUs. It uses additional registers to overlap two instruction
streams to increase the CPU's performance by about 30 percent.
Integrated GPU The graphics processing unit (GPU) is integrated within the die of the
CPU to provide an alternative to having a dedicated graphics card.

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CPU Characteristic or Description
Technology
Virtualization support Most modern CPUs are virtualization compatible, meaning that they
have virtualization software built into the chipset of the CPU. Both Intel
and AMD have CPU virtualization built into their chips. This allows the
CPU to process instructions from multiple operating systems quickly and
efficiently.
Cores CPU cores read and execute instruction data sent from computer
applications. A single chip that contains two or more distinct CPU cores
that process simultaneously is called a multi-core. Options include dual-
core (two CPUs), triple-core (three CPUs) and quad-core (four CPUs),
though octo-core chips are becoming more common. Once you start
adding tens or hundreds of CPUs, the terminology changes from "multi-
core" and becomes "many-core."
Cache Dedicated high-speed memory for storing recently used instructions and
data.
VRM A voltage regulator module (VRM) is a replaceable module used to
regulate the voltage fed to the CPU.
MMX Multimedia Extensions (MMX) is a set of additional instructions, called
microcode, to support sound, video, and graphics multimedia functions.

CPU Selection Factors

Selecting a CPU for a computer can be a complicated process. Consider the factors provided to help CPU Selection Factors
you identify the requirements for both the CPU and motherboard.
Explain when CPU
Factor Considerations selection is important. It
is crucial to select the
Compatibility Start by checking the motherboard within the computer system. The design of right CPU when you are
the computer's motherboard determines the type of CPU you can install. For building a custom
example, you cannot install an AMD processor into a system board designed to computer with separate
support an Intel processor. You should review the documentation for the non-integrated
computer's system board to determine its compatibility with other CPUs. Keep components.
in mind that most original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) do not typically
provide you with the system board's documentation. To obtain this
documentation, try contacting the computer's manufacturer or the
manufacturer of the system board. You can typically identify the manufacturer
of the system board by examining it. It is critical that the motherboard is
configured to properly support the new CPU. Most importantly, you might
need to configure the system board to use the correct voltage. This is done by
using the jumper settings on the system board or the computer's CMOS setup
program. Setting the voltage on the system board too high can destroy the
CPU.
Performance In addition, you should keep in mind that there is a trade-off between price and
performance when selecting a CPU. The greater the performance requirements
of the user, the more powerful CPU you should select. And more powerful
CPUs are simply more expensive. When selecting a CPU for a user, you should
ask the user his budget for the purchase. This budget can help you narrow
down the choices for selecting a processor.

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 Cooling System Types
Having the right cooling method can be crucial to reach the optimal performance of the system's
CPU. Many cooling systems will be directly attached to the CPU.

Cooling System Description

Fans Computer fans provide cooling by simply blowing regular air across
heated components. It is common to see case fans, power supply fans,
adapter card fans, and CPU fans.
Vents Computer cases are designed with vents to facilitate airflow through the
case and across all components. A common implementation is to include
air vents near the bottom of the front of the case and to place a fan near
the top of the rear of the case to pull cooler air through the system.
Heat sinks A heat sink is designed to provide direct cooling to a system's CPU.
Modern CPUs have enormous processing power that requires instant
cooling that is attached right the CPU itself. Heat sinks have metal fins to
increase their surface area to aid in heat dissipation. Cool air is blown past
it by a fan, removing the heat from the processor.
Thermal paste Thermal paste is used to connect a heat sink to a CPU. At the
microscopic level, when two solids touch, there are actually air gaps
between them that act as insulation; the liquid thermally conductive
compound gel fills these gaps to permit a more efficient transference of
heat from the processor to the heat sink.
Liquid-based CPUs can also be kept cool using a device to circulate a liquid or liquefied
gas, such as water or freon, past the CPU. Like an air conditioner, heat
from the CPU is absorbed by the cooler liquid, and then the heated liquid
is circulated away from the CPU so it can disperse the heat into the air
outside the computer. Liquid cooling systems are not as prevalent as heat
sinks in most desktop systems or low-end servers.

Cooling System Selection Factors

When selecting a cooling system for a computer you must make sure that the following factors have
been considered:
• What components need to be cooled?
• Will the cooling system fit within the computer case? Cooling systems come integrated within the
computer case, while some can be installed externally.
• Do you need multiple cooling methods? Decide if you will need more than one cooling method
installed. Most CPUs will have their own cooling system attached, so if you are in need of
additional cooling, you should verify that a proper case fan is used as well.
• What size fan should be installed? The larger the fan, the more cooling power provided, so check
what the maximum size fan opening is within your computer case before choosing the fan.

Computer Cases and Cooling

Although it might seem to be a good idea to remove the chassis cover to provide additional cooling,
it is not recommended. Most PC cases have been designed to provide an airflow path, with fans
positioned to keep the air moving and blow hot air away from heat-sensitive components. The PC

Cooling System Types

Ask students what have
they seen so far while
looking inside the
devices they are using in
class.
218
case must be closed for this airflow path to work properly. If the case cover is removed, the fans will
be less efficient, blowing air around at random.

Access the Checklist tile on your LogicalCHOICE course screen for reference
information and job aids on How to Install and Configure CPUs and Cooling Systems

219
 ACTIVITY 5-6
Selecting Cooling Systems

Scenario
In this activity, you will select cooling systems.
Use the questions in this
activity to generate
discussion about the 1. When might you need more than one cooling system in a computer?
cooling system selection
A: Answers will vary, but should include instances such as high processing levels that generate
factors presented in this
excessive heat.
topic.
2. When would liquid cooling systems be more appropriate than adding a fan?
A: Answers will vary, but might include when there is not much room inside the computer case or
when an externally mounted fan is not appropriate.

220
TOPIC C
Select and Install Power Supplies
In the previous topic, you examined CPUs and cooling systems. The next logical step is to select and
install the power supply in the system unit. In this topic, you will take a closer look at the computer's
power supply and its connections to the other system components.
The computer's power supply is the main source of power for all components installed within the
system unit. Understanding the power requirements of all the components and the maximum power
supplied is crucial in managing the overall computer system power needs. Whether you are
upgrading or replacing faulty components, you need to effectively manage the capacity of the
current power supply.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220–801: Objective 1.8: Install an appropriate power supply based on a given scenario.

Power Supply Specifications

Each component in a personal computer has different power requirements that are required from Power Supply
the power supply. The specification provided will help in determining the right levels of power Specifications
supplied to all internal computer components.

Specification Description

Size Hardware manufacturers across the globe strive to standardize the power
supply unit specifications in terms of dimensions and layout to make
computer users' lives simpler. This has resulted in a range of power supply
unit types that are accepted worldwide. The key to replacing and installing a
power supply is to make sure that the form factor matches the case and the
motherboard it will connect to. Form factors available today are:
• AT, which is used in AT form factor cases and with AT or Baby AT
system boards. Dimensions are 213 mm x 150 mm x 150 mm. It is a
legacy form factor found in older desktops and towers.
• ATX, which can be used in ATX and NLX cases and with ATX and
NLX motherboards. Dimensions are 150 mm x 140 mm x 86 mm.
Found in desktops and towers. ATX power supplies do not have a pass-
through outlet, but instead usually have a physical on-off switch.
• Micro ATX is essential the same form factor as standard ATX, only
with smaller wattage and physical size.
• Proprietary, which include motherboards that do not conform to
standards. It is likely that these proprietary system boards will require
nonstandard power supply form factors as well, although you might be
able to use an ATX power supply.
Connector styles There are generally three types of connectors used to connect different
devices in a computer to the power supply:
• Berg, a square shaped connector used to supply power to floppy disk
drives and some tape drives.
• Molex, a round shaped connector used to supply power to Parallel ATA
drives, optical drives, and SCSI drives.
• SATA, used to supply power to Serial ATA drives.

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 Specification Description
Wattage Power supply specifications are given in watts. Watts are volts times amps
(voltage x current). Older systems typically had power supplies under 200
watts (W) and often even under 100 W. Newer power supplies typically
have wattages ranging from 200 to 500 W. Because of their increased power
demands, high-powered servers or computers designed for gaming can
have power supplies with wattages from 500 W up to 1 kilowatt (kW).
Voltage All system components require specific voltages. Some devices have
different voltage requirements depending on use. This is particularly true of
some memory chips, which vary in voltage requirements from 1.8 volts (V)
to 3.3 V, and some can actually function at different voltages (voltage
range). You must verify that the power supply used can provide the volts
demanded by the system.
Some power supplies are dual-voltage power supplies. They can contain
multiple channels that provide discrete voltages, with 5 V, 12 V, 15 V, and
24 V being the most common.
In order to calculate whether your power supply meets your power needs,
you will need to add up the maximum power you might use at one time. A
range of maximum power consumption for various components has been
established. Most components use much less than the maximum, so by
using the published requirements as a guide, you are overestimating the
power usage, and therefore making it more likely that you never test the
capacity of the power supply. You can check the documentation for the
component to determine how much power it actually will use.
Even some of the most powerful current CPUs, such as the Intel Core 2
Extreme and the AMD Opteron Dual Core, only use 1.1 to 1.3 V. The
necessary voltage for CPU and RAM is usually detected by the
motherboard (BIOS) and configured appropriately, but sometimes you
have to manually configure it by accessing the BIOS and entering the
appropriate values. The power supply will supply 3.3 V for the CPU, RAM,
and other devices, but the motherboard regulates how much they actually
get.

Note: Although most devices require specific voltages, some devices have different voltage
requirements depending on use. This is particularly true of some memory chips, which vary in
voltage requirements from 1.8 V to 3.3 V, and some can actually function at different voltages,
or in a voltage range.

Power Supply Connections

Power Supply One of the first things you will notice about a power supply is the cable that connects it to the
Connections components within a computer because there are so many different colored wires and connectors.
Every device uses one of several types of connectors to connect to the computer's power supply.

Connector Type Description

SATA The 15-pin Serial Advanced Technology Attachment (SATA) connector

connects peripheral components to the power supply and has a maximum
wattage of 54. The SATA connector provides power at three voltages:
• +3.3
• +5
• +12

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Connector Type Description

4/8–pin 12 V The 4-pin and 8-pin connectors are similar in that they both provide 12
volts of power to the CPU on the motherboard. The 8-pin was designed
to provide power to multiple CPUs in the system. The 4-pin has a
maximum wattage of 192, and the 8-pin has a maximum wattage of 336.

PCIe 6/8–pin The Peripheral Component Interconnect Express (PCIe) 6-pin and 8-pin
connectors provide power to PCIe slots on the motherboard. Both
connectors provide power at 12 V. The 6-pin has a maximum wattage of
75, while the 8-pin has a maximum wattage of 150.

Main power The main power connector to the motherboard is either a 20-pin or 24-
connectors pin ATX connector. The 24-pin connector contains four additional pins
to support the requirements for PCI Express slots on the motherboard.
The 20-pin connector has a maximum wattage of 72, while the 24-pin has
144. Both connectors provide power at three voltages:
• +3.3
• +5
• +12

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 Connector Type Description

Floppy The floppy connector is a Berg connector and was used to connect
floppy drives to the power supply. The connector has only four pins and
provides power at +5 and +12 V with a maximum wattage of 36.

224
 ACTIVITY 5-7
Identifying Power Supply Connections

Scenario
In this activity, you will identify the various power supply connections within your system.
Have students keep the
case cover off of their
1. Locate the power supply within your system. systems in preparation
for the next activity.
2. Trace the connections from the power supply to the motherboard and identify the type of connections
made.

Power Supply Safety Recommendations

Power supplies can be very dangerous to work with. You should take careful security measures Power Supply Safety
when working with power supplies. Recommendations

Safety Precaution Explanation

Check for certification Be sure to purchase power supplies that are certified by the
Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. (UL). UL standard #1950, the
"Standard for Safety of Information Technology Equipment,
Including Electrical Business Equipment, Third Edition," regulates
computer power supplies (along with other components). When it
comes to electricity, you do not want to take a chance with a non-
certified power supply. The risk of electrocution or fire from a
malfunctioning power supply is simply not worth saving a few dollars
by purchasing a low-quality power supply.
Replace instead of repair You run the risk of electrocution if you open a power supply to
the power supply attempt to repair it. Even when you unplug a computer, the power
supply can retain dangerous voltage that you must discharge before
servicing it. Because power supplies are relatively inexpensive, it is
easier (and safer) to simply replace a failed power supply rather than
attempting to repair it.
Keep the computer case Make sure that you run computers with their cases on. The fans inside
on power supplies are designed to draw air through the computer. When
you remove the cover, these fans simply cool the power supplies and
not the computer's components. Leaving the case open puts the
computer at risk of overheating.
Protect the power supply Use a power protection system such as an uninterruptible power
supply (UPS) or surge suppressor to protect each computer's power
supply (and thus the computer) from power failures, brownouts,
surges, and spikes. You should also make sure that the computer's
power cord is plugged into a properly grounded electrical outlet.
(Three-pronged outlets include grounding; never use an adapter to
plug a computer's power cord into a two-pronged electrical outlet.)
You can buy a socket tester (available at hardware stores) to test your
outlets if you suspect that they are not properly grounded.

225
 Note: You should also make sure to cover empty slots in the system board with filler brackets.
If you do not install a filler bracket, you reduce the efficiency of the power supply's fan and
increase the chances of the computer overheating.

Selecting the Right Power Supply

Selecting the Right Selecting the right power supply can be overwhelming, as effective performance depends on all of
Power Supply the components you plan on installing in the system. If you are building a computer from scratch,
then selecting a power supply is a bit more tedious than just installing a replacement that meets the
manufacturer's requirements. Each system component has its own power needs and requirements,
so selecting the right power supply will enable all these components to function properly. Things
you should consider include the total system requirements for power, the form factor for the unit,
and whether there is adequate cooling within the system. When determining the cooling
requirements, some power supplies can be examined to see the revolutions per minute (RPMs) of
the power supply fan. You can then adjust the fan speed to run at only the speed needed to cool
your system. This can reduce power consumption and save fan wear and tear.
You may want to show
the LearnTO Install a Note: For additional information, check out the LearnTO Install a Power Supply in the
Power Supply from the LearnTOs for this course on your LogicalCHOICE Course screen.
LogicalCHOICE Course
screen or have students
navigate out to the Access the Checklist tile on your LogicalCHOICE course screen for reference
Course screen and
information and job aids on How to Select and Install Power Supplies
watch it themselves as a
supplement to your
instruction. If not, please
remind students to visit
the LearnTOs for this
course on their
LogicalCHOICE Course
screen after class for
supplemental
information and
additional resources.

226
 ACTIVITY 5-8
Calculating Power Requirements

Scenario
In this activity, you will calculate the power required by the computer you are using for this course.
As a guide, you can refer to the following table that includes common component types and
example specifications and required wattages.

Component Type Example Specification Example Wattage Required

CPU Intel Core i7-970, 3.2 GHz 130

Memory 4GB DDR3-1600 8
Video card NVIDIA GeForce 8800 GTS 220
Motherboard ASUS P6X58D Premium LGA 36
Hard drive 1 TB SATAII 7200 RPM 6
Optical drive 6x Blu-ray 32
NIC 10/100/1000 Mbps PCI- 14
Express
Sound card SoundBlaster X-Fi Titanium 23
USB wired keyboard Yes/No 4
USB wired mouse Yes/No 4
USB flash drive Yes/No 5
Other external devices External DVD+R drive External DVD+R drive: 5

1. Examine your computer, and complete the Specifications row of the table in step 2. If you have different
or additional components in your PC, revise the table accordingly.
There are several free
power-supply calculators
available on the web.
The calculator at
www.journeysystems.co
m/power_supply was
used to develop this
activity. You can have
participants access this
calculator, or another
online power-supply
calculator that you might
be familiar with, to help
them complete this
activity.

227
 2. Determine the power required by each component, and complete the following table. Again, example
values have been provided for your reference.

Component Type Specification Wattage Required

CPU
Memory
Video card
Motherboard
Hard drive
Optical drive
NIC
Sound card
USB wired keyboard
USB wired mouse
USB flash drive
Other external devices

3. Calculate the total wattage required for your system. Compare this value with the maximum wattage
output listed on the power supply. Does this power supply need to be upgraded?

4. Add a buffer of 30 percent to the total wattage required for your system. Will the existing power supply
continue to supply enough power if additional components are added to the system?

228
 ACTIVITY 5-9
Replacing a Power Supply
In most cases, you will
Scenario not have extra power
After calculating the power needed for all the components added to a user's system, you have supplies for students to
determined that it exceeds the capacity of the installed power supply. You have ordered and received install in their systems,
a replacement power supply and now you need to install it. so you can just have
them uninstall and
reinstall the one they
have. If there are
1. Remove the existing power supply. restrictions on students
a) Shut down and turn off the system. working within their own
b) Unplug the power cord from the electrical outlet. systems, have at least
c) On AT systems, to discharge any remaining electricity stored in the computer's capacitors, toggle one or two extra
the power switch on the computer on and off. systems to demonstrate
with.
d) Remove any components necessary in order to access the power supply and its connection to the
system board.
e) Unplug all power connections from devices, marking where each connection went to as you go.
f) Unplug the power supply from the system board.
g) Unscrew the power supply from the case.
h) Remove the power supply from the case.

2. Install the replacement power supply.

a) Insert the power supply into the case. Align the guides on the base of the supply with the base.
b) Secure the power supply to the case.
c) Plug all power connections into the devices.
d) Plug the power supply into the system board.
e) Reinstall any components you removed to access the power supply.
f) Plug the power cord from the power supply to the electrical outlet.

3. Test the power supply.

a) Turn on the system.
b) Test all components.

229
 TOPIC D
RAM Types and Features
In the previous topic, you examined the requirements of the system's power supply. Providing
sufficient electrical power is one way to ensure that system components run at an acceptable
performance level, but it is not the only solution you should consider. In this topic, you will examine
RAM.
Just as some people say you can never be too rich or too thin, you can never have too much
memory. Adding memory is one of the simplest and most cost effective ways to increase a
computer's performance, whether it is on a brand-new system loaded with high-performance
applications or an older system that performs a few basic tasks. Upgrading the memory is a common
task for any PC technician.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220-801: Objective 1.3: Compare and contrast RAM types and features.

RAM Modules
A RAM module, or memory module, is a printed circuit board that holds a group of memory chips that
act as a single memory unit. Memory modules reside in slots on the motherboard, and they are
removable and replaceable. Memory modules are defined by their design, and by the number and
type of chips they contain.

Figure 5-5: A memory module.

Single-Sided vs. Double-Sided Memory

Single-sided RAM does not refer to the literal number of sides that a RAM module has, but rather it
means an expansion bank of RAM has all of its available memory accessible by the computer.
Double-sided RAM might have two banks of memory, but only one can be accessed at a time by the
computer.

230
 Note: Whether a RAM module has chips on one side or two, if the computer can access all of
its memory at once, the RAM module is considered to be single-sided.

Single- and Double-Sided Media

Single-sided and double-sided have two meanings when discussing computer memory, depending
on the media type. Single-sided removable media refers to a disc (floppy, CD, or DVD) that can be
read and written to one side only. Double-sided discs or DVDs can be read from and written to
both sides, thus doubling the storage capacity of the media.

RAM Configurations
There are three different chipset configurations used in RAM that will determine how fast data can RAM Configurations
be transferred between the chips on the board. The slowest is the single channel because it is limited
to only one channel for communication. On the other hand, double channel can transfer data twice
as fast as single, because it has two channels in which to send and receive data. The fastest
configuration is called triple channel, and it uses three channels for data transfer and is three times
as fast as single channel.
Intel has recently introduced a fourth RAM configuration that can support a quadruple channel
architecture, but there are restrictions based on the limitations from system components within the
system.

Types of RAM
There are several types of RAM. Types of RAM

Type of RAM Description

SRAM Static RAM (SRAM) is used for cache memory, which is high-speed
memory that is directly accessible by the CPU. It does not need to be
refreshed to retain information. It does not use assigned memory
addresses. It is faster than Dynamic RAM, but it is also more expensive.
DRAM Dynamic RAM (DRAM) is used on single and dual in-line memory
modules (SIMMs and DIMMs). It is the most common type of RAM. It
needs to be refreshed every few milliseconds. It uses assigned memory
addresses and can be implemented using Synchronous DRAM, Direct
Rambus DRAM, or Double Data Rate SDRAM.
DRDRAM Direct Rambus DRAM (DRDRAM) is implemented on a RIMM memory
module. It is a type of synchronous, dynamic RAM.
SDRAM Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM) runs at high clock speeds and is
synchronized with the CPU bus. SDRAM was originally packaged on a
168-pin DIMM.
DDR SDRAM Double Data Rate SDRAM (DDR SDRAM) transfers data twice per clock
cycle. It is a replacement for SDRAM. DDR uses additional power and
ground lines and is packaged on a 184-pin DIMM module.
DDR2 SDRAM DDR2 chips increase data rates over those of DDR chips. DDR2
modules require 240-pin DIMM slots. Although DDR2 chips are the
same length as DDR, they will not fit into DDR slots.
DDR3 SDRAM DDR3 chips transfer data at twice the rate of DDR2, and use 30 percent
less power in the process, Like DDR2, DDR3 chips use 240-pin
connections, but cannot be used interchangeably because of differences in
notch location and electrical requirements.

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 Types of ROM
ROM is memory that is non-volatile. The original ROM chips could not be altered after the
program code was placed on the ROM chip. As time went on, though, users needed the ability to
update the information stored on ROM chips. Over the years, various chips have been created that
perform the function of ROM, but can be updated one way or another. These are referred to as
programmable ROM (PROM). Types of ROM include:
• PROM: A blank ROM chip that is burned with a special ROM burner. This chip can be changed
only once. After the instructions are burned in, it cannot be updated or changed.
• EPROM (erasable PROM): Like PROM, except that the data can be erased through a quartz
crystal on top of the chip. After removing the chip from the system, an ultraviolet (UV) light is
used to change the binary data back to its original state, all ones.
• EEPROM (electronically erasable PROM): A chip that can be reprogrammed using software
from the BIOS or chip manufacturer using a process called flashing. Also known as Flash ROM.
The chip does not need to be removed in order to be reprogrammed.

Memory Standard Specifications

The following table summarizes the memory standard specifications.

Standard Characteristics

PC100 • Clock speed: 100 megahertz (MHz)

• Bus width: 8 bytes
• Voltage: 3.3 V
• Form factor: 168-pin DIMM and 144-pin SODIMM
• Transfer rate: 763 MBps
• Backwards-compatible with PC66
PC133 • Clock speed: 133 MHz
• Bus width: 8 bytes
• Voltage: 3.3 V
• Form factor: 168-pin DIMM and 144-pin SODIMM
• Transfer rate: 1,015 MBps
• Backwards-compatible with PC100
DDR-333 or • Clock speed: 166 MHz
PC2700 • Bus width: 8 bytes
• Voltage: 2.5 V
• Form factor: 184-pin DIMM
• Transfer rate: 2,533 MBps
• Backwards-compatible with slower DDR SDRAM DIMMs
DDR-400 or • Clock speed: 200 MHz
PC3200 • Bus width: 8 bytes
• Voltage: 2.6 V
• Form factor: 184-pin DIMM
• Transfer rate: 3,052 MBps
• Backwards-compatible with slower DDR SDRAM DIMMs
DDR2–667, • Clock speed: 166 MHz
PC2-5300, or • Bus width: 8 bytes
PC2-5400 • Voltage: 1.8 V
• Form factor: 240-pin DIMM
• Transfer rate: 5,066 MBps

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Standard Characteristics

• Backwards-compatible with slower DDR2 SDRAM DIMMs

DDR3–1600 or • Clock speed: 200 MHz
PC3-12800 • Bus width: 8 bytes
• Voltage: 1.5 V
• Form factor: 240-pin DIMM
• Transfer rate: 12,207 MBps

ECC
Error Correcting Code (ECC) is an error correction method that uses several bits in a data string for ECC
error checking. A special algorithm is used to detect and then correct any errors it finds. ECC is
used only in upper-end systems such as high-end workstations and servers; other desktop systems
use non-ECC memory. Non-ECC memory usually employs parity to ensure that errors are detected
within the data, but does not have the functionality to correct them.

Parity
Parity is an error-checking method that is sometimes used in RAM modules to detect errors that Parity
may occur during data transmission. When parity is used, a data transmission contains 8 bits of data
with the ninth bit being the parity bit. The parity bit is used to determine whether a piece of data is
equal to another piece of data. The parity bit value can be either true, or a 1, or it can be false, or 0.
An error is detected if the parity bit values of two data strings do no match. When an error is
detected, the system simply tries again after discarding the data. Parity memory is rarely used;
however, there are usually other system components that are relied on to verify that the data
contained in memory is accurate when non-parity memory is used. You will typically find this type
of memory used in servers.

RAM Characteristics
There are several factors you should consider when purchasing RAM for a computer. RAM Characteristics

RAM Questions to Ask

Characteristic

Compatibility Is the RAM compatible with the system's motherboard? What is the maximum
RAM size supported by the computer's motherboard? What channel
architecture does the RAM support? What architecture is desired based on the
requirements of the system's motherboard?
Speed What is the current speed of the RAM in the computer? What is the bus speed
of the computer? RAM speed is the time needed to read and recharge a
memory cell, and is measured in nanoseconds (ns). A nanosecond is one-
billionth of a second. The smaller the number, the faster the RAM. For
example, 10 ns RAM is faster than 60 ns RAM. All of the RAM in the system
runs at the lowest common speed. It is backward-compatible, so it can run at
the lower speed if it finds slower RAM. Some systems will not run with mixed
RAM speeds, but these are not common. Also, the RAM will not run any faster
than the system board's bus speed.
System board Do you need to install RAM in pairs of memory modules? What is the size of
configuration the connector for RAM chips?

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 RAM Speed
Older Ferroelectric Random-Access Memory (FPRAM) was often 60- to 70-nanosecond (ns) speed
RAM. Modern RAM that you are likely to find runs at clock speeds of 100 MHz and 133 MHz. The
100 MHz RAM has a RAM speed of 10 ns. The 133 MHz RAM has a RAM speed of 6 ns. The
SDRAM used in 168-pin DIMMs has access times in the 6 to 12 ns range.

Determine and Upgrade Your RAM

If you wish to upgrade your computer's RAM, some vendors (such as Crucial: www.crucial.com/
index.aspx) have a downloadable utility that scans your computer and tells you what kind of
upgrade is compatible with your machine.

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 ACTIVITY 5-10
Comparing RAM Types and Features

Scenario
In order to choose the right type of RAM for a computer system, you typically will compare the
various types and features.

1. When selecting a new RAM module, how do you determine the maximum running speed of the RAM
once it has been installed?
A: The RAM module can run only as fast as the motherboard's bus speed, so you must determine
the maximum speed of the system bus.
Discuss the fact that you
2. On a typical system with RAM that runs at 10 ns, what RAM can you add? (Select all that apply.) can install RAM of
☐ RAM that runs at 10 ns different speeds into the
same computer. The
☐ RAM that runs at 12 ns point to make here is
☐ RAM that runs at 6 ns that all the installed RAM
will run at the speed of
☐ RAM that runs at 8 ns the slowest module. If
you add RAM that runs
3. When selecting a RAM module, when would you choose RAM enabled with ECC as opposed to RAM at 12 ns, all the RAM in
with only parity? the system will run at 12
A: The difference between ECC and parity is that ECC can detect errors and correct them, while ns.
parity can only detect errors. If you are adding or replacing RAM in a high-end system or a server
where errors can have a critical impact on data integrity, you should consider choosing ECC RAM.

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 TOPIC E
Install and Configure Storage Devices
In the previous topics, you identified a number of system components that you may have to install
and configure on a computer system. Storage devices such as hard disks are one of the most
common system components you will install. In this topic, you will install and configure storage
devices.
Users rely on local storage devices to keep their applications and data current and available. As an A
+ technician, your responsibilities are likely to include installing and configuring different types of
storage devices to provide your users with the data-storage capabilities that they need to perform
their jobs.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220–801: Objective 1.5: Install and configure storage devices and use appropriate media.

Media Capacity
There are several media types available to users for storing their data. The capacity for any type of
media will depend on what the capacity is. Each media type has a limit to the amount of data it can
store.

Media Capacity

CD/CD-RW The capacity for CD-ROMs ranges from 700 to 860 MB.
DVD/DVD-RW • Single-sided (single-layer): 4.7 GB
• Single-sided (double-layer): 8.7 GB
• Double-sided (single-layer): 9.4 GB
• Double-sided (double-layer): 17.08
Blu-ray Blu-ray discs have a capacity of up to 128 GB, depending on the
number of layers. Each layer on the disc has a capacity of 25 GB.
Newer discs have the capability of holding up to four layers of storage.
Tape Tapes are generally used to backup data. Higher-end tapes can store up
to 5 TB of digital data.
Floppy Floppy disks are rarely used any longer. Regular 3.5 inch floppy disks
had a capacity of 720 KB or 1.44 Mb. Super floppy disks are rarely
used today and only have a capacity ranging from 100 to 200 MB.
DL DVD Dual layer (DL) DVDs have a capacity of 8.5 GB.

RAID Standards
The Redundant Array of Independent Disks (RAID) standards are a set of vendor-independent
specifications for improvements in performance and/or fault-tolerant configurations on multiple-
disk systems. In a fault-tolerant configuration, if one or more of the disks fails, data may be
recovered from the remaining disks.
RAID can be implemented through operating system software, but hardware-based RAID
implementations are more efficient and are more widely deployed. Hardware-based RAID requires a
card, or controller, to show the different disks to the computer as a single drive. These cards are
usually a PCI or PCIe card, but can also be already built into the motherboard. There are several

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RAID levels, each of which provides a different combination of features and efficiencies. RAID
levels are identified by number; RAID 0, RAID 1, and RAID 5 are the most common.
Note: The original RAID specifications were titled Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks. As
the disk cost of RAID implementations has become less of a factor, the term "Independent"
disks has been widely adopted instead.

Common RAID Types

RAID 0, 1, 5, and 10 are the most common implementations.

RAID Type Description

RAID 0 RAID level 0 implements striping, which is the process of spreading data across
multiple drives. Striping can dramatically improve read and write performance.
Striping provides no fault tolerance, however; because the data is spread across
multiple drives, if any one of the drives fails, you will lose all of your data. You
must have at least two physical disk drives to implement striping, and the largest
size RAID-0 partition that can be created is equal to the smallest available
individual partition times the number of drives in the set. For instance, combining
a 37 GB drive and a 100 MB drive in a RAID 0 set would result in a 200 MB
partition; the balance of the 37 GB drive could not be included in the set (although
it would remain available for use in other partitions).
RAID 1 In RAID level 1, data from an entire partition is duplicated on two identical drives
by either mirroring or duplexing. In mirroring, the two disks share a drive controller.
In duplexing, each disk has its own drive controller, so the controller card is not a
single point of failure. Data is written to both halves of the mirror simultaneously.
This redundancy provides fault tolerance and provides for quick failure recovery,
but the storage overhead consumes half the available space. The work of reading
the data can be split between both drives, improving performance. However, with
the increased read speed, a RAID 1 implementation loses some write speed.
RAID 5 RAID level 5 spreads data byte by byte across multiple drives, with parity
information also spread across multiple drives. You need at least three physical
disk drives that have the same capacity and are the same type. If one drive fails, the
parity information on the remaining drives can be used to reconstruct the lost data.
In the event of a drive failure, data recovery is not instantaneous (as it is in RAID
1); the bad drive needs to be replaced, and then the missing data needs to be
reconstructed. With RAID 5, disk performance is enhanced because more than
one read and write can occur simultaneously. However, the parity calculations
create some write-performance overhead. Storage overhead is at a ratio of one to
the number of drives in the set (for example, 1/3 overhead in a three-drive set or
1/10 overhead in a 10-drive set), so the more drives that are in the set, the less
overhead, and the better performance. In the event of multiple drive failures, all
data will be irrecoverable.
RAID 10 RAID 10, or RAID 1+0, combines two RAID levels into one. It uses RAID 1 and
RAID 0 to provide both mirroring from level 1 and striping from level 0. RAID
10 uses a minimum of four disks, in two disk mirrored blocks. This configuration
gives you better performance and system redundancy.

Internal Storage Device Considerations

There are several things to consider when you are installing an internal storage device in a computer
system. It is not as simple as just plugging the device into the slot inside the case. Make sure you
consider each factor before installation.

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 Consideration Details

Does the computer have If it does, what interfaces do these devices use (PATA, SCSI, or
existing internal storage SATA)? Is there room on the controller of these devices for an
devices? additional device? For example, if the computer uses devices with the
SATA interface, are there already two devices connected to the
controller? If there are, you will need to purchase an additional SATA
controller before you can add another SATA device. If you do not
have room on the controller for an additional storage device, you
must purchase both the storage device and a controller. In addition,
make sure that the computer has an available slot for the controller.
Does the device need Make sure that you have the appropriate operating system device
additional drivers installed? drivers to install the new storage device on the computer. If
necessary, download the device drivers from the device
manufacturer's website.
Does the computer have an If not, you can purchase splitters to enable two (or more) devices to
available power supply be connected to a single power connection, but be aware of power
cable to supply power to consumption. The number of connectors approximates the available
the device? power, so make sure that the storage device will not cause the
computer to exceed the capacity of its power supply.
Does the computer have an Most hard drives require a 3.5-inch drive bay; most tape drives and
available drive bay for the optical drives require a 5.25-inch drive bay. If you want to install a
storage device? hard drive in a 5.25-inch drive bay, you will need drive rails.
Make sure you place the storage device where it will get good air flow
to avoid overheating the device. Consider the placement of the drives
inside the bays with the cable configurations. You may need to adjust
the placement of the drives to match the order of cable connectors.
Do you have the necessary SCSI devices require unique SCSI IDs. SCSI IDs are assigned to each
data cables to connect the device connected to the bus. The ID numbers range from 1 to 15,
storage device to the and determine the device priority. Some storage devices require you
controller? to configure this ID using a jumper or the device's installation
software.
PATA (IDE): Internal PATA hard drives must be jumpered properly.
If the drive is the only drive in the computer, you must jumper it as a
single drive. If the drive is the second drive in the computer, you
must jumper the drive as the second (slave) drive in a two-drive
configuration and the first drive as the master drive.
Does the placement of the Make sure there is enough total air flow to handle whatever heat the
device interrupt the air new storage device will add to the computer.
flow of the case?

External Storage Device Considerations

External Storage Device External storage devices have a whole set of different considerations than internal devices. Make
Considerations sure to verify all the factors before selecting and installing a new device.

Consideration Details

What interface does • If the external storage device uses USB 2.0, does the computer
the external storage support it?
device require (USB,
FireWire, or SCSI)?

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Consideration Details

• If the external storage device uses FireWire, is there an available

FireWire port in the computer? If not, you must buy and install a
FireWire controller. Make sure the computer has an available slot for
the FireWire controller before purchasing one.
• If the external storage device uses SCSI, is there room on the SCSI
chain for an additional device?
Do you need a cable to Depending on the type of interface used, you will need to make sure that
connect the external you have a compatible cable to connect to the computer. Common cable
storage device to the connections include:
computer? • USB
• FireWire
• eSATA
• Ethernet
Do you have an Some external storage devices will require an additional power source
available source of from the computer. For example, eSATA requires an additional power
power for the storage connection to function.
device?

USB Performance Factors

To get the best possible performance from a storage device that uses USB as a connection method,
connect it to a port or hub that supports USB 3.0. Keep in mind that many hubs drop all ports
down to the slower USB 1.1 speed if you connect any USB 1.1 devices. Try not to connect a slower-
speed device to the same hub in which you plan to connect a USB 3.0 storage device.
You may want to show
Note: For additional information, check out the LearnTO Install Storage Devices in the the LearnTO Install
LearnTOs for this course on your LogicalCHOICE Course screen. Storage Devices from
the LogicalCHOICE
Course screen or have
Access the Checklist tile on your LogicalCHOICE course screen for reference students navigate out to
the Course screen and
information and job aids on How to Install and Configure Storage Devices
watch it themselves as a
supplement to your
instruction. If not, please
remind students to visit
the LearnTOs for this
course on their
LogicalCHOICE Course
screen after class for
supplemental
information and
additional resources.

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 ACTIVITY 5-11
Installing an Internal Storage Device

Before You Begin

To complete this activity, you will need the following hardware components. If you do not have
these available, you can remove and reinstall the existing hardware:
• A second hard drive and an empty drive bay. If you have a PATA drive, you will also need an
available connection on the PATA cable. If you have a SCSI drive, you will also need an installed
SCSI HBA.
• An available power connection for the device you are adding to the system.
• Optionally, rails to allow smaller drives to fit into larger drive bays.

Scenario
You have been assigned the task of refurbishing a computer for a client. This computer has a single
functioning hard drive, and the user needs a significant amount of local storage space.

1. Locate the available bay and the power and data connections for the new hard disk drive.
a) Power off the system, unplug all the peripherals and power cord, and open the computer case.
b) Locate an available drive bay and determine if the bay is the same form factor as the drive. If you
are using a 5.25-inch drive bay and a 3.5-inch drive, you will need to install the drive using rails to
adapt the drive to the larger bay.
c) Locate an available data connection on the data cable. If necessary, connect a PATA data cable to
the PATA controller connection on the system board.
d) Locate an available power connector. If necessary, connect a power splitter to an existing power
connection.

2. Prepare the drive for installation.

a) If you are installing a PATA drive, set the jumpers or switches to Cable Select or slave.
b) If you are installing a SCSI drive, set the SCSI ID to an unused ID number. If the drive is at the end
of the SCSI chain, terminate the device and, if necessary, remove termination from the previously
terminated device.
c) If necessary, attach rails to the drive to fit in the bay.

3. Install the hard disk drive into the system.

a) Slide the drive into the bay.
b) Connect the data cable to the drive.
c) Connect the power cable to the drive.
d) Secure the drive to the bay chassis with screws.

4. Check whether the drive is accessible.

a) Plug all the peripherals back into the system.

Note: You can leave the case open until the end of the activity.
If for any reason some
students did not install a
second independent b) Restart the computer.
drive, they can practice c) If necessary, access CMOS, enable the disk, and then exit CMOS and save your settings.
partitioning and
formatting the existing 5. Partition and format the new drive as an NTFS drive.
unallocated space on
Drive 0. a) Log on to Windows as Admin## with !Pass1234 as the password.

240
b) Select Start, right-click Computer, and select Manage.
c) In the left pane, select Disk Management.
d) If the Initialize Disk window is displayed, select MBR if the new drive is smaller than 2 TB or GPT if
the drive is larger than 2 TB. Select OK.
e) If necessary, maximize the Disk Management window to view the new drive. It may be labeled Disk
1 Unallocated.
f) Right-click the unallocated space for the new disk.
g) Select New Simple Volume. The New Simple Volume wizard starts.
h) Select Next.
i) In the Simple volume size in MB text box, type 20000
j) Select Next.
k) From the Assign the following drive letter drop-down list, select S.
l) Select Next.
m) On the Format Partition page, verify that NTFS is selected and select Next.

Note: To save time during class, you can check the Perform a Quick Format
option.
n) Select Finish.
o) Close the new drive window.
p) Close Computer Management.
q) In the Auto Play dialog window, click Open folder to view files.
r) Close the New Volume (s:) window.

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 TOPIC F
Configure the System BIOS
In the previous topics, you focused on the basic internal storage devices that enable a computer to
run, but what about how the computer communicates with all these devices? In this topic, you will
configure settings in the system BIOS.
How does the computer know when to start devices within the computer? Without the system
BIOS managing the system components within the computer system, the devices simply would not
be accessible. As an A+ technician, you must fully understand how the system BIOS operates and
how to configure it to enable a customized computing environment for users.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220–801: Objective 1.1 Configure and apply BIOS settings.

BIOS Memory
BIOS memory stores information about the computer setup that the system BIOS refers to each time
the computer starts. The BIOS information is stored in non-volatile Electrically Erasable Programmable
Read-Only Memory (EEPROM), or flash memory chips. Because you can write new information to
BIOS memory, you can store information about system changes, such as new components that you
add to your system. The computer will look for the component each time it is turned on.

BIOS Components
When the BIOS is activated on startup, it determines which components are present and when they
are accessed during the boot process. Any time you change a hardware component, you should
check the BIOS settings to see if they also need to be changed for the system BIOS to recognize the
new hardware. Also, you can configure BIOS memory without needing to open the chassis. Several
system components can be configured through the system BIOS:
• RAM
• Hard drives
• Optical drives
• CPU

Firmware Upgrades
Most modern motherboards contain a number of BIOS chips that contain the system firmware that
runs the system BIOS. This firmware may need an upgrade from time to time depending on the
manufacturer. When the manufacturer issues an update, then the firmware will need to be updated.
These updates contain security patches, updates to the performance, and updates to address any
known issues. The updates can be installed in a number of ways, but most commonly can be
downloaded from the manufacturer's website and then either burned to CD, or copied to a flash
drive.

BIOS Configuration Options

BIOS configuration options can be altered at any time by changing the settings within the BIOS
configuration utility. Many times when you replace or change a hardware component, the BIOS
configuration will need to be changed so that the system BIOS can recognize the newly installed
hardware. System BIOS settings can be configured without having to physically open the system
case of the computer. The extent to which you can use BIOS to configure a computer depends

242
heavily on the manufacturer of the particular BIOS; however, in most cases, you should be able to
configure at least the following—and possibly much more—from the keyboard by using the BIOS
configuration utility.

Configuration Description
Option

General General settings include:

• Motherboard information, including the manufacturer, brand, and CPU
vendor.
• System date and time. You can use the BIOS Setup program to set the
PC’s real-time clock. (You can also use DOS date and time commands to
reset the real-time clock.)
• Boot sequence. You can specify the order that drives are checked for the
operating system.
• BIOS version. This can be used when looking for firmware updates for
the BIOS chip.
Security settings You can specify a number of security functions:
• Manage passwords, including both administrator and system passwords.
• Enable and disable the trusted platform module (TPM) security feature.
When enabled, the BIOS will load the TPM and make it available within
the operating system.
• In some laptop computers, laptop-tracking software such as LoJack® for
Laptops can be configured to help recover lost or stolen laptops.
Memory Some systems require you to specify in BIOS how much RAM is installed
on the system. You might also be able to specify the type of memory used.
Enabling and Many devices can be configured by modifying the BIOS settings. You can::
disabling devices • Specify the type and size of the hard disk drives attached to the system.
• Enable and disable advanced drive settings, such as RAID settings.
• Specify the preferred default monitor.
• Specify settings such as unidirectional or bidirectional printing, Extended
Capabilities Port (ECP) options, Enhanced Parallel Port (EPP) options,
and what memory addresses and interrupts are used by a port. You can
also disable or enable the ports. If you know that a parallel or serial port
will not be used, you can disable the port, thereby freeing up the
resources that would otherwise be unusable by other devices.
Conversely, if you connect a device to a port and the device will not
work at all, you might want to check the BIOS to ensure that the port
has not been disabled.
• Specify settings such as powering down components (like the display
device, video card, and hard drives) when the components have not been
used for a specified time period, as well as options and time limits for
standby and suspend modes. You can also disable or enable global
power management.
Clock speed The clock speed for the CPU can be adjusted in the BIOS. In some modern
systems, the CPU type and speed is automatically adjusted, but in older
systems, you will verify that the clock speed is optimized for the CPU
installed on the motherboard.
System configuration Allows you to configure various system components such as integrated
network interface cards (NICs), USB controllers, parallel ports, and serial
ports.

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 Configuration Description
Option
Video Allows you to change the video controller settings when more than one
video card is installed.
Performance Allows you to change CPU settings such as enabling or disabling multicore
support and changing processor modes.
Virtualization If the CPU supports virtualization, then you can use the BIOS setup utility
support to enable or disable the various virtualization settings available.
Virtualization support within the BIOS is dependent on the OEM model.
Most modern systems will support virtualization.
Power management Allows you to configure different power options available, such as how the
system will recover from a power loss and other advanced power options.
Maintenance Allows you to verify and set service and asset tags used when a computer
needs further maintenance from an outside vendor. The asset tag is used to
identify the computer within the BIOS. It is usually a four or five digit
number.

Note: For additional information, check out the LearnTO Work with the System BIOS in the
LearnTOs for this course on your LogicalCHOICE Course screen.

BIOS Diagnostics
Most BIOS systems come with a built-in diagnostics utility that can be used to troubleshoot issues
and verify proper functionality. Most diagnostic tools allow you to test the system memory and the
entire system. The tool will thoroughly test each system component and display test results which
are usually a pass or fail. This will help you to identify which component is having issues. Most
utilities will run tests on the following components:
• Video cards
• System memory
• Hard drives
• Optical drives

You may want to show

the LearnTO Work with
the System BIOS from
244
the LogicalCHOICE
Figure 5-6: A sample BIOS diagnostic utility.

BIOS Monitoring Capabilities

Most BIOS have monitoring capabilities built in and can allow you to check a number of system BIOS Monitoring
activities for issues. To access the monitoring options, you must enter the system BIOS during start Capabilities
up, by pressing one of the function keys. The specific function key will depend on the type of
motherboard installed, so verify the key you need to press on startup to access the BIOS.

Monitoring Capability Description

Temperature The temperature of the CPU, motherboard, and overall system can
usually be checked within the system BIOS. You can use this options
to check for overheating and to verify that the CPU is running within
its safe temperature range.
Fan speeds Within the BIOS, you can verify the fan speed for your CPU, and any
system fans installed in the computer. Keep in mind that you must
balance the rotations per minute (RPM) speed of the fans with the
temperature of the CPU and motherboard.
Intrusion detection Most modern BIOS will have some security functions built in. This
includes system intrusion detection. The intrusion detection is
implemented using a sensor that alerts the system BIOS when the case
cover of the system has been removed.
Voltage The system voltage settings are strictly based on the specific hardware
you have installed in the system, such as type of motherboard and
CPU. The BIOS allows you to change the voltage configuration for
each device installed. Once in the BIOS, you will look for:
• Vcore, or VCC, which is the CPU voltage reading.
• Memory voltage, which displays the RAM voltage settings.
• VDD voltage, which displays the motherboard's voltage. This
rating is driven by the Northbridge chip of the board.
• If there is a graphics card installed, then you will see the AGP
voltage setting displayed.

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 Monitoring Capability Description
Clock You can verify that the BIOS clock is accurate by verifying the time
within the system BIOS.
Bus speed In some cases, you may find the need to monitor the bus speed, and
to make sure that the overall CPU speed is in line with the bus speed.
Bus speeds are usually set by the manufacturer at a natural clock rate
or an enhanced clock rate.
For an example, when you have a processor with a CPU speed of 1.82
GHz clock speed, you would need to set the bus speed to 166 MHz
with the multiplier of 11. (166 MHz x 11 = 1.826 GHz).

Access the Checklist tile on your LogicalCHOICE course screen for reference
information and job aids on How to Configure System BIOS Settings

246
 ACTIVITY 5-12
Exploring and Configuring the System BIOS

Scenario
In this activity, you will explore the configuration options available to you in the system BIOS
utility.
Depending on the type
of systems used for this
1. Explore the system BIOS utility. class, the students may
a) From the Start menu, restart your computer system. not have all the options
mentioned in this topic,
b) As the computer restarts, press the BIOS access key. You might want to record this key for later or the steps in this
use. activity might not reflect
c) Navigate to the System Setup menu option. the order in which the
Depending on the BIOS installed on your computer, this menu might have a different name. information appears on
d) Browse through the available BIOS configuration options. computer screens. You
may need to provide
e) Locate the motherboard settings and record the BIOS version.
additional assistance
This information can be helpful if you ever have to update the BIOS to solve a hardware issue. when accessing the
BIOS on startup, or
2. Change the boot order. explain that any
a) Navigate to the Boot Sequence setting. differences are based on
Depending on the BIOS installed on your computer, this setting might have a slightly different name. what BIOS is installed.
b) Examine the current boot order. If participants cannot
press the BIOS access
In older systems, the floppy drive was often configured as the primary boot device. In newer key quickly enough,
systems, a USB storage device or the internal hard disk might be configured as the primary boot have them restart the
device. computer and try again
c) Change the boot order to the following: until they access the
• Optical drive system BIOS utility.
• Internal hard disk 1 Before you proceed with
• Internal hard disk 2 each step in the rest of
• USB storage device this activity, ensure that
all participants have
d) Save the change. successfully completed
the step.
3. Update the system date and time.
If participants did not
a) Navigate to the Date and Time setting. add a second hard drive
Depending on the BIOS installed on your computer, this setting might have a slightly different name. to their computers, only
b) Examine the current setting. If the date and time appear to be correct, you can skip this and the next one hard disk will display
substep. If the date and time are not correct, adjust them to match the current date and time. in the boot sequence list.
Assist participants in
c) Save your changes.
changing the boot order,
if necessary.
4. Examine system monitoring options.
If temperature
a) Navigate to the Hardware Monitoring menu option. monitoring is not
Depending on the BIOS installed on your computer, this setting might have a different name, such available through the
as PC Health, CPU Temperature, or some other name. BIOS, skip this step. If it
b) Examine the CPU temperature reading. is available, assist
Normal CPU temperatures range from 30 to 60 degrees Celsius. participants in locating
the settings in their BIOS
utilities.
5. Verify the BIOS changes.
a) Exit the BIOS utility.
b) Log on to Windows.

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 c) If you changed the date and time, verify that the system date and time has been updated in the
taskbar.
Before you proceed,
ensure that all
participants have been
successful in restarting
their computers without
errors.

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Summary
In this lesson, you installed and configured internal system components. In your role as an A+
technician, you will be responsible for helping users with installing motherboards, RAM, CPUs, and
storage devices, so having the skills to install and configure them correctly will be crucial to assisting
users.
Use the review
In your current job role, what system components have you worked with the most? questions provided to
A: Answers will vary, but may include swapping out hard drives, optical drives, and RAM. generate discussion
among the participants.
In future job roles as an A+ technician, what system components do you think you will be working with the
most?
A: Answers will vary, but anyone working with desktop systems may need to replace hard drives, optical
drives, and power supplies, and also upgrade RAM.

Note: Check your LogicalCHOICE Course screen for opportunities to interact with your
classmates, peers, and the larger LogicalCHOICE online community about the topics covered in
this course or other topics you are interested in. From the Course screen you can also access
available resources for a more continuous learning experience.

Encourage students to
use the social
networking tools
provided on the
LogicalCHOICE Home
screen to follow up with
their peers after the
course is completed for
further discussion and
resources to support
continued learning.

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250
6 Installing and
Configuring Operating
Systems
Lesson Time: 3 hours, 10 minutes

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will install and configure operating systems. You will:
• Implement virtualization.
• Install Microsoft Windows.
• Perform a Windows Upgrade.
• Perform preventive maintenance with common tools and techniques.

Lesson Introduction
So far in this course, you have learned in general about hardware and software, and have
installed and configured many of the hardware components required for a computer system.
Now it is time to install the most important software component—the operating system—
so that all the hardware you've assembled so far can function together. In this lesson, you
will install and configure operating systems.
Because so many computers today come with operating system software installed by the
vendor, an ordinary user might never need to install an operating system. As an IT
professional, however, you might be called upon to install and configure operating systems
for a variety of reasons: if the original installation does not meet a user's needs; if the system
needs to be upgraded; if you are redeploying a system from one user to another; or even if
you need to complete a brand new build and construct a computer entirely from scratch. In
all of these cases, you will need to be able to install, configure, and optimize the computer's
operating system.
This lesson covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification
objectives:
• Topic A:
• Exam 220–802: Objective 1.9
• Topic B:

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 • Exam 220–802: Objectives 1.2, 1.6
• Topic C:
• Exam 220–802: Objective 1.1
• Topic D:
• Exam 220–802: Objective 1.7

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TOPIC A
Implement Virtualization
In this lesson, you will install and configure the Windows® operating system. One or more of those
operating systems can be leveraged using virtualization to improve performance or increase
productivity for one or more machines. In this topic, you will implement virtualization.
As organizations grow in size and scope, there is an increased need for more resources, especially
when it comes to computing. Virtualization can help ease the growing pains of an organization by
providing the opportunity to leverage one machine and one operating system for use over many
machines, and save valuable time and resources when it comes to hardware, software, and
personnel. As an A+ technician, you may need to know what is needed to set up a virtualized
environment.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220–802: Objective 1.9: Explain the basics of client-side virtualization.

What is Virtualization?
Virtualization is the technological process of creating a virtual version of a computing environment
by separating the elements of the computing environment―the applications, operating system,
programs, documents, and more―from each other and from any physical hardware by using an
additional software application. Virtualization can provide flexibility and scalability for organizations
where the costs for hardware and software and the IT infrastructure needed to maintain them both
continue to increase. It can increase resource utilization by allowing those resources to be pooled
and leveraged as part of a virtual infrastructure, and it can provide for centralized administration and
management of all the resources being used throughout the organization.

Types of Virtualization
Note: For additional information, check out the LearnTO Identify Server-side vs. Client-side
Virtualization in the LearnTOs for this course on your LogicalCHOICE Course screen.

There are two main types of virtualization being used today: server virtualization and client-side
virtualization. The main difference between the two types is determined by where the virtualization
takes place.
• Server (or server-side) virtualization takes place centrally at the server or data center. Server
virtualization utilizes one logical device, typically the server, to act as the host machine for the
guest machines that virtually use the applications and programs provided by the host. A software
application is used to divide the single physical device into multiple isolated virtual devices.
• Client-side virtualization takes place at the endpoints, the desktop environments themselves. Client-
side virtualization separates the elements of a user's logical desktop environment―the
applications, operating system, programs, and more―and divides them from each other and from
the physical hardware or a physical machine. With desktop virtualization, a single user can run
multiple operating systems on one machine simultaneously and seamlessly; a single user can
interact with their computer and all of their applications remotely from a mobile device; or
numerous users can access and maintain their own individual desktop environments via a single
and centrally-managed physical device which can either be co-located to the virtualized
environments or operate from a remote location. This type of virtualization environment allows
multiple virtualized machines to run on a single device with no impact on the host's file system,
registry and OS.

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 Components of a Virtual Environment
A virtual environment is made up of three components:
• The host machine, which is the computer or server on which the elements of the virtual
environment are installed and which manages the machines or desktops accessing or running the
environment virtually.
• The hypervisor, which is a software application that is installed on the host machine and is used to
configure and manage all the machines or desktops running virtually from the host.
• And the virtual machines or VMs, which are the software implementations or emulations of the
host machine, and which run programs just like a physical machine. The VMs are created by the
hypervisor and run independently from the host in which they are installed.

Figure 6-1: Components of a virtual environment.

Virtual Desktop Infrastructure

In a Virtual Desktop Infrastructure (VDI), the personal computing environment is separated from a
physical machine using desktop virtualization. It can include hardware, applications, operating
systems, or a combination of these pieces. Although this sounds like client-side virtualization, it is
actually server-side virtualization.
The desktop operating system and any necessary applications are run inside the virtual machines,
which are hosted on servers in the data center. These VMs running the desktop operating systems
are called virtual desktops.

Components of a Virtual
Environment

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Figure 6-2: VDI.

Virtualization Requirements
In order to run a virtualization environment on a client computer securely, certain requirements Virtualization
must met. There are generally four areas that should be addressed. Requirements

Area Requirements

Emulator In a client-side virtualization environment, the emulator is the software

installed that allows the computer to virtually run another operating system,
or another instance of the same operating system. Each emulator
manufacturer will have specific hardware and processor requirements that
the client machine must have in order to be able to run the emulation
software.
Client-side virtualization capabilities are still growing to meet consumer
needs. Recent advances include mobile device hypervisors that give the
devices the ability to access corporate resources without having to manage
each device individually.
Security Security requirements will primarily be based on an organization's security
policy. There are however, general security guidelines that should be
followed when configuring a VM:
• Ensure that the VM has been equipped with appropriate antivirus
software that is designed to protect both the physical client computer
and the VM. Not all antivirus software packages can properly protect
against malware on a VM. Always check with the manufacturer of the
software before you install any program files on a VM. Issues can arise
when the client machine running VM gets infected and there is no
control in place to prevent the virus from propagating to the VM.

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 Area Requirements

• Restrict users from copying files and applications from a traditional

desktop machine to a VM. This vulnerability can lead to issues if
infected files are copied, or sensitive data is copied to a shared VM.
• Regularly update and manage the security patches for both the physical
client and the VM running on it.
• Enforce proper management of all VMs installed in client machines to
prevent data leakage.
• Ensure that security measures are in place to isolate the VMs from the
hypervisor. This prevents any viruses or infections from being spread
between VMs and the hypervisor and vice versa.
Network Generally for client computers running VMs, the normal network activity
load will also suffice for running any VM-initiated network functions.
Network requirements will vary depending on the hardware used to run the
VDI.
Resource The resource requirements for virtualization will depend on what
virtualization components will be supported within the environment. You
should verify that the host computer has the required hardware and
software components installed. This can include having enough RAM and
hard drive capabilities and CPU power to run the virtualization software.

Windows Client Virtualization Solutions

There are several virtualization solutions available for installing VMs on a personal computer,
depending on what version of Windows the PC is running.

Client Virtualization Description

Solution

Windows Virtual PC Enables you to install Windows® 7, Windows Vista®, and

Windows® XP VMs on a Windows 7 computer. Freely
downloadable from www.microsoft.com/windows/virtual-pc/
download.aspx. You also have the option of downloading only
Windows Virtual PC or Windows Virtual PC and Windows XP
Mode.
Windows XP Mode Consists of a VM package that contains an installed and licensed
version of Windows XP Professional with Service Pack 3. Free for
licensed Windows 7 Professional, Windows 7 Enterprise, and
Windows 7 Ultimate.
Microsoft Virtual PC 2007 Enables you to install VMs on a Windows Vista or Windows XP
computer. Freely downloadable from www.microsoft.com/
windows/virtual-pc/support/virtual-pc-2007.aspx.

Integration Components
Windows client virtualization solutions provide integration components that enable you to work more
effectively within the VM environment. Integration components enable you to share the mouse
between the host and the VM, as well as sharing other physical components and exchanging data
without the need for a virtual network connection. Integration components are installed by default if
you are using Windows XP Mode; otherwise, you need to install them manually.

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For more information about integration components, visit About integration features at http://
technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ee449432(v=ws.10).aspx.

Access the Checklist tile on your LogicalCHOICE course screen for reference
information and job aids on How to Implement Virtualization

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 ACTIVITY 6-1
Creating a VM on Windows 7

Scenario
You have recently been hired as a PC technician at a local business. One of your primary
responsibilities will be to install and upgrade operating systems. To prepare for your new job
responsibilities, you have decided that you will create a VM on your Windows 7 computer so that
you can practice installing Windows 7 without affecting the files stored on your computer.

1. Download Windows Virtual PC.

a) Navigate to www.microsoft.com/windows/virtual-pc/download.aspx.
b) Select Download Windows Virtual PC without Windows XP Mode.
c) In the Select system drop-down list, select Professional 32-bit or Professional 64-bit, depending on
your system.
Assist participants in d) In the Select language drop-down list, select English.
determining whether to e) Select Download.
select the 32-bit version
If your version of Windows 7 is not activated, you may be prompted with additional validation
or the 64-bit version of
downloads.
Windows 7 Professional.
Or, if a different edition f) In the Windows validation required window, select Continue.
of Windows 7 has been g) In the Windows validation was successful window, select Continue.
installed on the h) When you are prompted to open or save the file, select Save.
computers, assist i) When the download is complete, select Open folder.
participants in selecting
the appropriate edition. 2. Install Windows Virtual PC.
a) In the Admin##>Downloads folder, open the file you just downloaded.
b) When you are prompted to install the Windows software update, select Yes.
c) Accept the license agreement.
d) When the installation is complete, select Restart Now.
e) When the computer restarts, log on to Windows.

3. Create a VM named Win7test##

a) Select Start→Windows Virtual PC.
Make sure that all b) In the Admin##>Virtual Machines folder, select Create virtual machine.
participants have c) For the VM name, type Win7test## where ## corresponds to the number in your user name. Accept
successfully created the the default location, and select Next.
VM before you proceed. d) Accept the default memory and network settings, and select Next.
This VM will be used in
the next topic to practice e) Accept the default of creating a new dynamic virtual hard disk, and select Create.
installing Windows 7.
4. Start the VM by double-clicking it.
It is strongly suggested
After a few moments, you should receive a message that states: "Reboot and Select proper Boot
that you encourage
device" or "Insert Boot Media in selected Boot device." This happens because there is no operating
participants to complete
system installed on the VM yet.
the lab for this lesson.
The lab includes steps
for configuring the VM 5. Close the VM.
for better performance. a) Select Action→Close
You may wish to have b) In the What do you want the virtual machine to do? drop-down list, select Turn off, and then select
participants complete OK.
the first two steps in the c) Verify that the VM's Machine status setting is Powered down.
lab before they proceed
to the next topic.

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TOPIC B
Install Microsoft Windows
In this lesson, you will install and configure operating systems. The fundamental installation method
is to install the operating system from scratch. In this topic, you will perform a fresh installation of
Microsoft® Windows®.
Being able to perform a fresh installation of Windows can be important if you have built a custom
computer system from scratch, if the system you purchased from a vendor did not have the correct
system installed, or if you are completely redeploying existing hardware from one system to another.
The skills and information in this topic will help you plan and perform a fresh installation properly,
for whatever your technical and business requirements might be.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220–802: Objective 1.2: Given a scenario, install and configure the operating system using
the most appropriate method.
• Exam 220–802: Objective 1.6: Set up and configure Windows networking on a client/desktop.

Windows System Requirements

Before installation, you must make sure that your hardware meets or exceeds the minimum Windows System
requirements for the version of Windows you will install. Requirements

Operating System Requirements

Windows® 7 Home Premium, • 1 GHz 32-bit (x86) or 64-bit (x64) processor.

Professional, or Ultimate • 1 GB RAM (32-bit) or 2 GB RAM (64-bit).
• 40 GB hard disk with a minimum of 20 GB of
available space.
• Support for DirectX 9 graphics; some programs may
require support for DirectX 10 graphics or higher to
provide optimal performance.
Windows Vista® Home Premium, • 1 GHz 32-bit (x86) or 64-bit (x64) processor.
Business, or Ultimate • 1 GB of RAM.
• 40 GB hard disk with a minimum of 15 GB of
available space.
• Support for DirectX 9 graphics and 128 MB of
graphics memory available.
Windows Vista® Home Basic • 1 GHz 32-bit (x86) or 64-bit (x64) processor.
• 512 MB of RAM.
• 20 GB hard disk with a minimum of 15 GB of
available space.
• Support for DirectX 9 graphics and 32 MB of graphics
memory available.
Windows XP® Home Edition or • 233-MHz minimum processor required; 300
Professional megahertz (MHz) or higher recommended. (Intel®
Pentium®/Celeron® family, AMD K6/Athlon™/
Duron™ family, or compatible processor
recommended).
• 64 MB of RAM required; 128 MB recommended.

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 Operating System Requirements

• At least 1.5 GB of space available on the hard disk.

• Video adapter and monitor with Super VGA 800 x
600 resolution or higher.

Windows® XP Media Center Edition System Requirements

Windows XP Media Center Edition is intended for installation on a specially configured media-
ready Media Center PC that will connect to and interact with other home media devices such as a
TV, music center, or game system. Media Center PCs are available from many major retailers and
computer manufacturers.
For information about the different Media Center PC models and options as well as purchasing
information, see the Media Center web page at http://windows.microsoft.com/en-US/
windows/products/windows-media-center.

Apple OS System Requirements

The system requirements for OS® X Lion are:
• A Mac computer with an Intel Core 2 Duo, Core i3, Core i5, Core i7, or Xeon processor.
• 2 GB of RAM.
• At least 7 GB of available hard disk space.
• OS X version 10.6.6 or later (10.6.8 recommended) and the Mac® App Store installed.

Linux System Requirements

The hardware requirements for installing Linux will depend upon the distribution of Linux you
choose. Linux is a portable operating system, which means it can run on a variety of hardware
platforms. There are versions available for many different processor types, including Intel x86 and
Pentium, Itanium, DEC Alpha, Sun Sparc, Motorola, and others. In general, a basic installation of
Linux on a workstation might require as little as 16 or 32 MB of memory and 250 MB of disk space,
but you might need several gigabytes of disk space for complete installations including all utilities.

Hardware Compatibility
Prior to installing any versions of Windows, you should check to make sure that your system meets
the system requirements and that all your hardware is compatible with the version of Windows you
plan to install.
If you plan on installing or upgrading to Windows 7, Microsoft offers a number of ways to check to
see if your existing hardware is compatible.
• The Microsoft Windows 7 Upgrade Advisor: For single systems or for home computers, you can
download and run the Windows 7 Upgrade Advisor, available at http://
windows.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/downloads/upgrade-advisor. The Upgrade
Advisor will scan your hardware and any connected devices to determine if you can upgrade to
Windows 7 with your current hardware configuration.
• The Windows 7 Compatibility Center: The Windows 7 Compatibility Center is a one-stop-shop
where you can find out which hardware and software components are compatible with Windows
7. You can visit the Compatibility Center at www.microsoft.com/windows/compatibility/
windows-7/en-us/default.aspx.
• The Microsoft Assessment and Planning (MAP) Toolkit: The MAP Toolkit is the appropriate
tool to use to assess an organization-wide or network-wide migration to a Windows operating
system. It allows you to check the hardware configuration of all the systems on your network
The toolkit can generate details about those systems that can be readily upgraded to Windows 7
using their present configuration. It also provides details about the hardware that needs to be
upgraded for the other systems to run Windows 7. The toolkit is freeware, and can be

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 downloaded from the Microsoft Download Center at www.microsoft.com/download/en/
details.aspx?id=7826.

Macintosh Hardware Compatibility

If your Macintosh® computer meets the minimum requirements for OS X installation, the hardware
should all be compatible with the operating system. You can verify that your hardware is supported
by examining the technical specifications, by product, at http://support.apple.com/specs/.

Linux Hardware Compatibility

Because Linux is a portable operating system, it is compatible with a wide range of hardware. You
will need to check with the vendor or provider of your Linux distribution to verify if your particular
system hardware is supported by that distribution.
Some web resources you can use to research general Linux hardware support include:
• The Linux Hardware Compatibility HOWTO website at http://tldp.org/HOWTO/
Hardware-HOWTO/index.html.
• The Linux Questions website's hardware compatibility list at www.linuxquestions.org/hcl/.
• Linux hardware and driver support lists at www.linux-drivers.org.

Boot Methods
The operating system comes loaded onto a boot device, which is connected to the computer and
can be used to either launch the OS or, in some cases, install the OS files onto the computer. There
are a number of boot methods that can be used to install the operating system.

Boot Method Description

USB The operating system files and all necessary support files are loaded onto a
USB device, such as a flash drive. The USB is connected to the computer
and the operating system is booted and launched via the files on the USB.
CD-ROM/DVD The operating system files and all necessary support files are loaded onto
an optical disk, such as a CD-ROM or DVD. The disk type used will be
dependent upon the size of the files on the disk: DVDs can hold more
files and larger files than a CD-ROM. Regardless of the type, the disk is
inserted into the optical drive of the computer and the operating system is
booted and launched via the files on the disk.
PXE The operating system files and all necessary support files can be accessed
from a Preboot Execution Environment, or PXE (pronounce as "pixie").
With PXE, the operating system and all necessary supporting files are
loaded onto a server. The operating system is then booted and launched
over a network interface, accessing the operating system files on the
server, instead of using a local drive. This method is often used for
booting multiple computers that are being managed centrally and accessed
by more than one user, such as public computers at a library or school.

Factory Configuration
Most computers are factory-configured to boot from CD-ROM or DVD-ROM first, and changing
them to boot from hard disk speeds up the startup process. It also reduces the risk of contracting
viruses by accidentally booting from an infected disk.

Device Priority
The BIOS allows a user to specify disk boot order and to provide device priority. By default, the
computer might look to boot from the hard disk or a DVD-ROM first. If you prefer to boot from
an operating system contained on a USB device, you can instruct the computer to look to that

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 device first. To change the settings, wait until the computer has performed its POST, press the key
(usually a function key, such as F12) indicated onscreen, and follow the instructions.

Imaging
Imaging Imaging is the process of creating a computer image from one main computer, called the reference
computer, and copying that image onto one or more other computers, called the target computers, as a
method of installing an operating system and other programs. A computer image is essentially a replica
of the reference computer's hard disk and contains the operating system software, such as Windows
XP Professional or Windows 7, and any other desired applications, files, desktop settings, and user
preferences.
Problems can arise from differences in the hardware between the reference computer and the target
computer. Not everyone has the same exact computer throughout a company, so it is not
uncommon for slight variances in network and video cards to exist. For these systems, the best
thing to do is to create the image without these drivers installed, then install them after the machine
is imaged. Bigger concerns that are difficult to overcome deal with differences at the motherboard
level, which can cause the installation to fail. This would necessitate different images for each system
type.

Installation Types
Installation Types There are several methods available for installing a Windows operating system.
Upgrades are briefly
mentioned here as a Installation Method Description
method of installation;
however, upgrades are Clean install A clean install is used to install the operating system on a brand new
covered in more detail computer or to replace the operating system on an older computer
later on in the Windows in which the hard drive has been completely wiped.
Upgrades topic.
If the computer is new or once the old hard drive has been wiped,
you can install the operating system using the boot method of your
choice. Typically a clean installation will be performed with a local
source, likely an installation disc.
A clean install on an old system is particularly helpful if the system
has been plagued by problems; erasing the hard drive and starting
with a clean install can eliminate viruses and corrupted files and
allow the computer to work more efficiently. However, it is
important to remember that all the settings, preferences and files will
be lost with a clean install to replace an existing system. Some of
these settings or files can be migrated after the install using a
migration tool.
Unattended installation An unattended installation is an automated installation method that
is most often used to roll out an installation or upgrade of the
operating system to multiple systems and with minimal user
interaction. An administrator is needed to start the installation, but
then tasks that would usually require user input during installation
are carried out automatically using an answer file. An answer file is a
simple text file that contains all of the instructions that the Windows
Setup file will need to install and configure the OS without any
administrator intervention, including the product key.
Using unattended installation allows for multiple installations to
occur simultaneously, can prevent errors during installation and
create more consistency between installations in a large-scale rollout,

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Installation Method Description

all while lowering overhead costs and decreasing installation time

and effort.
Repair installation A repair installation is used to fix or repair the operating system that
is currently installed on the computer and is experiencing issues. A
repair install will replace the system files currently on the system
with a fresh set of system files, essentially overwriting the existing
system files. A repair install will only work if you are replacing the
same version of the operating system; you cannot upgrade in this
manner.
With a repair installation you can install the operating system using
the boot method of your choice.
It is important to back up any data that you do not want to lose
during the repair install to another disk partition, separate hard drive,
or to an external storage device.
Upgrade An upgrade is used when an operating system is already installed, but
the user needs or wants a newer version of the operating system.
Upgrades are often provided on a disk or via a download from a
vendor's website.
It is recommended that you back up any data that you do not want
to lose during the upgrade to another disk partition, separate hard
drive, or to an external storage device. It is also recommended that
files for the upgraded system are placed in a separate directory
folder, preserving the current OS files, to ensure that everything is
working properly.
Multiboot Multiboot or dual boot refers to installing more than one operating
system on a machine. This may mean more than one type of OS
made by different vendors (such as Windows and Unix or Linux OS)
installed on a single machine, or could mean having a newer and an
older version of the same OS (such as Windows XP and Windows 7)
on a single machine.
Multiboot installation requires that the machine either has multiple
hard disks or that the hard disk has been partitioned, with a separate
partition available for each operating system.
Multiboot installations can be completed using the boot method of
your choice.
Remote network installation With remote network installation, copies of the necessary operating
system installation files are placed on a server that supports remote
installations, and an administrator can remotely initiate the
installation over the network onto one or more client computers.
Installing an operating system remotely requires the use of PXE as
the boot method.
Image deployment Image deployment provides a rapid way to install a standardized
version of an operating system on one or many target computers.
The operating system is first installed and configured with any
additional software, security settings or general user settings on a
reference computer. A computer image is made of the reference
computer's hard disk, including the operating system and all

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 Installation Method Description

associated files, and then replicated onto the specified target

computers.
More than likely, the image will be too large to be placed on a CD or
DVD, and it will need to be saved to a large flash drive. This
installation will likely be completed using a USB drive as the boot
method.

Note: If your network environment supports Microsoft Active Directory®, you can use
Microsoft's Windows Deployment Services (WDS) to deploy Windows automatically on multiple
computers. WDS uses disk imaging (the Windows Imaging format). It will now fully automate
the installation of Windows XP, Windows Server 2003, Windows Server 2008, Windows Vista,
and Windows 7. WDS is a replacement of the old Remote Installation Services (RIS).

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 ACTIVITY 6-2
Examining Installation Methods

Scenario
Based on the scenario given, choose the most appropriate installation method.

1. A user has had Windows 7 for several months, but a virus attack has corrupted some files.
○ Unattended
○ Upgrade
○ Repair
○ Multiboot

2. Several identical PCs need their operating systems upgraded.

☐ Unattended
☐ Clean
☐ Repair
☐ Image deployment

3. A user has Windows XP and needs both Windows XP and Windows 7.

○ Clean
○ Repair
○ Remote network
○ Multiboot

Third Party Drivers

The installation files for your operating system should include the necessary drivers for the hardware
components of the system. However, if you have hardware that has been released more recently
than the operating system or have added hardware components to the system that are not
traditionally part of the environment, such as a wireless card or printer, then you may need to load
alternate third party drivers for these devices during the installation process.

Partitioning
Partitioning is the process of dividing a single hard disk into multiple isolated sections that function
like separate physical hard drives, known as disk partitions. Partitions enable you to create a logical
disk structure to organize hard drives. You can set up and format one or more disk partitions during
installation. If you make an entire disk one partition, you cannot re-partition the disk later without
either reinstalling the operating system or using a third-party disk utility. After you create a partition,
you must format it to be able to store data on that partition.

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 Figure 6-3: Disk partitioning in Windows 7.

Partitioning Types
There are several types of partitions and disks used to create sections on a hard disk.

Partition Type Description

Logical A part of a physical disk drive that has been partitioned and allocated as an
independent unit and functions as a separate drive.
Primary A partition that contains only one file system or logical drive.
Extended An extended partition can be subdivided into several file systems or logical
disks/drives. Extended drives can be assigned a new drive letter.

Disk Type Description

Basic A basic disk contains a primary partition, logical drives, and possibly an
extended partition. These partitions have been formatted with a file system
and are used as a volume for storage. Up to four partitions can be made on
a basic disk. Basic disks are the most commonly used storage type in a
Windows environment.
Dynamic A dynamic disk contains dynamic volumes, which are volumes that can
span multiple disks. On a dynamic disk, up to 2,000 volumes can be
created, though a maximum of 32 volumes is recommended.

Volumes
A volume is a single storage unit made up of free space that can reside on a single disk or partition or
across multiple disks or partitions. However, a volume must be located on a single file system. The

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term “volume” may be used in place of the term “drive” to refer to a drive that is not a physical
disk.

Types of Volumes
There are two main types of volumes: basic or simple volumes and dynamic volumes. Within
dynamic volumes, there are different ways of expanding storage space over multiple disks.
• Basic (Simple) volume: A volume where the free space on a single disk or partition is used for
storage space. It can be extended on the same disk or onto an additional disk; if extended onto
an additional disk, it becomes a spanned volume.
• Spanned volume: A volume where the free space from multiple disks or partitions, which have
been linked together, is used for storage space. A maximum of 32 disks can be linked together on
a spanned volume.
• Striped volume: A volume where the free space from two or more physical disks is alternately
utilized for storage space. The data is stored equally and alternately on each of the physical disks.
It is sometimes referred to as a RAID-0 volume.
• Mirrored volume: A volume where the free space is used on two physical disks to store duplicate
copies of the same data. The data from the volume on one disk is duplicated another physical
disk to provide data redundancy. It is sometimes referred to as a RAID-1 volume.
• RAID-5 volume: A volume that is a combination of hard drives that are configured to write data
across three or more drives.

File System Types

During installation, you can choose to format the hard disk with the appropriate file system.

Type Description

NTFS For a typical Windows setup, it is recommended that you choose the NTFS
file system. This file system is used in newer Windows operating systems and
can handle larger size partitions greater than 32 GB.
FAT The FAT file system is a legacy formatting option that should only be used if
running an older operating system such as Windows 95 or 98. The FAT file
system is less secure and has a limit to size of partition it can support. If
FAT32 is chosen, the size of the partition being formatted will determine the
FAT file type used. If the partition is larger than 2 gigabytes, Windows
automatically uses the FAT32 file system; smaller than 2 GB, FAT16 is used.
If the partition is larger than 32 GBs, FAT is not an option
CDFS Compact Disc File System (CDFS) CDFS is a very limited file system that was
developed for optical disc media, typically for open source operating
systems. Multiple operating systems support CDFS, including Windows,
Apple® OS, and Unix-based systems. By supporting multiple platforms,
CDFS allows for data and files to be exchanged without compatibility issues
between the various operating systems.

Format Options
Whether your needs are to support older operating systems with FAT, or newer systems with
NTFS, there are two options available for formatting during setup: full format and quick format.
During a full format, any existing files on the partition being formatted are removed and the disk is
scanned for any potential bad sectors. This scan can be time consuming, which is why the quick
format option is available. During a quick format, the existing files on the partition are removed, but
the hard disk is not scanned for bad sectors. While the quick format may indeed be quicker, it is
suggested that quick format is used only if the hard disk was previously formatted and you are sure
there are no damaged sectors.

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 Format Types
There are two types of formatting for hard disks:
• Low-level formatting is the process of writing track and sector markings on a hard disk. This level of
formatting is performed when the hard disk is manufactured.
• High-level formatting is an operating system function that builds file systems on drives and
partitions. It tests disk sectors to verify that they can be reliably used to hold data. It marks any
unreliable sectors as bad sectors that cannot be used.

Workgroups
A workgroup is a Microsoft peer-to-peer network model in which computers are grouped together
with access to shared resources for organizational purposes. Members of a workgroup can access
folders, files, printers, or other connections over the network. The computers that make up a
workgroup appear together when you browse the list of networked devices in either the Network
folder or My Network Places. Each computer in the workgroup maintains its own user account
database. This means that if a user wants to log on at any computer within the workgroup, you must
create an account for the user on each computer in the workgroup.

Figure 6-4: A workgroup.

Homegroups
In Windows 7, a homegroup is a peer-to-peer networking scheme where computers on a home
network are grouped together for the purpose of sharing files and other resources such as printers.
Computers on a home network must belong to a workgroup, but they can also belong to a
homegroup.
When you install Windows 7, a homegroup is created automatically, if one does not already exist on
your home network. The homegroup is automatically assigned a password by Windows. If you want
to add computers to the homegroup, you will need to enter the password to join.
The homegroup provides easy resource sharing with security options such as:
• Excluding files and folders from being shared.
• Specifying whether or not others can change the files that you share.

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The HomeGroup Control Panel contains options to manage your homegroup.

Figure 6-5: The HomeGroup Control Panel.

Domains
A domain is a Microsoft client/server network model that groups computers together for security
and to centralize administration. Computers that are members of a domain have access to a shared
central user account database, which means that an individual can use a single user account to log on
at any computer within the domain. Administration is centralized because you need to create the
user accounts only once in the domain, not on each computer. Domains require a specially
configured server computer called a domain controller, where the centralized user account database is
stored. Like a workgroup, computers that are members of a domain appear together when you
browse the network.

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 Figure 6-6: A domain.

Customizing System Options

Customizing System There are several options that you can customize as you are installing a Windows operating system.
Options
Note: These options can be set during or after installation. They do not have to be configured
during installation; if they are not set up during the installation, they can be changed at any time,
typically through a Control Panel utility.

Option Description

Regional and language The default for a Windows system is the English language, with the
settings location set to the United States. However, these settings can be
customized to reflect region- or language-specific options. You can select
the date and time for a specific location and choose appropriate regional
settings, such as the manner in which numbers or currencies are
displayed.
Computer name During installation, you can provide the computer with a descriptive
name and the organization to which you or the computer belongs.
Date and time If you are within the United States and did not customize the regional and
language settings, you can set the correct date and time, and choose the
appropriate time zone for your region. If desired, you can choose to have
Windows automatically adjust the time for Daylight Savings Time.
Network configuration If Windows detects a network adapter during installation, you can decide
how you want to configure networking settings for the computer. You
can accept a Typical configuration or you can configure Custom settings
that are appropriate to your environment. Otherwise, you can install your
network adapter settings after the installation.
Workgroup vs. During installation, you can decide if you want the computer to be a
Domain setup member of a domain or a member of a workgroup. If the computer is not

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Option Description
on a network or on a network without a domain, you can select or create
a workgroup for the computer to belong to. If the computer is part of a
network with a domain, you can select the domain to which the computer
will be added as a member.

Creating Local User Accounts During Installation

For Windows XP, if you are installing into a workgroup, you can create local user accounts during
installation. You can create additional local users and groups after installation.
For Windows 7, you create local users and groups after the installation is complete.

Creating a Homegroup
If you are installing Windows 7 on a computer that is connected to a home network, the homegroup
will be created when you configure the network settings.

Updates
As operating systems constantly evolve with the many changes in the technological world, there is
always the possibility that you may need to update your operating system immediately after installing
it. You will also need to maintain the system over time as changes and improvements are made.
Updates fall into one of three categories: critical updates, including Service Packs and security-
related system patches; optional software updates that provide new tools and functionality; and
optional hardware updates such as new device drivers.
Windows XP uses the Microsoft Update website or the Microsoft Update utility within the Help
and Support Center to obtain any updates needed for the operating system. Windows Vista and
Windows 7 uses the Windows Update Control Panel utility, a centralized location where you can
check to see if your system is up to date and if there are any updates available, and configure the
settings for updating your system. Regardless of the version you are running, the Microsoft Update
website can provide updates for other Microsoft products that may have updates available.
Note:
The Windows Update website is located at www.update.microsoft.com/microsoftupdate.
You can run either an Express or Custom update; if you run a Custom update, you will be able
to choose from updates in each of the three main categories.

Service Packs and Patches

Patches are targeted operating system updates that Microsoft releases on an as-needed basis to
provide enhancements to the operating system or to address security or performance issues. Service
Packs are comprehensive updates that generally include all prior patches and updates, but which can
also include important new features and functions. Windows XP SP2, for instance, included firewall
changes; SP3 included support for Statements of Health and Digital Rights Management.

Windows Genuine Advantage

Every time you access the Microsoft Update website, it goes through a process of validating your
installation. If Microsoft deems the install to be invalid, you will not be able to proceed with updates
and will be instructed to contact Microsoft.

Factory Recovery Partition

Sometimes a computer may be experiencing problems that require you to recover it to the factory
settings in order for it to work properly. In these instances, you may need to restore the computer to
its initial state as provided from the manufacturer. You can use the factory recovery partition, a hidden

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 partition on the computer's hard disk containing all of the original files and settings for the
operating system and other pre-installed applications in their initial state, to restore the computer to
it's factory settings.
The steps you use to perform this type of recovery are manufacturer-specific. You should always
review the documentation that came with the computer to determine how to perform the recovery
for the specific computer you are restoring. Regardless of how you perform the restore, it is always
recommended that you back up any important data from the computer onto an external storage
device, as all data will be lost when the system is restored to factory settings.

Recovery Partition or Recovery CD?

Depending on the manufacturer of your computer, you may have been supplied with either a
recovery partition or CD-ROM (sometimes called a Recovery CD, or a Recover CD) that you can
use to restore the computer to the configuration it was in when it shipped from the manufacturer.
Some computers may allow you to create your own recovery CDs from the factory partition
proactively, in case the hard drive should ever fail and you can't access the recovery partition to
restore the computer.

Microsoft Product Activation

Microsoft Product Microsoft Product Activation for Windows XP or Volume Activation for Windows 7 is an anti-
Activation piracy technology that verifies that software products are legitimately purchased. Product activation
reduces a form of piracy known as casual copying. For example, you must activate Windows 7
within a given number of days after installation. After the grace period, users cannot access the
system until they activate Windows. Volume Activation automates the activation process.

Activation Methods
For individual installations of Windows, you can activate the installation over the Internet. If you do
not have an Internet connection, you can activate over the phone, although this takes a little longer.
If you wish, you can postpone product activation and activate later in the activation grace period.
In large organizations, you can use a Volume License Product Key, which eliminates the need to
individually activate each installation of Windows. You can also activate Windows as part of an
automated installation.

Access the Checklist tile on your LogicalCHOICE course screen for reference
information and job aids on How to Install Microsoft Windows

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 ACTIVITY 6-3
Installing Microsoft Windows

Before You Begin

There is a VM named Win7test## installed on your computer that you can use to install Windows
7 Professional, and your instructor has provided you with installation DVDs or the instructions to
use another installation method, as well as a valid product key.

Scenario
You have created a VM named Win7test## on your Windows 7 computer so that you can practice
installing Windows 7 for a new job opportunity.

1. Configure the VM to access the Windows 7 Professional setup program.

a) If you have a physical installation DVD, insert the Windows 7 Professional installation DVD into the
optical drive of the computer.
b) In the Virtual Machines window, display the pop-up menu for Win7test## and select Settings.
c) In the left pane, select DVD Drive.
The DVD Drive settings enable you to specify a physical drive, such as an optical drive, or you can
browse for and select an ISO image to access.
d) If you have a physical installation DVD, verify that Access a physical drive is selected. Assist participants in
e) If you have an ISO image of the installation DVD, browse to the location of the ISO image and select selecting the proper
Open. location of the
f) Select OK. installation files.

2. Run the Windows 7 Professional setup program in the Win7test## VM.

a) Start the VM.
b) When you are prompted, press Spacebar to boot from the DVD drive or ISO image.
The Setup program starts, and begins loading the files needed for setup.

3. Run the Installation wizard for Windows 7 Professional.

a) In the Install Windows dialog box, examine the selections for Language to install, Time and currency
format, and Keyboard or input method. If necessary, adjust the selections for your locale. Select
Next.
b) Click OK in the Mousepointer will be captured by the Virtual machine dialog box.
c) Click Next.
d) Select Install now.
e) When the license terms are displayed, review them, check I accept the license terms, and select
Next.
f) On the Which type of installation do you want? screen, select Custom (advanced).
g) On the Where do you want to install Windows? screen, select Drive options (advanced).
h) Select Disk 0 Unallocated Space, and select Next.
i) The VM will automatically restart after a few minutes. Remove the DVD before the VM restarts.
j) Observe as the VM restarts, Registry settings are updated, services are started, and the installation
is completed.
When the installation is completed, Windows restarts, prepares the computer for first use, and
checks video performance.

4. Configure Windows.
a) In the Set Up Windows dialog box, type Admin## for the user name and VMWin## for the computer
name. Select Next.

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 You are prompted to set a password for the new account.
b) Type and confirm !Pass1234 as the password and as the password hint, and then click Next.
c) Type the product key provided by your instructor, and select Next.
d) On the Help protect your computer and improve Windows automatically screen, select Use
recommended settings.
e) On the Review your date and time settings screen, select the correct Time zone, Date, and Time for
your locale. Select Next.
f) On the Select your computer's current location screen, select Work network.
Windows connects the VM to the network and prepares the desktop.

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TOPIC C
Windows Upgrades
In the previous topic, you installed Microsoft Windows on a personal computer system. Upgrades
are one method for installing Windows, but are more commonly utilized to migrate from one
version of Windows to a different or newer version. In this topic, you will perform a Windows
upgrade.
Software vendors such as Microsoft are constantly coming out with new operating system versions,
and it can sometimes be more economical to upgrade existing systems when possible rather than to
purchase new computer hardware with the new version pre-installed. Whether you are upgrading for
an individual user or as part of a company-wide migration plan, the skills in this topic should help
you upgrade from older versions of Windows to the current version successfully.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220–802: Objective 1.1: Compare and contrast the features and requirements of various
Microsoft Operating Systems.

In-Place Upgrades
An in-place upgrade is the process of installing a newer version of an operating system without first In-Place Upgrades
removing the existing operating system that is currently installed on the computer. In-place upgrades
also eliminate the need to perform the most tedious tasks involved with a clean install of an
operating system: saving or backing up data that has been saved on the computer, wiping the hard
drive, migrating or transferring saved data back to the machine, and reinstalling any programs that
had been added to the system. In essence, an in-place upgrade can overwrite the existing, older
operating system with the new version without disruption to the end user's environment.

In-Place Upgrade vs. Clean Install

In-place upgrades have been known to cause problems when upgrading to a version of the
operating system that is significantly different from the existing version. In-place upgrades are only
recommended when moving between operating systems that are one version apart, such as from
Windows Vista to Windows 7. When there is a larger gap in the differences between the systems,
such as migrating from Windows XP to Windows 7, a clean install is recommended rather than an
in-place upgrade.

Supported Upgrade Paths

Existing Windows operating systems that are installed on a machine can be upgraded to another Supported Upgrade
version of Windows, but these upgrades can only follow specific and supported upgrade paths. Paths

Current Operating System Can Be Upgraded To

Windows XP Home Edition • Windows XP Professional

• Windows Vista Home Basic
• Windows Vista Home Premium
• Windows Vista Business
• Windows Vista Ultimate
Windows XP Professional • Windows Vista Business
• Windows Vista Ultimate

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 Current Operating System Can Be Upgraded To

Windows XP can be upgraded to Windows Vista Home Basic and

Home Premium, but to do so requires a clean installation.
Windows Vista Home Windows Vista Home Basic can be upgraded to:
• Windows Vista Home Premium.
• Windows Vista Ultimate.
• Windows 7 Home Basic.
• Windows 7 Home Premium.
• Windows 7 Ultimate.
Windows Vista Home Premium can be upgraded to:
• Windows Vista Ultimate.
• Windows 7 Home Premium.
• Windows 7 Ultimate.
Windows Vista Business/ Windows Vista Business can be upgraded to:
Enterprise/Ultimate
• Windows Vista Ultimate.
• Windows 7 Professional.
• Windows 7 Enterprise.
• Windows 7 Ultimate.
Windows Vista Enterprise can be upgraded to Windows 7
Enterprise.
Windows Vista Ultimate can be upgraded to Windows 7 Ultimate.
Windows 7 Starter • Windows 7 Home Premium
• Windows 7 Professional
• Windows 7 Ultimate
Windows 7 Home Windows 7 Home Basic can be upgraded to:
• Windows 7 Home Premium.
• Windows 7 Professional.
• Windows 7 Ultimate.
Windows 7 Home Premium can be upgraded to:
• Windows 7 Professional.
• Windows 7 Ultimate.
Windows 7 Professional Windows 7 Professional can be upgraded to Windows 7 Ultimate.

Upgrade Support
There are many upgrade paths that are not supported, whether because of the vast differences in
functions between the operating systems, or if your operating system is no longer commercially
available. To see a full list of all of the supported or unsupported upgrade paths for Windows XP,
Windows Vista, and Windows 7, please visit the following links:
• Windows XP: http://support.microsoft.com/kb/292607
• Windows Vista: http://windows.microsoft.com/en-us/windows7/help/upgrading-from-
windows-vista-to-windows-7
• Windows 7: http://windows.microsoft.com/en-US/windows7/products/home

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Compatibility Tools
When upgrading to a different version of Windows, you will need to check to ensure that the
existing hardware is compatible with the new operating system and that your existing software
applications will run properly on the new version of Windows. Applications written for earlier
versions of Windows might not always work with your new OS version, but you may be able to
select an appropriate application compatibility mode for the application after you have upgraded the
operating system.
Note: To access the Upgrade Advisor, you can visit http://windows.microsoft.com/en-US/
windows/downloads/upgrade-advisor.

Windows Compatibility Center

The Windows Compatibility Center is a central location where you can find out if your hardware or
software is compatible with the latest version of Windows. From the Compatibility Center, you can
also download and launch the Upgrade Advisor, which will scan your computer in its current
configuration, including any peripheral devices, to see if all parts are compatible with the operating
system's requirements. Upgrade Advisor is only available for the most current version of Windows
available; it will not support a compatibility check for older versions. However, the Setup program
included with Windows XP, Windows Vista, and Windows 7 will automatically run a compatibility
check during the upgrade process, and should find any compatibility issues.
Note: To access the Compatibility Center, visit www.microsoft.com/windows/
compatibility/windows-7/en-US/.

Network Compatibility Considerations

As part of the hardware compatibility check, you should verify that drivers are available for the
existing network adapter card that are compatible with the new version of Windows.

Application Compatibility Modes

The Windows XP application compatibility modes are Windows 95, Windows® 98/Windows® Me,
Windows NT® 4.0, Windows 2000, 256 colors, and 640 x 480 screen resolution. You can set the
appropriate mode for a particular application by running the Program Compatibility wizard from
Windows XP Help and Support Center. See the article "Windows XP Application Compatibility
Technologies" at www.microsoft.com/technet/prodtechnol/winxppro/plan/
appcmpxp.mspx for more information.
The Windows 7 application compatibility modes are Windows 95, Windows 98/Windows Me,
Windows NT 4.0 (Service Pack 5), Windows 2000, Windows XP (Service Pack 2), and Windows
Server® 2003 (Service Pack 1). You can set the appropriate mode for a particular application by
right-clicking the program's executable, choosing Properties, selecting the Compatibility tab, and
then choosing the desired OS from the drop-down list.

Macintosh Software Compatibility

Applications that ran in previous releases of Mac OS X should be supported when you upgrade to
any current release.
If you need to use Mac OS 9 applications on a Mac OS X system, you can do so in the Classic
environment in Mac OS X. To use the Classic environment, you must have a Mac OS 9 System
Folder installed on your computer, either on the same hard disk as Mac OS X, or on another disk or
disk partition. For more information on Mac OS X technical specifications, see http://
support.apple.com/specs#macos.
Apple also provides tools to enable IBM® PC users to transfer files and software when migrating
from an IBM Windows PC to a Macintosh. For more information on moving from Windows to
Macintosh, see www.apple.com/macosx/compatibility/.

Compatibility Tools
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7 Networking
Technologies
Lesson Time: 3 hours, 15 minutes

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will identify network technologies. You will:
• Identify the fundamental components that make up a computer network.
• Identify the properties and characteristics of TCP/IP.
• Identify network connectivity technologies.
• Examine common ports and protocols.
• Set up and configure Windows networking.
• Examine networking tools.

Lesson Introduction
In this course, you are learning to support a wide range of computing device features and
functions. A key factor in device communication is how they are connected and how they
transfer data to one another. In this lesson, you will identify a number of networking
technologies.
Just about very digital device on the planet today is connected to external resources via
some kind of network, whether it is a small office/home office network, a corporate wide
area network (WAN), or directly to the Internet itself. The ability to connect, share, and
communicate using a network is crucial for running a business and staying connected to
everything in the world, so as an A+ support technician, you will need to understand the
technologies that underlie both local and global network communications to ensure that the
organization you support stays connected.
This lesson covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification
objectives:
• Topic A:
• Exam 220–801: Objectives 1.7, 1.11, 2.1, 2.2
• Topic B:
• Exam 220–801: Objectives 2.3, 2.4

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 • Topic C:
• Exam 220–801: Objectives 2.7, 2.8, 2.9
• Topic D:
• Exam 220–801: Objective 2.4
• Topic E:
• Exam 220–802: Objective 1.6
• Topic F:
• Exam 220–801: Objective 2.10

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TOPIC A
Physical Network Connections
In this lesson, you will identify various networking technologies. In order to do so, you will need to
understand a few basic concepts and the connections used to implement computer networks and
their components. In this topic, you will identify the physical network connections that make up
most computer networks.
No matter what types of networks you support in your professional career, they will all share some
fundamental characteristics as well as basic physical components. As a computer support technician,
dealing with these components will need to be as natural to you as handling a scalpel is to a surgeon.
The information in this topic will familiarize you with the physical network connections and
components that you will deal with on a daily basis as a support technician.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220–801: Objective 1.7: Compare and contrast various connection interfaces and explain
their purpose.
• Exam 220–801: Objective 1.11: Identify connector types and associated cables.
• Exam 220–801: Objective 2.1: Identify types of network cables and connectors.
• Exam 220–801: Objective 2.2: Categorize characteristics of connectors and cabling.
• Exam 220–801: Objective 2.4: Explain common TCP and UPD ports, protocols, and their
purpose.

Networks
A network is a group of connected computers that communicate and share resources such as files,
printers, Internet connections, and databases. Whether wired or wireless, most networks will include
network media, such as a cable to carry network data; network adapter hardware to translate the data
between the computer and the network media; an operating system to enable the computer to
recognize the network; and a network protocol to control the network communication. All these
components work together to enable a fully functioning computer network. Any computing device
that will communicate with a network will also include a network interface card (NIC) that is usually
built into most devices. Older devices may require an adapter card that can be inserted into an
expansion port or slot.

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 Figure 8-1: A network.

Network Models
Network Models There are two primary network models, which are design specifications for how the computers and
other nodes on a network can interact.

Network Model Description

Client-server A client/server network is a network in which computer functionality is divided into

two roles: server computers, which provide services and control network
operations, and client computers, which use the services provided by the servers.
Typically, there is at least one server providing central authentication services.
Servers also provide access to shared files, printers, hardware, and applications.
In client/server networks, processing power, management services, and
administrative functions can be concentrated where needed, while clients can still
perform many basic end-user tasks on their own. Microsoft® Windows Servers®
support a client/server network type known as a domain.
Peer-to-peer A peer-to-peer network is a network in which resource sharing, processing, and
communications control are completely decentralized. All clients on the network
are equal in terms of providing and using resources, and users are authenticated
by each individual workstation. Peer-to-peer networks are easy and inexpensive
to implement. However, they are practical only in very small organizations, due

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Network Model Description
to the lack of central data storage and administration. In a peer-to-peer network,
user accounts must be duplicated on every workstation from which a user
accesses resources. Such distribution of user information makes maintaining
peer-to-peer networks difficult, especially as the network grows. Consequently,
peer-to-peer networks should not exceed 10 computers. A Windows®
workgroup is an example of a peer-to-peer network.

Network Interface Card Characteristics

Network interface cards have some special characteristics that distinguish them from other types of Network Interface Card
adapter cards. Characteristics
Mention that most NICs
today are onboard, so
the adapters are less
common.

Figure 8-2: A network interface card.

Network interface card characteristics are described in the following table.

Characteristic Description

Network connection Network adapter cards will have one or more ports that are configured to
port connect specifically to a given type of network cable. Some older cards
had several types of ports so that they could connect to several different
types of network cable. Network connections today are standardized and
almost all use one port type.
Physical network Each network adapter has a globally unique physical address burned onto
address the card by the card manufacturer. The physical address uniquely
identifies every individual card that connects to the network cable or
media. For this reason, the physical address is also called the Media Access
Control (MAC) address. MAC addresses are six bytes long. A typical MAC
address might appear as 00-00-86-47-F6-65, where the first three bytes
are the vendor's unique ID and the next three uniquely identify that card
for its vendor.

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 Characteristic Description
Status indicator lights Network adapters, including those built into most network devices,
typically have one or more light emitting diode (LED) status lights that
can provide information on the state of the network connection.
• Most adapters have a link light that indicates if there is a signal from
the network. If the link light is not lit, there is generally a problem
with the cable or the physical connection.
• Most adapters also have an activity light that flickers when packets are
received or sent. If the light flickers constantly, the network might be
overused or there might be a device generating network noise.
• Some multi-speed adapters have a speed light to show whether the
adapter is operating at 10 Mbps (Ethernet), 100 Mbps (Fast Ethernet),
or 1000 Mbps (Gigabit Ethernet).
• Some types of equipment combine the functions of more than one
light into dual-color LEDs. For example, a green flickering light
might indicate normal activity, while an orange flickering light
indicates network traffic collisions.

Twisted Pair Cables

Twisted pair is a type of cable in which four pairs of insulated conductors are twisted around each
other in pairs and clad in a protective and insulating outer jacket. There may be multiple pairs
depending on the type and size of cabling. Shielding can be added around the bundle of twisted
pairs to reduce electronic interference.

Figure 8-3: Twisted pair cable.

Types of Twisted Pair Cable

Twisted pair cable comes in two basic types: unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and shielded twisted pair
(STP). As the name implies, STP includes shielding, typically a foil wrapper, around its conductors
to improve the cable's resistance to interference and noise. It tends to be more expensive than UTP
and is installed only when needed.
UTP cable comes in different grades, called categories, which support different network speeds and
technologies. A cable's category is typically printed on the cable itself, making identification easy.

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Category Network Type and Maximum Speed

CAT 3 • Network Type: Telephone or Ethernet

• Maximum speed: 10 Mbps
CAT 3 is currently used for telephone wiring
CAT 5 • Network Type: Fast Ethernet
Maximum speed: CAT 5 supports a signaling rate up to 100 Mbps
CAT 5e • Network Type: Gigabit Ethernet
Maximum speed: CAT 5e supports a signaling rate of 350 Mbps
CAT 6 • Network Type: Gigabit Ethernet
• Maximum speed: 1 Gbps
CAT 6 supports a signaling rate of 250 MHz
CAT 6a • Network Type: Gigabit Ethernet
• Maximum speed: 1 Gbps
CAT 6a supports a signaling rate of 500 MHz
CAT 7 • Network Type: Gigabit Ethernet.
• Maximum speed: 1 Gbps+
CAT 7 supports a signaling rate of 1 GHz

PVC Cable vs. Plenum Cabling

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is an inexpensive and flexible rubber-like plastic used to surround some
twisted pair cabling. However, when PVC burns, it gives off noxious or poisonous gases.
Plenum cable jacketing does not give off noxious or poisonous gases when it burns. Fire codes require
that you install this special grade cabling in the plenum, which is a building's air handling space
between the structural ceiling and any suspended ceiling, under raised floors, and in firebreak walls.

Twisted Pair Connectors

The RJ45 connector is used on twisted pair cable. RJ45 is an eight-position connector that uses all
four pairs of wires. Be careful not to confuse the RJ45 connector with the similar, but smaller, RJ11
connector. The RJ11 connector is a six-position connector that uses just one pair of wires. It is used
in telephone system connections and is not suitable for network connectivity. The RJ in RJ11 or
RJ45 is an abbreviation for "registered jack." 5

285
 Figure 8-4: Twisted pair connectors.

Twisted Pair Wiring Standards

The Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) and the Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) developed
the 568 Commercial Building Telecommunication Cabling standard. This standard defines the
regulations on designing, building, and managing a cabling system that utilizes structured cabling
according to specified performance characteristics to create a system of unified communications.
TIA/EIA releases recommendations for how network media may best be installed to optimize
network performance:
• T568A is a legacy standard that was used in commercial buildings and cabling systems that
support data networks, voice, and video. It further defines cable performance and technical
requirements.
• T568B defines the standards for preferred cable types that provide the minimum acceptable
performance levels including:
• 100 ohm twisted pair cable.
• Shielded twisted pair cable.
• Optical fiber cable.
• T568C is the latest standard released by TIA/EIA that is designed to be used in commercial
buildings and in multiple locations and to provide full support for all modern and future
communications needs.

Coaxial Cables
Coaxial cable, or coax, is a type of copper cable that features a central conductor surrounded by
braided or foil shielding. An insulator separates the conductor and shield, and the entire package is
wrapped in an insulating layer called a jacket. The data signal is transmitted over the central
conductor. The outer shielding serves to reduce electromagnetic interference.

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 Note: Coaxial cable is so named because the conductor and shield share the central COmmon
AXis or are co-axial. This arrangement helps prevent electromagnetic interference from reaching
the conductor.

Figure 8-5: Coaxial cable.

Coaxial Cable and Connector Types

Coaxial cable comes in various thicknesses that use different connector types.

Figure 8-6: Typical Thinnet connectors.

The different types of coaxial cable are described in the following table.

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 Coaxial Cable Description
Type

5 mm/0.25 inch RG-58/U and RG-58A/U, also known as thinnet, are older types of media used
("Thinnet") for networking. RG-59 is used for cable television transmission. The
specifications include a maximum transmission speed is 10 Mbps using
baseband transmission up to 185 meters in length.
Thinnet connections are made with a twist-lock connector called a Bayonet
Neill-Concelman (BNC) connector. Devices connect to the network with T-
connectors. Each end of the cable must be terminated with a 50-ohm resistor.
Another coax connector type is the F-connector, which is used to connect cable
TV and FM antenna cables. Today, F-connectors are also used to connect cable
modems to the CATV network.
6.91 mm/ 0.35 RG-6/U has been replacing RG-59 in recent years as the preferred cable for
inch CATV networks. Like RG-59, F-connectors are used to connect cable modems
to the CATV network.
10 mm/0.5 inch RG8 is a thicker type of coaxial cable often referred to as thicknet. It is seldom
("Thicknet") seen today due to its expense and stiffness, but was popular at one time as a
backbone cable in coaxial network installations. The specifications include a
maximum transmission speed is 10 Mbps using baseband transmission up to
500 meters in length.
Connections between Thicknet segments are made with a screw-type connector
called an N-connector. Thicknet segments must be terminated with a 50-ohm
resistor.
A legacy method used to quickly connect a computer to a thicknet wire is called
a vampire tap.

Termination
Coax network segments typically must be terminated to prevent signal reflections off the end of the
cable. Cables are terminated by installing a resistor of an appropriate rating, typically 50 ohms, on
the end of the cable.

Fiber Optic Cables

Fiber optic cable is a type of network cable in which the core is one or more glass or plastic strands.
The core is between 5 and 100 microns thick and is surrounded by cladding, which reflects light
back to the core in patterns determined by the transmission mode. A buffer, often made of plastic,
surrounds the cladding and core. To add strength (or pull strength) to the cable, strands of Kevlar®
surround the buffer. An outer jacket, sometimes called armor, wraps and protects the whole
assembly. Light pulses from a laser or high-intensity light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are passed
through the core to carry the signal. The cladding reflects the light back into the core, increasing the
distance the signal can travel without being regenerated.
Fiber optic cables are expensive, fragile, and difficult to install. However, fiber optic transmissions
are fast and reliable over extremely long distances, so they are used frequently in backbone wiring
solutions. Also, fiber optic cables are impervious to electromagnetic interference. )

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Figure 8-7: A fiber optic cable.

Fiber Optic Cable Types

There are two types of fiber optic cables: single-mode or multimode fiber. Fiber Optic Cable Types

Mode Type Description

Single-mode fiber Carries a single optical signal, and has a small core that allows only a
single beam of light to pass. A laser, usually operating in the infrared
portion of the spectrum, is modulated in amplitude (intensity) to
transmit the signal through the fiber.
Step index multimode Contains a core surrounded by cladding, each with its own uniform
fiber index of refraction. When light from the core enters the cladding, a
step down occurs due to the difference in the refractive indices. Step-
index fiber uses total internal reflection to trap light.
Graded index multimode Possesses variations in the core glass to compensate for mode path
fiber length differences. It provides up to 2 GHz of bandwidth, which is
significantly more than step-index fiber.

Fiber Optic Connector Types

There are various connector types used with fiber optic cable. Fiber Optic Connector
Types
Connector Description

Straight Tip (ST) Used to connect multimode fiber, ST connectors look like BNC
connectors. They have a straight, ceramic center pin and bayonet lug
lockdown. They are often used in network patch panels. ST connectors
are perhaps the most popular type of fiber connector.

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 Connector Description

Subscriber Connector or Box-shaped connectors that snap into a receptacle. SC connectors are
Standard Connector (SC) often used in a duplex configuration where two fibers are terminated
into two SC connectors that are molded together. SC is used with
single-mode fiber.

Face Contact (FC) Similar to SMA connectors, FC connectors use a heavy duty ferrule in
the center for more mechanical stability than SMA or ST connectors.
These connectors are more popular in industrial settings where greater
strength is required.

Fiber Distributed Data The FDDI connector is a push/pull type, two-channel snap-fit
Interface (FDDI) connector used for multimode fiber optic cable. Also called a MIC
(Media Interface Connector).

Mini-BNC A bayonet-style connector using the traditional BNC connection

method.

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Connector Description
Biconic The biconic connector is a screw-on type connector with a tapered
sleeve that is fixed against guided rings and screws onto the threaded
sleeve to secure the connection. When the connector is inserted into
the receptacle, the tapered end of the connector locates the fiber optic
cable into the proper position. The biconic connector is one of the
earliest connector types and is, for the most part, no longer in use.

Local Connector (LC) The LC is a small form factor ceramic ferrule connector for both
single-mode and multimode fiber. It is about half the size of the SC or
ST. The LC uses an RJ45-type latching and can be used to transition
installations from twisted pair copper cabling to fiber.

Sub Multi Assembly or Sub Similar to ST connectors, SMA connectors use a threaded ferrule on
Miniature type A (SMA) the outside to lock the connector in place. These are typically used
where water or other environmental factors necessitate a waterproof
connection, which is not possible with a bayonet-style connector.

Mechanical Transfer The MT-RJ connector, sometimes called a Fiber Jack connector, is a
Registered Jack (MT-RJ) compact snap-to-lock connector used with multimode fiber. The MT-
RJ is easy to use and similar in size to the RJ45 connector. Two strands
of fiber are attached with one connector.

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 Wireless Connections
Wireless connections are network connections that transmit signals without using physical network
media. Instead, signals are transmitted as electromagnetic energy, such as radio waves, satellite
microwave, or infrared light. Most general office wireless implementations use radio. Wireless
communication enables users to move around while remaining connected to the network.
Note: Wireless communication permits connections between areas where it would be difficult or
impossible to install wires, such as in hazardous areas, across long distances, or inside historic
buildings. It is also extremely popular in standard business and home installations because of the
mobility and flexibility it provides, as well as the simplicity of media-free installation.

Figure 8-8: Wireless connections.

Wireless Signal Strength

The ability to communicate via wireless network is highly dependent upon the local signal strength.
Signal strength can vary in relation to a number of factors, including interference and distance from
the Wireless Access Point (WAP). Most wireless devices will provide some kind of indicator
regarding the strength of the current wireless signal. For example, in Windows, a wireless network
card will display a message on screen when signal strength is low and connectivity is limited as a
result.

Wi-Fi
Wireless radio communications following the IEEE 802.11g Wi-Fi standard are the most common
choice for ordinary wireless LAN connectivity for portable computers inside homes, offices, and,
increasingly, public buildings. Choose Wi-Fi when you need to connect portable computer systems
to a wired or wireless Ethernet LAN and enable users to move from place to place freely without a
line of sight to the WAP. Wi-Fi provides good performance within the WAP coverage area, barring
any signal interference.

Additional Network Connection Methods

In addition to coax, twisted pair, and fiber optic, you can use other types of cables and methods to
make network connections, including USB, FireWire®, and RS-232 null-modem cable. You can also
make wireless connections using radio, infrared, or satellite transmissions. Physical network cable
connections are often referred to as a group as bounded media. Wireless connection types that
transmit signals through the air without a cable are collectively called unbounded media.

RS-232 Null-Modem Connections

RS-232 is a standard serial interface that was used to connect serial devices, particularly modems.
These connections have been primarily replaced by the faster Ethernet, but can be found in some
cases to connect devices for debugging and to connect devices in close proximity of one another.
When you use an RS-232 null-modem cable to create network connections between computers, it
mimics the presence of a modem connection between the two systems. There are some types of
network connections, such as a dial-up Internet connection, that use telephone media. So, with an
RS-232 null-modem cable connected to two computers' serial ports, you can, in effect, create a
simulated dial-up connection directly between the two systems.

Wireless
292 Connections
 ACTIVITY 8-1
Identifying Network Cables and Connectors
For the ideal learning
Scenario experience, you should
In this activity, you will identify the various types of cables and connectors used to make network provide students with a
connections. variety of cables and
connectors in addition to
the cables used to
connect their computers
1. Look at the cables and connectors on the back of your computer, and identify what cables are used and
and devices.
what their purpose is.
Walk the students
through each step of the
2. What type of cable is used to connect your computer to the network?
activity and provide them
A: Answers will vary depending on the location of the participant and the type of network interface is with additional cables to
in the computer, and could range from twisted pair to wireless to virtual. identify.

3. Are there any LED lights on the cable ports indicating activity?
A: Answers will vary depending on the location of the participant and the level of network activity.
Some participants might see the LED lights lit or blinking, while others might not.

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 TOPIC B
TCP/IP
Now that you are familiar with the basic components that make up a network, you can start to take
a closer look into how Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) addressing and
data delivery methods are used to implement TCP/IP on a network. In this lesson, you will identify
the properties and characteristics of TCP/IP.
As an A+ technician, you must be able to identify the components of a system in order to provide
the right level of support to your organization. Because all networks are different, you still need to
be able to identify the components and how they are connected. Understanding how everything is
connected and functioning within the network will allow you to properly support TCP/IP within
the network.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220–801: Objective 2.3: Explain properties and characteristics of TCP/IP.

What is TCP/IP?
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is a nonproprietary, routable network protocol
that enables computers to communicate over all types of networks. TCP/IP is the native protocol
of the Internet and is required for Internet connectivity. TCP/IP is a suite of related protocols that
work together to provide network addressing and naming, and data delivery. In this suite, IP
provides addressing, TCP provides connection-oriented message transmission, and User Datagram
Protocol (UDP) provides connectionless, best-effort message transmission.

Note: For additional information, check out the LearnTO Interpret IP Address in the
LearnTOs for this course on your LogicalCHOICE Course screen.

Figure 8-9: TCP/IP.

Nonproprietary, Routable Protocols

Nonproprietary means that no one group or organization owns or controls the protocol. You do
not have to purchase software from a particular vendor or pay any kind of licensing fee to use
TCP/IP.
Routable means the protocol can be used to communicate between different network sections.
Thus, TCP/IP communications are not confined to a single network segment. To be routable, a
protocol must provide addresses that identify individual network segments as well as network hosts.

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Broadcast, Unicast, and Multicast
Broadcasts are network communications that are sent to all the computers on the network at once.
Compare this to unicast transmissions, which are sent to a specific address or addresses, or multicast
transmissions, which use a single address to transmit to a group of systems.

IPv4 Addresses
An IPv4 address is a 32-bit number assigned to a computer on a TCP/IP network. Some of the bits in
the address represent the network segment; the other bits represent the computer, or node, itself.
For readability, the 32-bit IPv4 address is usually separated by dots into four 8-bit octets, and each
octet is converted to a single decimal value. Each decimal number can range from 0 to 255, but the
first number cannot be 0. In addition, all four numbers in a host address cannot be 0 (0.0.0.0) or 255
(255.255.255.255).

Figure 8-10: An IPv4 address.

Network Names
Systems on a network are typically assigned a host name, in addition to the numeric address. The
host name is the descriptive name you see assigned to computers on the Internet, but systems on
local networks have them as well. On the Internet, these host names appear to the left of the
domain name. Host names can be up to 63 characters long.

Binary and Dotted Decimal Notation

TCP/IP uses binary numbering. Binary is a base 2 numbering system in which any bit in the number
is either a zero or one. An IP address might appear in binary as
11001011.01111011.00101101.00010010.
Although the underlying IPv4 addresses are binary numbers, for readability, TCP/IP addresses are
usually displayed in dotted decimal notation. Dotted decimal notation consists of four decimal
numbers separated by three dots. Each decimal number is called an octet because it represents eight
binary bits. When pronouncing a dotted decimal number, include the separator dots. For example,
the IPv4 address 192.168.1.18 is pronounced one ninety-two dot one sixty-eight dot one dot
eighteen.

Subnet Masks
A subnet mask is a 32-bit number that is assigned to each system to divide the 32-bit binary IP
address into network and node portions. This makes TCP/IP routable. A subnet mask uses a binary
operation to remove the node ID from the IP address, leaving just the network portion. Subnet
masks use the value of eight 1s in binary, or 255 in decimal, to mask an entire octet of the IP
address. 5

295
 Figure 8-11: The subnet mask.

Binary ANDing
The binary logical operation applied to the subnet mask and the IP address is called binary ANDing.
There are two rules in the binary AND operation:
• Zero AND any value equals zero.
• One AND one equals one.
To apply a subnet mask, you convert both the IP address and the subnet mask to binary. You AND
each digit of the two binary numbers together. The zeros in the subnet mask convert all the bits in
the node portion of the IP address to zeros, leaving the network portion of the address intact.

Gateways
Gateways A gateway is a device, software, or a system that has the ability to convert data between incompatible
systems or devices. Gateways can translate data between different operating systems, or email
formats, or between totally different networks. A gateway can be implemented as hardware,
software, or both. You can also install gateways as software within a router, allowing the router to
act as a gateway when required, and eliminating the need for separate hardware.

The Default Gateway

When TCP/IP communications need to be routed to systems on other networks, the protocol
directs the packets to a special address known as the default gateway. The default gateway is
different from a typical gateway in that the address is typically that of a network router that connects
the local network to other external networks. A default gateway address is not a required component
of a TCP/IP address assignment, but without a default gateway, the computer will only be able to
communicate on the local network segment.

IP Address Classes
IP Address Classes The designers of the TCP/IP suite defined five ranges of addresses, called address classes, for
specific network uses and sizes. Changes in the Internet since the early 90s have rendered classful
addresses all but obsolete. One of the final remnants of classful addressing is the use of the terms
"Class A," "Class B," and "Class C" to describe common subnet masks.

Class and Subnet Mask Description

Class A Class A subnet masks provide a small number of network addresses for
255.0.0.0 networks with a large number of nodes per network:
• Number of nodes per network: 16,777,214
• Network ID portion: First octet
• Node ID portion: Last three octets

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Class and Subnet Mask Description

Used only by extremely large networks, Class A addresses are far too big
for most companies. Large telephone companies and ISPs leased most
Class A network addresses early in the development of the Internet.
Class B Class B subnet masks offer a larger number of network addresses, each
255.255.0.0 with fewer nodes per network:
• Number of nodes per network: 65,534
• Network ID portion: First two octets
• Node ID portion: Last two octets
Most companies leased Class B addresses for use on Internet-connected
networks. In the beginning, there were plenty of Class B addresses to go
around, but soon they were depleted.
Class C Class C subnet masks offer a large number of network addresses for
255.255.255.0 networks with a small number of nodes per network:
• Number of nodes per network: 254
• Network ID portion: First three octets
• Node ID portion: Last octet
Because there can be more Class C networks than any other type, they
are the only addresses still generally available.

Classless Addressing
Because the traditional IP address classes have limitations on the number of available addresses in
each class, there are now various implementations that utilize classless addressing. In these schemes,
there is no strict dividing line between groups of addresses, and the network address/node address
division is determined entirely by the number of 1 bits in the subnet mask.

IPv6 Addresses
IP version 6, or IPv6, is an Internet standard that increases the available pool of IP addresses by IPv6 Addresses
implementing a 128-bit binary address space. IPv6 also includes new efficiency features, such as
simplified address headers, hierarchical addressing, support for time-sensitive network traffic, and a
new structure for unicast addressing. One of the goals of IPv6 is to keep the IP headers as small as
possible to make access to the address more efficient and quicker. Non-essential information in
IPv6 headers is moved to optional extension headers. In IPv6, address blocks are automatically
assigned hierarchically by routers. Top-level routers have top-level address blocks, which are
automatically divided and assigned as routers and segments are added. This divides the address space
logically instead of randomly, making it easier to manage.
IPv6 is not compatible with IPv4, so now, it is narrowly deployed on a limited number of test and
production networks. Full adoption of the IPv6 standard will require a general conversion of IP
routers to support interoperability. IPv6 makes use of an Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE) standard called Extended Unique Identifier (EUI). A host computer implemented
with EUI-64 can assign itself a 64-bit IPv6 interface identifier automatically.
Note: For more information on IPv6, see the IETF's IP Version 6 Working Group charter at
www.ietf.org/html.charters/ipv6-charter.html.

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 The IPv6 Address Format
An IPv6 address has 128 bits or 16 bytes and is denoted as eight hexadecimal blocks separated by
colons. The byte on the left has the highest order, and the byte on the right has the lowest order. To
make the representation easier, some abbreviation techniques are used. For example, one
abbreviation technique used replaces all zero hexadecimal values with a single zero and removes the
leading and trailing zeros of all nonzero values.
For example, in the IPv6 address 2001:DB8:0000:0056:0000:ABCD:EF12:1234, the third, fourth,
and fifth bytes contain consecutive zeros and, therefore, they can also be represented as
2001:DB8:0:56:0:ABCD:EF12:1234 without the unnecessary zeros.

Figure 8-12: An IPv6 address.

Another technique used replaces all consecutive zero values or consecutive leading or trailing zeros
with a double colon. However, the double colon can be used only once in an address. This is
because when a computer comes across a simplified address, it replaces the double colon symbol
with as many zeros as required to make it 128 bits long. If an address contains more than one
double colon, the computer cannot determine the number of zeros for each place.
For example, the IPv6 address 2001:DB8:0000:0056:0000:ABCD:EF12:1234 can also be
represented as 2001:DB8::56:0:ABCD:EF12:1234 or 2001:DB8:0:56::ABCD:EF12:1234 after
replacing any one of the consecutive zeros with a double colon.

IPv4 vs. IPv6

IPv4 addresses use 32 bits as opposed to the 128 bits used in IPv6 addressing. While implementing
IPv4 addresses, IPSec is optional. However, IPSec is not optional in IPv6 addresses. The header
information structure is different between IPv4 and IPv6 addresses. IPv6 is not compatible with
IPv4, so now, it is narrowly deployed on a limited number of test and production networks. Full
adoption of the IPv6 standard will require a general conversion of IP routers to support
interoperability.

Addressing Schemes
When assigning addresses to hosts on your network, you must assign an address in the right scheme
based on the type of network and access is given to that host.

The IPv6 Address

Format

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Scheme Description

Private Private IP addresses are addresses that organizations use for nodes requiring
IP connectivity within enterprise networks, but not requiring external
connections to the global Internet. IP addresses in each of the Classes A, B,
and C are reserved as private IP addresses. When an Internet router
receives a data packet bound for one of these reserved IP addresses, it
recognizes the address as nonroutable and does not forward it outside the
network. Private IP addresses can be used freely on internal networks.
Because they are not routable, private IP addresses do not cause duplicate
IP address conflicts on the Internet.
Any organization that opts to use private IP addresses can do so without
contacting the ICANN or an Internet registry. Because these addresses are
never injected into the global Internet routing system, the address space can
simultaneously be used by many different organizations. Problems arising
due to the shortage of IP addresses are resolved by private IP addresses.
Public Public IP addresses are addresses that get shared on the Internet. In order to
keep internal addresses private, Network Address Translation (NAT) is used to
conceal internal private IP addresses from external networks. A router is
configured with a single public IP address on its external interface and a
private address on its internal interface. A NAT service running on the
router or on another system translates between the two addressing schemes.
Packets sent to the Internet from internal hosts all appear as if they came
from a single IP address, thus preventing external hosts from identifying
and connecting directly to internal systems.
APIPA Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA) is a feature of Windows that enables
a Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) client computer to
configure itself automatically with a random IP address in the range of
169.254.0.1 to 169.254.255.254 if there is no DHCP server available.
APIPA enables DHCP clients to initialize TCP/IP and communicate with
other local APIPA-configured machines, even in the absence of an active
DHCP scope. APIPA addresses are not routable, so computers with
APIPA addresses cannot communicate outside their local subnet. APIPA
can be a useful configuration method on small home networks because
computers can initialize TCP/IP and connect without any administrative
configuration. On larger networks, however, a computer with an APIPA-
range address is usually nothing more than a symptom, to the technician, of
a DHCP problem that requires resolution.

Static vs. Dynamic Addressing

On a TCP/IP network, you can assign IP address information statically to nodes by manually
entering IP addressing information on each individual network node. Or, dynamic addressing can be
used to assign IP addresses using the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) service.
Static addressing involves configuring TCP/IP statically on a network and requires that an
administrator visit each node to manually enter IP address information for that node. If the node
moves to a different subnet, the administrator must manually reconfigure the node's TCP/IP
information for its new network location. In a large network, configuring TCP/IP statically on each
node can be very time consuming and prone to errors that can potentially disrupt communication
on the network. Static addresses are typically only assigned to systems with a dedicated functionality,
such as router interfaces, network-attached printers, or servers that host applications on a network.

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 DHCP
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a network service that provides automatic assignment
of IP addresses and other TCP/IP configuration information on network systems that are
configured as DHCP clients. DHCP requires a DHCP server computer configured with at least one
active DHCP scope. The scope contains a range of IP addresses and a subnet mask, and can contain
other options, such as a default gateway address or Domain Name Server (DNS) addresses. When the
service is enabled, it automatically leases TCP/IP configuration information to DHCP clients for a
defined lease period.

DNS
Computers on TCP/IP networks are assigned both a host name and an IP address. Users generally
access systems by their descriptive names, and the network needs to translate, or resolve, those
names into the relevant systems' IP addresses. The Domain Name System (DNS) is the primary name
resolution service on the Internet as well as private IP networks.
DNS is a hierarchal system of databases that map computer names to their associated IP addresses.
DNS servers store, maintain, and update the databases and respond to DNS client name resolution
requests to translate host names to IP addresses. The DNS servers on the Internet work together to
provide global name resolution for all Internet hosts. For example, the IP address 209.85.165.99
might map to www.google.com.

Hosts Files
Another way to resolve machine names to IP addresses is to provide each computer on the TCP/IP
network with a hosts file. The hosts file is a text file that contains a list of computer names and their
associated IP addresses. The use of hosts files predated the development of DNS and they are no
longer commonly used, because this manual name-resolution method is practical only on very small
and very stable networks. Adding a new computer, for example, requires that the hosts file of every
computer that might need to reach it be manually updated with the new information.
However, a TCP/IP system will still use entries in the hosts file if the file is present, and the hosts
file actually takes precedence over DNS name resolution. This can make the hosts file useful for
testing purposes. However, if the hosts file is configured incorrectly, it can cause connectivity
problems even when the DNS configuration is correct. Because altering the hosts file is a simple
way to disrupt communications, the hosts file can be a target of attacks or malware. Be sure to check
it when you troubleshoot name resolution and connectivity.

Client-Side DNS
Client-side DNS can be implemented by running a DNS service on a client computer. The client
can quickly use the client resolver cache to lookup host names for resolution. This enables the client
to perform basic DNS lookups without having to connect to a DNS server. In cases where the
lookup is out of scope for the client resolver, the DNS servers that store, maintain, and update
databases will respond to any resolution requests that may be out of scope for client-side DNS
services to handle. In this case, the client-side DNS service will communicate directly with multiple
DNS servers to resolve name requests made from the client machine.

DHCP

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DNS
 ACTIVITY 8-2
Identifying Your Computer's TCP/IP Information

Scenario
In this activity, you will examine the configuration settings on your computer that enables it to
connect to the network.

1. Determine the protocol in use on your system.

a) Select Start→Control Panel. In the Search Control Panel text box, type network connections
b) Under Network and Sharing Center, select View network connections.
c) Examine the contents of the Network Connections window.
One of the connections that is displayed in this window is the connection to the class network. Assist participants in
d) Display the pop-up menu for the network connection, and select Properties. determining which
e) In the This connection uses the following items list, verify that Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IPv4) connection they should
is listed. examine during this
activity.
f) Close the Properties dialog box without making any changes.
Briefly describe the other
items in the list, but do
2. View the TCP/IP information assigned to your network adapter.
not go into too much
a) Display the pop-up menu for the network connection, and select Status. depth at this point.
b) Select Details.
c) In the Network Connection Details dialog box, examine the information for the IPv4 address, subnet
mask, and default gateway.
Briefly describe how the
3. In the Network Connection Details dialog box, examine the information for DHCP. IPv4 address, subnet
mask, and default
4. If DHCP is enabled on your computer, when does the lease expire? gateway provide network
A: Answers will vary depending on the last time the computer was restarted. connectivity.

Briefly describe the

5. In the Network Connection Details dialog box, examine the information for DNS. DHCP lease process.

6. How many DNS servers are listed?

A: Answers will vary depending on the configuration of the network.

7. Return to the network connection properties, and examine the Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IPv4)
properties.
a) Select Close.
b) Select Properties to return to the network connection properties.
c) In the This connection uses the following items list, select Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IPv4), Briefly explain the
and then select Properties. significance of the
d) Select Advanced. information on the
General tab of the
e) Select the DNS tab. Internet Protocol Version
f) Select Cancel three times, and then select Close. 4 (TCP/IPv4) Properties
g) Close the Network Connections window. dialog box.
Briefly explain the
information displayed on
the IP Settings tab.
Briefly explain the
information displayed on
the DNS tab.

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 TOPIC C
Network Connectivity
In the previous topics, you identified network communication technologies and the components of
TCP/IP. To complete your understanding of network concepts, you will need to examine the
technologies that connect multiple nodes and networks together. In this topic, you will identify
network connectivity technologies.
Putting together a network is like putting together a huge puzzle. There are physical pieces, such as
network adapters and network clients, and conceptual pieces, such as protocols and addresses. To
understand how the pieces all fit together, however, you need to be able to see the overall picture.
Examining the large structures and techniques that provide network connectivity between and
within network locations will help you see the big picture of network implementation and support.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220–801: Objective 2.7: Compare and contrast Internet connection types and features.
• Exam 220-801: Objective 2.8: Identify various types of networks.
• Exam 220-801: Objective 2.9: Compare and contrast network devices, their functions, and
features.

LANs
A Local Area Network (LAN) is a self-contained network that spans a small area, such as a single
building, floor, or room. In a LAN, all parts of the network are directly connected with cables or
short-range wireless media.

Figure 8-13: LANs within a building.

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WANs
A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a network that spans multiple geographic locations. WANs typically
connect multiple LANs using long-range transmission media. Such a network scheme facilitates
communication among users and computers in different locations. WANs can be private, such as
those built and maintained by large, multinational corporations, or they can be public, such as the
Internet.

Figure 8-14: A WAN.

PANs
A Personal Area Network (PAN) connects two to three devices together for use by one person using a
router with cabling; most often seen in small or home offices.
A Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) is a network that connects wireless devices in very close
proximity but not through a Wireless Access Point (WAP). Infrared and Bluetooth are some
technologies used for connecting devices in a WPAN.

WANs

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 Figure 8-15: A PAN.

MANs
A metropolitan area network (MAN) covers an area equivalent to a city or other municipality. In many
cases the MAN connects multiple LANS.

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Figure 8-16: A MAN.

Additional Network Types

While on the job, you may come across several other loosely defined network categories, named
according to the geographic areas they cover. These include:
• A campus area network (CAN), which covers an area equivalent to an academic campus or business
park. A CAN is typically owned or used exclusively by one company, school, or organization.
• A global area network (GAN), which is any worldwide network.

VPNs
A virtual private network (VPN) is a private network that protects communications sent through a
public network, such as the Internet. VPNs provide secure connections between endpoints, such as
routers, clients, or servers, by using tunneling to encrypt data. These connections are established
either between two LANs or between a user and a LAN over the Internet. Special VPN protocols are
required to provide the VPN tunneling, security, and data encryption services.

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 Figure 8-17: A VPN.

Ethernet
An Ethernet network is a popular LAN implementation that uses Ethernet network adapters,
contention-based media access, and twisted pair, coax, or fiber media. Xerox® corporation first
developed Ethernet in the 1970s. Later, the IEEE used Ethernet as the basis of the 802.3
specification, which standardized Ethernet and expanded it to include a wide range of cable media.
The 802.3 family of specifications also determines transmission speed (10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, or 1000
Mbps) and signal method (baseband or broadband).

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Figure 8-18: Ethernet.

Ethernet WAN
To implement an Ethernet WAN, in most cases, you establish a connection to the Internet by using
Ethernet technology on the LAN and a broadband Internet connection such as a cable modem or
digital subscriber line (DSL) modem. After you connect to the Internet, you can then connect to
your organization's LAN using a VPN. Use Ethernet WANs when you want to enable users to
connect remotely to the Internet, your company's VPN, or both.

Network Topologies
A network topology is a specification that determines the network's overall physical layout and Network Topologies
transmission and flow patterns. There are a number of different topologies used to configure
networks.

Topology Description

Mesh A mesh topology is a network topology in which each node is directly connected
to every other node, similar to the physical point-to-point topology. This
configuration allows each node to communicate with multiple nodes at the
same time. Since all nodes have dedicated links with other nodes, there is no
congestion on the network and data travels very fast. Since no node can be
isolated from the network, this topology is extremely reliable. It is also
difficult to implement and maintain because the number of connections
increases exponentially with the number of nodes. Mesh topologies typically
provide reliable connections between separate independent networks.

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 Topology Description

Ring A ring topology is a network topology in which each node is connected to the
two nearest nodes: the upstream and downstream neighbors. The flow of
data in a ring network is unidirectional to avoid collisions. All nodes in the
network are connected to form a circle. There is no centralized node to
control network traffic and each node handles every data packet that passes
through it. Data transmission moves in one direction to each node that scans
data packets, accepts packets destined for it, and forwards packets destined
for another node.

Bus A bus topology is a network topology in which nodes receive the data
transmitted all at the same time, regardless of the physical wiring layout of
the network. Data flow propagates in a single, continuous stream.

Star A star topology is a network topology that uses a central connectivity device,
such as a hub or a switch, with individual physical connections to each node.
The individual nodes send data to the connectivity device, and the device
then either forwards data to the appropriate destination node, as in the case

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Topology Description
of a switch, or simply passes it through to all attached nodes, as in the case of
a hub. Star topologies are reliable and easy to maintain as a single failed node
does not bring down the whole network. However, if the central connectivity
device fails, all nodes on that device fail to communicate.

Hybrid A hybrid topology is any topology that exhibits the characteristics of more than
one standard topology. Each section of the network follows the rules of its
own topology. They can be complex to maintain because they typically
incorporate a wide range of technologies. Most of the large networks consist
of several smaller subnetworks, and each subnetwork may have a different
topology.

Network Device Types and Features

Computers attached to a network need to have their data mediated by a network device, and there Network Device Types
are several kinds of network devices. and Features
If any of these devices
Network Device Description are present in the
classroom, then point
Hub A hub is a device that connects multiple Ethernet or twisted pair devices them out to students and
together. By this connection, multiple devices can act as a single network discuss how they are
segment. Hubs can either simply receive data transmitted from a device on being used.
one port and broadcast it out to the devices connected on all other ports, or

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 Network Device Description
they can perform the same receive-then-broadcast action but regenerate or
boost the signal. Hubs are generally inexpensive and easy to manage;
however, they do not provide the best performance in high-traffic or latency-
sensitive situations. Hubs have largely been replaced by switches, but many
dedicated hubs still remain in use. Troubleshooting a hub is made easier by
the use of status lights for the various ports.
Switch A switch is a network hardware device that joins multiple computers together
within the same LAN. Unlike a hub, switches forward packets to only the
destination port based on MAC addresses. Because of this, they are slightly
"smarter" than hubs, and are more common. Switches can also be connected
to other switches, thus increasing the number of devices on a LAN without
sacrificing performance. Troubleshooting a switch is made easier by the use
of status indicator lights on the various ports.
Router A router is a networking device that connects multiple networks that use the
same protocols. Traffic from one network to another does not always have to
travel between the same routers. On the Internet, for example, traffic is
routed according to the best available path at the time. Troubleshooting a
router is made easier by the use of status indicator lights on the various ports.
Bridge A bridge is a network device that divides a logical bus network into segments.
Bridges examine the MAC address of each packet. If the packet is destined
for a node connected to a different port, the bridge forwards the packet. If
the packet is addressed to a node on its own segment, the bridge does not
forward the packet. This arrangement reduces traffic between segments and
improves overall network performance.
Access Point An access point (AP) is a device or software that facilitates communication and
provides enhanced security to wireless devices. It also extends the physical
range of a WLAN. The AP functions as a bridge between wireless STAs
(stations) and the existing network backbone for network access.
Modem A modem is a device that modulates and demodulates digital data to an analog
signal that can be sent over a telephone line. Its name is a combination of
modulate and demodulate.
Use a modem to connect to the Internet and to translate digital information
to and from your computer. Depending on the type of connection used, you
will use either a cable modem, a DSL modem, a wireless modem, a voice
modem, or a radio modem. A laptop modem can be an internal device, or can
be added to a system using a PC Card or an ExpressCard.
NAS A network-attached storage (NAS) appliance is a data storage device that can be
connected to a network to provide direct data access and file sharing to
multiple computing devices attached to the network.
Firewall A firewall is a software program or hardware device that protects networks
from unauthorized data by blocking unsolicited traffic. Firewalls allow
incoming or outgoing traffic that has specifically been permitted by a system
administrator and incoming traffic that is sent in response to requests from
internal systems. Firewalls use complex filtering algorithms that analyze
incoming network data based on destination and source addresses, port
numbers, and data type.
VoIP phones Voice over IP (VoIP) phones can transmit voice signals over IP data networks.
With VoIP, the phone system and IP network translate between voice and
network signals and between phone numbers and IP addresses. You can

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Network Device Description
make a telephone call and the signal will be transmitted over your network
connection and transferred to the standard phone system if the called party
does not have VoIP service. Conversely, when a caller dials a phone number
that maps to a VoIP device, VoIP routes the call to the IP host.
Internet appliance An Internet appliance is a device that allows quick easy access to the Internet. It
can be connected to a number of computing devices for allowing access to
Internet services.

ISPs
An Internet Service Provider (ISP) is a company that provides Internet access to individuals and to
businesses. Most ISPs charge a fee for this connection. Customers receive logon information, access
to servers that provide name resolution and email services, dynamic or static IP configurations, and
a method for connecting to the ISP. Once connected to the ISP, the customer can access the
Internet.

Figure 8-19: An ISP.

Broadband Communications
Broadband is a general term for a category of network transmission technologies that provide high
throughput by splitting communications into multiple channels transmitted simultaneously over the
network media. Today's common broadband network communications technologies are typically
employed to provide affordable high-speed Internet access to homes and businesses.

Figure 8-20: Broadband transmission.

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 Baseband vs. Broadband
The opposite of broadband is baseband. In baseband transmissions, a single signal sends data using
the entire bandwidth of the transmission media. Devices cannot simultaneously send and receive
data.
Neither baseband nor broadband is inherently faster or slower, but broadband is effectively faster
on large public networks, notably the Internet, where multiple clients are trying to send and receive
data simultaneously. For this reason, in common usage, broadband networks have become
synonymous with fast networks, although not all fast networks use broadband signaling. There is no
single common definition of the minimum data rate for a technology to be fast enough to qualify as
broadband in this sense, although a one-way transmission rate in the range of at least 1.5 Mbps is
typical.

Internet Connection Types and Features

Internet Connection Internet connections can be accomplished in a wide variety of ways today. Each method has unique
Types and Features connection technology that is used to connect computing devices to the Internet.

Method Description

Cable Cable or cable modem transmissions use a cable television connection and a
specialized interface device known as a cable modem to provide high-speed
Internet access to homes and small businesses. Cable access arranges users in
groups around nodes that split the television and data signals at the cable
provider's end.
The speed of the network varies depending on how populated the group on
each node is. Download speeds can vary by more than 1 Mbps in different
areas. Most cable companies try to guarantee at least a 768-Kbps download
speed; however, speeds of 3.0 to 7.0 Mbps are common, and speeds of 20
Mbps or more are possible.
DSL Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) is a broadband technology that transmits digital
signals over existing phone lines. It has become a popular way to connect
small businesses and households to the Internet because it is affordable and
provides a relatively high download speed—a typical maximum is 1.5 Mbps
for basic DSL and 7 Mbps for high-end DSL. However, distance from the
phone company's switching station and the quality of the lines affect the total
bandwidth available to a customer.
Dial-up Dial-up lines are local loop Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)
connections that use modems, existing phone lines, and existing long-distance
carrier services to provide low cost, low bandwidth WAN connectivity, and
remote network access. Dial-up lines are generally limited to 56 Kbps, and are
sometimes used as backups for higher bandwidth WAN services.
Fiber Fiber is a method used to connect devices to the Internet using fiber optic
cable. Fiber is mostly used in smaller areas to connect computing devices to a
router. It provides a fast data exchange rate over distances of several
kilometers.
Satellite Orbiting satellites provide extremely long-range wireless network
transmissions. For broadband network access, satellites can be employed to
relay network signals from the network service provider to individual
customers. This can be a way to provide broadband network communications
in rural or remote areas where cable service or viable DSL lines are not
available. However, satellite Internet communications are comparatively
expensive and some only operate one-way; satellite transmissions provide the
downstream communication, but another media (typically telephone) is

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Method Description
needed for upstream communication. For remote or mobile locations, true
two-way satellite-only communication is also available, but aligning a dish for
upstream communication to a satellite requires a certain degree of precision
and skill.
ISDN Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a digital transmission technology
that carries both voice and data over digital phone lines or PSTN wires.
Connections are made on demand by dialing another ISDN circuit's
telephone number.
ISDN and DSL are very similar technologies because they both use existing
phone lines to transmit digital signals. However, ISDN technology predates
DSL and has largely been superseded by DSL for the home and small
business market. ISDN requires a specialized client adapter called a Terminal
Adapter, which DSL does not. ISDN is also slower than DSL, being limited
to a data rate of approximately 128 Kbps for basic rate ISDN, and thus barely
qualifies as broadband. (Primary rate ISDN, which was commonly used for
network backbone communications before fiber optic cable, provides more
bandwidth and has higher speeds.)
Cellular Cellular technology uses radio signals to transmit network data over the
cellular telephone system. Cellular-enabled computers have a cellular radio
built in. Coverage can be regional, national, or global, depending on the
service chosen and the capabilities of the cellular service provider. Signal
fidelity will vary depending on interference and the distance from a cell tower.
Some of the cellular transmission technologies and standards in use include
Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA) and the Global System for Mobile
Communications (GSM). CDMA is a spread-spectrum implementation that
uses the full frequency spectrum for each channel rather than assigning
specific frequencies to particular users. It separates the calls using digital
encoding. GSM uses time-division multiplexing (TDM), which transmits
multiple calls on the same frequency by dividing each call into separate time
slices.
Use a cellular Wireless WAN (WWAN) when you have users that have no
other way to connect to the Internet, your company's VPN, or both. Cellular
WWANs are typically more expensive than Ethernet WANs.
WiMAX Wireless Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX) is a packet-based wireless
telecommunication technology that provides wireless broadband access over
long distances. Based on the IEEE 802.16 standard, it is intended for wireless
MANs. WiMAX provides fixed as well as mobile broadband access. It covers
a range of about 30 miles for fixed stations and 3 to 10 miles for mobile
stations. WiMAX also provides line of sight and non-line-of-sight
communication, and can provide connection speeds of about 70 Mbps.
WiMAX operates in the wireless frequency ranges of between 2 and 11 GHz
of the wireless spectrum.
Line of sight communication is a method used when distances between
devices can be seen by the human eye. In wireless networking this term can
be used to determine whether an access point is within a certain distance and
is within an acceptable range of connecting devices. There are a few terms
used when referring to line of sight factors:
• Line-Of-Sight (LOS): Wireless signals that travel over a direct visual path
from a transmitter to a receiver.

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 Method Description

• Non-Line-Of-Sight (NLOS): Wireless signals that reach a receiver through

reflections and obstructions within the visual path in the environment.
Bluetooth Bluetooth® is a wireless radio protocol that is used to communicate from one
device to another in a small area, usually less than 30 feet. Bluetooth is
commonly used to enable communication between small personal electronic
devices, such as between a cellular phone and a wireless earpiece or between
an electronic organizer and a personal computer.
Bluetooth uses the 2.4 GHz spectrum to communicate a 1 Mbps connection
between two devices for both a 232 Kbps voice channel and a 768 Kbps data
channel (technically, Bluetooth detects other devices in the 2.4 GHz spectrum
and avoids the frequencies they use by "hopping" to an available frequency).
Bluetooth 2.0 is an improved version of Bluetooth, has a range up to 100
meters, offers faster data transfer speeds (up to 3 Mbps), and also uses less
power to extend battery life. Bluetooth 2.0 is backwards-compatible with
earlier versions of Bluetooth, but the connection between devices is governed
by the slowest device; in other words, connecting a Bluetooth 1.2 device to a
Bluetooth 2.0 device means the data transfer is at the rate of Bluetooth 1.2.
Bluetooth 3.0 is available but not yet widely adopted, though it boasts speeds
up to 24 Mbps.

Bluetooth Naming and Addressing

Each Bluetooth device has its own unique 48-bit address. But instead of requiring you to connect
via this address, most Bluetooth devices also have their own Bluetooth names. By default,
manufacturers set the Bluetooth name for devices to the name of the manufacturer and model of
the device. If you have several users you support that are in close proximity to each other and have
the same devices, these default Bluetooth names can cause problems. In this scenario, you should be
sure to rename each user's Bluetooth device.

Bluetooth Pairs
Most Bluetooth devices require you to establish a trusted relationship between two devices (referred
to as pairing). This trusted relationship is established through the use of an encrypted shared secret
or passkey. After the relationship is established, the pair of devices can encrypt the data
transmissions they exchange. However, most Bluetooth printers permit all devices to use their
services without requiring pairing.

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 ACTIVITY 8-3
Discussing Network Connectivity

Scenario
In this activity, you will discuss network connectivity.
Use these questions as
a basis for guiding the
1. The transmission method that allows multiple signals to be carried separately on the same media at the discussion. Encourage
same time is called __________ participants to share
○ Baseband.
their experiences with
various connectivity
○ Broadband. methods.
○ Modulated.
○ Multicast.

2. Which broadband communication method uses existing telephone lines to transmit digital signals?
○ Cable modem
○ DSL
○ ISDN
○ Fiber
○ Satellite

3. Which broadband communication method uses the same physical media to provide high-speed
transmission of data and television signals?
○ Cable modem
○ DSL
○ ISDN
○ Fiber
○ Satellite

4. Which broadband communication method uses light to carry signals?

○ Cable modem
○ DSL
○ ISDN
○ Fiber
○ Satellite

5. Which are wired connection technologies?

☐ Bluetooth
☐ ISDN
☐ Dial-up connections
☐ Wi-Fi

6. Which are wireless connection technologies?

☐ Bluetooth

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 ☐ Fiber optic
☐ Cellular WAN
☐ Twisted-pair

7. Which wireless technology provides broadband Internet coverage in rural or remote areas?
○ Cellular WAN
○ Satellite
○ Wi-Fi
○ Infrared
○ Bluetooth

8. Which wireless technology is a short-range connection method requiring direct line of sight?
○ Cellular WAN
○ Satellite
○ Wi-Fi
○ Infrared
○ Bluetooth

9.
When would some of the different Internet connection types be used and when do you think you might
encounter them within the workplace?
A: Answers will vary depending on the physical location and the needs of the organization, but might
include wireless connectivity for a workplace that has a lot of laptops deployed.

10. If you have remote employees that need to connect to the corporate network but they are located in a
remote area with no access to broadband Internet service, what do you think is the best Internet
connection method to use in this situation?
A: Answers will vary, but will most likely include using either dial-up or satellite. However, because
this employee needs to access the corporate network through a VPN connection, satellite will
probably provide the faster connection. In some cases, tethering to a cell phone or connecting to a
wireless network device is an option, but this will all depend on how remote the employee's
location is and whether they can get a strong cellular signal.

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TOPIC D
Ports and Protocols
In the previous topic, you explored the different network types and how they are connected. Now
that you have a good understanding of how a network can be structured physically, you are ready to
examine the various ports and protocols that are used to ensure data transmission is successful and
secure. In this topic, you will examine common TCP and UDP ports and protocols.
Properly configuring the ports of a network device and selecting the right protocol will ensure that
data gets transmitted over the network. As an A+ technician, you must understand how ports and
protocols are implemented within a network and how they function to provide the right level of
data transmission while keeping data secure.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220–801: Objective 2.4: Explain common TCP and UPD ports, protocols, and their
purpose.

Ports
In TCP/IP networks, a port is the endpoint of a logical connection. Client computers connect to Ports
specific server programs through a designated port. All ports are assigned a number in a range from
0 to 65,535. An international agency, the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), separates
port numbers into three blocks: well-known ports, which are preassigned to system processes by the
IANA; registered ports, which are available to user processes and are listed as a convenience by the
IANA; and dynamic ports, which are assigned by a client operating system as needed when there is a
request for service.

TCP vs. UDP

The TCP/IP protocol suite includes two Transport-layer protocols: Transmission Control Protocol TCP vs. UDP
(TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP). TCP is a connection-oriented, guaranteed-delivery protocol
used to send data packets between computers over a network such as the Internet. It is part of the
Internet protocol suite along with the Internet Protocol (IP). TCP is responsible for breaking up data
into datagrams, reassembling them at the other end, resending data lost in transit, and resequencing
data. It sends data, waits for an acknowledgement, and fixes erroneous data. IP is responsible for
routing individual datagrams and addressing.
The User Datagram Protocol (UDP), also known as the Universal Datagram Protocol, is a
connectionless Transport-layer protocol in the Internet protocol suite. A connectionless, best-effort
delivery protocol, UDP is used with IP like TCP. It transmits data and ensures data integrity as TCP
does. UDP, however, lacks reliability, flow-control, and error-recovery functions. It is less complex
than TCP, and since it is a connectionless protocol, it provides faster service.

Port Ranges
There are three recognized blocks of port numbers. Port Ranges

Block Range Description

Well-known Port range: 0 to 1,023. Well-known ports are pre-assigned for use by
ports common, or well-known, services. Often the services
that run on these ports must be started by a
privileged user. Services in this range include HTTP

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 Block Range Description
on TCP port 80, IMAP on TCP port 143, and DNS
on UDP port 53.
Registered ports Port range: 1,024 to These ports are registered by software makers for use
49,151. by specific applications and services that are not as
well known as the services in the well-known range.
Services in the registered port range include SOCKS
proxy on TCP port 1080, QuickTime® Streaming
Server administration on TCP port 1220, and Xbox®
Live on TCP and UDP port 3074.
Dynamic or Port range: 49,152 to These ports are set aside for use by unregistered
private ports 65,535. services and by services needing a temporary
connection.

Common Ports
This table lists some of the most common well-known TCP and UDP port numbers. Additional
well-known ports and other port number assignments are available online at www.iana.org/
assignments/port-numbers.

Port Type Service Name Purpose

21 TCP FTP File transfers

22 TCP/UDP SSH Secure shell for secure data transmission
23 TCP/UDP TELNET Telnet services
25 TCP SMTP Simple mail transfers
53 TCP/UDP DNS Domain name system
80 TCP HTTP Hypertext transfer protocol
110 TCP POP3 Post office protocol
143 TCP/UDP IMAP Internet message access protocol
443 TCP HTTPS HTTP secure combines HTTP with
SSL/TLS protocols.
3389 TCP/UDP RDP Remote desktop protocol

LDAP
Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) is a protocol that defines how a client can access
information, perform operations, and share directory data on a directory server. It was designed for
use specifically over TCP/IP networks and on the Internet in particular. In most implementations,
LDAP relies on the DNS service. First, DNS enables clients to find the servers that host the LDAP
directory, and then the LDAP servers enable clients to find directory objects. Most common
network directories are LDAP-compliant.

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Figure 8-21: LDAP.

SNMP
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is an Application-layer protocol used to collect
information from network devices for diagnostic and maintenance purposes. SNMP includes two
components: management systems and agent software, which are installed on network devices such
as servers, routers, and printers. The agents send information to an SNMP manager. The SNMP
manager can then notify an administrator of problems, run a corrective program or script, store the
information for later review, or query the agent about a specific network device.

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 Figure 8-22: SNMP collects information from network devices for diagnostic purposes.

SSH
Secure Shell (SSH) is a protocol that enables a user or application to log on to another computer over
a network, execute commands, and manage files. It provides strong authentication methods and
secure communications over insecure channels. It is a more secure version of remote connection
programs that transmit passwords unencrypted, such as Telnet. With the SSH slogin command,
the entire login session, including the password, is encrypted and protected against attack.

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Figure 8-23: SSH.

SSH1 and SSH2

There are two versions of Secure Shell available: SSH1 and SSH2. They are two different protocols
and encrypt different parts of a data packet. To authenticate systems, SSH1 employs user keys, to
identify users; host keys, to identify systems; session keys, to encrypt communication in a single
session; and server keys, which are temporary keys that protect the session key. SSH2 is more
secure; it does not use server keys. Because they are different protocol implementations, SSH1 and
SSH2 are not compatible with each other.

SFTP
Secure FTP (SFTP) is a more secure replacement for FTP that uses the SSH protocol to manage,
transfer, and access files over a secure connection.
Note: Note that the acronym SFTP is used both for Secure File Transfer Protocol as well as for
the now obsolete Simple File Transfer Protocol.

SMB
The Server Message Block (SMB) is a protocol that works on the Application layer and helps share
resources such as files, printers, and serial ports among computers. In a TCP/IP network, NetBIOS
clients, such as Windows systems, use NetBIOS over TCP/IP to connect to servers, and then issue
SMB commands to complete tasks such as accessing shared files and printers.

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 Figure 8-24: Resource sharing using SMB.

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TOPIC E
Set Up and Configure Windows Networking
In the previous topics, you focused on the network infrastructure and how it all works together.
Now you can take a look at how the operating system is configured to run on the hardware systems.
In this topic, you will setup and configure Windows networking.
Once all the hardware and connections are made in a networking environment, you will need to
make sure that the operating system is configured to use the hardware successfully. It is important to
fully understand not only the hardware and the connections within a network, but how Windows
will need to be setup and configured to accomplish connectivity with the resources of a network.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220–802: Objective 1.6: Set up and configure Windows networking on a client/desktop.

Directory Services
A network directory, or directory service, is a centralized database that includes objects such as servers,
clients, computers, user names, and passwords. The directory is stored on one or more servers and
is available throughout the enterprise. The directory provides centralized administration and
centralized authentication.
Note: There are many directory services available from different network vendors. Some
directory services include Microsoft's Active Directory Domain Services, Open LDAP, and
Novell's eDirectory, although eDirectory is now less common.

Figure 8-25: A network directory.

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 Novell eDirectory and Novell Directory Services
Novell® eDirectory™ is Novell’s standards-based, enterprise-level directory service. It is an object-
oriented database organized as a hierarchical tree. The eDirectory is LDAP-compliant and supports
HTTP and SSL. It is portable to Windows, Linux, and UNIX platforms and supports the grafting
and moving of directory trees. The eDirectory is an evolution of earlier versions of Novell’s
directory service, which was called Novell Directory Services (NDS). NDS was one of the first
standards-based directory services, and it predated Microsoft’s Active Directory. NDS directories
comply with X.500, an International Telecommunication Union (ITU) standard for hierarchical
object-based enterprisewide directories and are LDAP compliant.

Windows Networking Options

Windows Networking There are three available networking options available in Windows:
Options • Homegroups
This information was
• Workgroups
presented in the
Installing and • Domains
Configuring Operating
Systems lesson, so you Comparing Networking Options
can use this section to
Domains, homegroups, and workgroups are different organizational and security models for
verify participants'
understanding of
Windows networking.
differences between the • Domains require a specially configured Windows Server computer called a domain controller and
various networking are most often used in corporate environments with centralized administration.
options offered in
• Workgroups are unstructured named collections of individual computers and are usually
Windows.
deployed in homes and small offices.
• Homegroups provide easy file and printer sharing, but are available only for Windows 7
computers.

Effects of Domain Membership

Domain controllers run the Microsoft Active Directory® directory service. To fully participate in the
benefits of an Active Directory domain, client computers must become members of the domain.
Domain membership means:
• The computer has a computer account object within the directory database.
• Computer users can log on to the domain with domain user accounts.
• The computer and its users are subject to centralized domain security, configuration, and policy
settings.
• Certain domain accounts automatically become members of local groups on the computer.

Prestaging Computer Accounts

In Windows Server 2012, as well as other versions of Windows Server, you can create the computer
accounts in Active Directory before you join the computer to the domain. This process is called pre-
staging, and requires administrative privileges to add Active Directory objects.

Access the Checklist tile on your LogicalCHOICE course screen for reference
information and job aids on How to Join a Computer to a Domain

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 ACTIVITY 8-4
Joining a Computer to a Domain

Scenario
In this activity, you will examine the current networking configuration for your computer and for
the VM you created. Then, you will join your computer to the APLUS-CLASS domain, and re-
examine the networking configuration settings to see how they changed.

1. Determine the network configuration for your computer.

a) Select Start, display the pop-up menu for Computer, and select Properties.
b) In the Computer name, domain, and workgroup settings section, observe the Computer name, Full
computer name, and Workgroup settings for the computer.
c) Minimize the System Control Panel.

2. Determine the network configuration for the Win7test## virtual machine.

a) Start the Win7test## VM, and log on to Windows.
b) Determine the Computer name, Full computer name, and Workgroup settings for the Win7test##
VM.
c) Close the System Control Panel within the VM.

3. Join your computer to the APLUS-CLASS domain.

a) Switch back to the System window for the physical computer.
b) Select Change settings.
c) In the System Properties dialog box, on the Computer Name tab, select Change.
d) Select the Domain radio button, type APLUS-CLASS and select OK.
e) In the Windows Security dialog box, for User name, type Admin## and for Password, type !
Pass1234 and then select OK.
f) Acknowledge the welcome message, and then restart the computer when you are prompted to do
so.
g) When the computer restarts, press Ctrl+Alt+Del, select Switch User and select Other User. For User
name, type aplus-class\admin## and for Password, type !Pass1234 and select Enter to log on to the
APLUS-CLASS domain.

4. Examine the changes to the networking configuration.

a) Open the System Control Panel.
b) In the Computer name, domain, and workgroup settings section, examine the Computer name, Full
computer name, and Workgroup settings for the computer.
The settings should reflect a change to the Full computer name, where the name should resemble
Client##.aplus-class.com and the Workgroup setting should have been replaced with the Domain
setting, where the Domain is aplus-class.com.
c) Close the System Control Panel.

Network Shares
A network share is any network resource that is available to other computer users on the network.
Typical shares include folders, printers, and drives. Because shares enable users to access a computer
system from a remote location, you should secure all shared resources against unauthorized access.
Users can map drives to any shared resource on the network to access files quickly and efficiently.

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 Figure 8-26: Shared resources.

On Windows systems, you can share folders by modifying the folders' properties. When you share a
folder, you assign it a share name that can be different from the underlying folder name. You can
share the folder more than once using different names.
Users can connect to the shared folder by browsing to the computer in Network, or by choosing
Start→Run and entering the Universal Naming Convention (UNC) path to the folder, in the form
\\computername\sharename. Be aware that a shared folder has two sets of permissions: the NTFS
permissions (which are on the Security tab of that folder's Properties) and the share permissions
(which are on the Shared tab of that folder's Properties). The security permissions do not
automatically change once a folder is designated as a share, and there is no propagation between the
two.

File Sharing with Mac OS X

When you use Mac OS X, you can share files in the Public folder for your user account with up to
10 other network users. (Sharing with more users requires Mac OS X Server.) You will need to make
the AppleTalk® service active, assign a network name to your computer, and start the file sharing
service. Other Mac® OS X users on your local network can then connect to your system by
choosing Connect To Server from the Go menu and browsing for your computer’s name. They
can access files in your Public folder, and place files in your Drop Box folder.
For more information about file sharing in Mac OS X, including information on how to make other
folders public, share files with remote users on the Internet, and share with computers running
different operating systems, see the technical document "Mac 101: File sharing" on the Apple
Computer website at http://support.apple.com/kb/HT1549.

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File Sharing with UNIX or Linux
UNIX and Linux are typically used as centralized network file servers, rather than for ad hoc peer-
to-peer resource sharing. These systems generally use the Network File Sharing (NFS) protocol to
share files with other UNIX and Linux systems. NFS enables clients to see the files on the shared
system as if they were part of the client's own local file system.
The specific steps for implementing file sharing with NFS will vary depending on your operating
system version, and also depending on whether you use shell commands or your system's Graphical
User Interface (GUI) to configure the service. This is also true for the commands or steps the
clients will need to use to mount the file systems that NFS exports.

Windows Administrative Shares

Certain folders are shared by default on every Windows system. These administrative shares can be
deleted, but by default, the system will re-create them every time it restarts (unlike local shares,
which do not get re-created if they are deleted). The administrative shares are hidden shares, which
means that they have a dollar sign ( $ ) appended to the share name. (You can create your own
hidden shares by doing the same thing.) You can connect to hidden shares by entering a Universal
Naming Convention (UNC) path, but otherwise, the shares are not visible on the network.
You can see all shares on a system, including administrative shares, by opening Computer
Management, expanding Shared Folders, and selecting the Shares node. You should see the
following administrative shares on every Windows system:
• The root of each drive on the system is shared with its drive letter. Thus, the C drive is shared
administratively as C$, the D drive is shared as D$, and so on.
• The folder where Windows is installed, usually the C:\Windows folder, is shared as ADMIN$.
• An InterProcess Communication (IPC) network object is created and shared as IPC$. This does
not represent a local folder, but enables computers to establish network sessions.

Access the Checklist tile on your LogicalCHOICE course screen for reference
information and job aids on How to Create a Network Share

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 ACTIVITY 8-5
Creating a Network Share

Scenario
In this activity, you will create a network share.

1. Navigate to the C: drive and create a folder named Share# with the # being your student number.

2. Share the Share# folder with Everyone, and grant Read/Write share permissions.
a) Select the folder, display its pop-up menu, and select Share with.
b) Select Specific people to open the File Sharing wizard.
c) On the Choose people to share with page, select the down arrow next to the text box and select
Find people. In the Select Users or Groups dialog box, type everyone. Select Check Names and
then select OK.
d) In the list, select Everyone, and then select the down arrow under Permission Level. Select Read/
Write.
e) Select Share.
f) In the User Account Control dialog box, in the user name text box, type APLUS-CLASS/
Administrator##.
g) In the Password text box, type !Pass1234 and select Yes.
h) Select Done.

Network Connection Types

Connecting various devices to a network can be done in a number of ways. How devices will
communicate with one another is determined by the connection method:
• Virtually, using a virtual private network (VPN) connection.
• Using a dial-up connection.
• Wirelessly, through Bluetooth, infrared, or a WAP.
• Wired, using Ethernet cabling.
• Using a WWAN cellular connection.

Proxy Settings
In computer networking, a proxy is a system that acts as an intermediary for requests for resources.
Client proxy software, such as Microsoft's MSP Client, can be installed on any client machine to add
an additional level of security between the client machine and the proxy server. Data requests sent
from the client get routed from the client side proxy through a back channel directly to the proxy
server. The key part of this relationship is the additional metadata attached to the request by the
client proxy that aids with identification once it hits the proxy server. So in essence the client proxy
and the server proxy work together to provide quick identification and access to resources.
When configuring a client computer, use the following settings:
• Set the proxy server settings to the correct IP address.
• Exceptions can be set to include ranges (for example, you can bypass a proxy server if you access
anything in the 192.168.x.y scope).

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• Proxy settings can be set so that all HTTP or FTP connections use a proxy server, but no other
connections.

Access the Checklist tile on your LogicalCHOICE course screen for reference
information and job aids on How to Configure Proxy Settings

Remote Desktop
Remote Desktop is used to operate a Windows computer from a remote location as if you were in
front of it. Depending on the permissions you define, you will have full access to all resources,
including printers, storage devices, and the network to which the machine is attached. You are even
capable of accessing multiple machines at once or hopping to multiple machines in a chain, by
running Remote Desktop on each machine on the daisy chain. In other words, Computer01 has a
Remote Desktop connection to Computer02, and Computer02 has a Remote Desktop connection
to Computer03. Computer01 has access to Computer03 through the open window that displays
Computer02's desktop.
The biggest limitation of Remote Desktop on Windows is that only one person can be logged in to
the machine at once, so once you log in using Remote Desktop, the monitor at the local computer
will go to the login screen. If a local user logs in, the remote user will be disconnected. Remote
Desktop is not really a remote diagnostic and troubleshooting tool as much as a management tool.

Network Location Settings

Windows 7 is configured to recognize three different network locations depending on what type of
network you are connecting to. Network settings can be determined during the Windows 7
installation, or they will be set the first time the device is connected to a network.

Remote Desktop

Network Location
Settings

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 Figure 8-27: Network settings in Windows 7.

The following table describes each of the network location settings available in Windows 7.

Location Description

Home The Home network setting is used for small home networks where devices are
trusted. All devices connected in a home network must be part of a workgroup or
part of a homegroup. This allows all devices to recognize and see one another
within the network using the network discovery function.
Work The Work network setting is used for small private business networks. In this
configuration all devices are part of a workgroup and can see one another as
peers, but cannot join as a homegroup.
Public The Public setting is used when devices connect to a network in a public space.
This setting automatically applies security settings for that location and protects
your device from unauthorized access via the public network.

Firewall Settings
Windows client firewalls can be configured for networking to ensure that they are secure against
unauthorized access attempts and attacks. Consider the following settings when setting up the
firewall:
• Enabling or disabling port security on certain ports.

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• Inbound and outbound filtering. The user can set up rules or exceptions in the firewall settings
to limit access to the web.
• Reporting and logging activity.
• Malware and spyware protection.
• Pop-up blocking.
• Port assigning, forwarding, and triggering.
• Enabling or disabling the Windows Firewall when necessary.

Windows Firewall is a software-based firewall that is included with Windows 7, Windows Vista,
Windows XP with Service Pack 2, Windows Server® 2003 with Service Pack 1 or later, and
Windows Server 2008. Once an operating system is installed, Windows Firewall is automatically
installed and enabled. By default, the firewall blocks unsolicited incoming traffic on all ports. You
can open blocked ports and configure other firewall settings by using the Windows Firewall
program in the Control Panel or through Windows Security Policy Settings. In Windows 7,
Windows Vista, and Windows Server 2008, Windows Firewall offers more security options and can
be configured to drop outgoing traffic as well as incoming traffic.

Access the Checklist tile on your LogicalCHOICE course screen for reference
information and job aids on How to Configure Windows Firewall Settings

Alternative IP Address Configuration Methods

In some cases you may need to configure an alternative IP address for your client computer. By
configuring a static backup addressing scheme, you can ensure connectivity when DHCP is
unavailable. Make sure to assign an appropriate IP address, subnet mask, and gateway, as well as at
least one DNS server address.

Alternative IP Address
Configuration Methods

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 Figure 8-28: Alternate IP address settings.

Network Card Properties

Network Card Properties A computing device's network card can be configured for optimal performance and specific
network requirements.

Property Description

Speed and duplex The speed and duplex of the NIC can determine how efficient data
settings transmissions are sent. The speed can range from 10 MB to 100 MB and
can run in three different modes:
• Half duplex permits two-way communication, but only in one direction
at a time.
• Full duplex permits simultaneous two-way communication.
• Auto negotiation is used to negotiate a speed that is compatible with the
network router or switch. In this process the NIC can respond quickly
with a speed that meets the requirements of the network device.
Wake-on-LAN Wake-on-LAN (WOL) is a networking capability that is built into a
device's NIC circuitry that allows a device to turn on, or power up when a
network message is received by another computing device. You can check
if your NIC has this functionality by booting up the system BIOS and
checking the NIC card properties.

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Property Description
PoE Power over Ethernet (PoE) is a technology standard that enables both power
and data to be transmitted over an Ethernet cable. NICs that are PoE
compliant will allow both power and data to be sent as long as the device
itself is also PoE compliant. PoE is commonly used to power and
transmit data for APs that are installed in locations where AC outlets are
not available.
QoS Quality of service is a set of parameters that controls the level of quality
provided to different types of network traffic. QoS allows NICs to
prioritize data traffic in order to fully support the networking needs for all
devices connected.

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 TOPIC F
Networking Tools
Now that you have covered all the different network types, configurations, and connection methods,
you are ready to take a closer look at tools used to properly install, configure, and maintain all parts
of a network.
Working with networks can be challenging depending on the size, location, and environment. In
order to properly and safely work with networking components, you must understand how
networking tools are used and how they can be used to fix common issues found in networks.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220–801: Objective 2.10: Given a scenario, use appropriate networking tools.

Cable Testers
A cable tester, also called a media tester, is an electrical instrument that verifies if a signal is present on a
network cable. A simple cable tester will determine whether a cable has an end-to-end connection
and can detect shorts or opens, but it cannot certify the cable for transmission quality.

Figure 8-29: A cable tester.

Crimpers
A wire crimper is a tool that attaches media connectors to the ends of cables. You can use it if you
need to make your own network cables or trim the end of a cable. There are different crimpers for
different types of connectors, so select the one that is appropriate for the type of network media you
are working with. A wire stripper is often part of a wire crimper, allowing the user to strip wires of
their protective coating, and then use the crimping tool to attach a media connector.

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Figure 8-30: A wire crimper.

Multimeter
A multimeter is an electronic instrument used to measure voltage, current, and resistance. It usually
has two probes with leads, one red and one black, that are plugged into two sockets on the meter.
To switch between measuring volts, ohms, and amps, the leads can be moved to different sockets,
or there may be a selector switch. Digital meters have a screen that displays the numeric value of
what you are measuring. Analog meters have a thin needle that swings in an arc and indicates the
value of what you are measuring. Many meters also have specific settings for testing circuit
continuity, diodes, or battery charges. Multimeters are sometimes called volt-ohm meters.
Note: Use a digital multimeter whenever possible. It is much more difficult to read and interpret
an analog multimeter accurately.

Figure 8-31: Multimeters.

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 Toner Probe
A digital toner and toner probe traces and locates voice, audio, and video cabling on a network. In
addition to confirming the cable location, a toner and probe can verify continuity and detect faults.

Figure 8-32: A toner probe.

Loopback Plug
A loopback plug is any tool that causes the device to transmit a signal back to itself. It is typically used
for diagnosing transmission problems that redirects electrical signals back to the transmitting system.
It typically plugs into a port and crosses over the transmit line to the receive line. Many times
technicians will construct their own device based on their specific needs, but it can be used to test
Ethernet network interface cards (NICs).

Figure 8-33: A loopback plug.

Toner Probe

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Punch Down Tool
A punch down tool is used in a wiring closet to connect cable wires directly to a patch panel. The tool Punch Down Tool
strips the insulation from the end of the wire and embeds the wire into the connection at the back
of the panel. The punch down tool makes connecting wires to a patch panel easier than it would be
to connect them by hand. Without the punch down tool, you would have to strip the wire manually
and connect it by twisting it or tightening it around a connection pole or screw.
Note: The technical name for a punch down tool is an Insulation Displacement Connector
(IDC).

Figure 8-34: A punch down tool.

Networking Utilities
Microsoft includes a variety of tools in its Windows operating systems that you can use to Networking Utilities
troubleshoot TCP/IP.

Tool Use To

ipconfig Verify the configuration of TCP/IP and to release or renew DHCP IP address
leases. (Other operating systems use different commands rather than
ipconfig. For example, Linux uses ifconfig.)

ping Test TCP/IP communications. With the -t switch, you can ping the indicated
host until the request gets interrupted; with the -l [number] switch, you can
send a ping of a specified buffer size.
nslookup Verify that the computer can connect to a DNS server and successfully find
an IP address for a given computer name.
tracert Determine and test all points along the route the computer uses to send a
packet to a destination. If tracert is unsuccessful, you can use the results
generated to determine at what point communications are failing.
netstat Show the status of each active network connection; netstat will display
statistics for both TCP and UDP, including protocol, local address, foreign
address, and the TCP connection state. Because UDP is connectionless, no
connection information will be shown for UDP packets.
net Manage Microsoft network resources from a command line. With the use
option, you can connect or disconnect the computer from a shared resource.
You can also retrieve information about current network connections. To see
all of the available commands in this suite, type net /? at a command line.

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 Tool Use To
Device connection Depending on whether you are using a wired or wireless network connection,
status the connection status might be called something like Local Area Connection or
Wireless Network Connection. Verify that the device is connected to the network
and able to send and receive data.
Network Walk you through the resolutions to various common network problems.
troubleshooters There are several network-related troubleshooters in the Help and Support
Center that can help.

Ipconfig Options
The ipconfig command provides several options that are helpful for network maintenance and
troubleshooting.

Command Enables You To

ipconfig /all View the computer's host name, DNS domain name, network card driver,
IP address, subnet mask, default gateway, DNS server(s), and WINS
server(s). In addition, you can use this display to determine whether the
computer was configured through DHCP or APIPA. If the computer
obtained its addressing through DHCP, you also see the IP address of the
DHCP server.
ipconfig /release Release the IP addressing information assigned to the computer by the
DHCP server or APIPA.
ipconfig /renew Lease IP addressing information from a DHCP server or APIPA. If the
computer already has a good IP addressed leased, it will not renew unless
you release the address first.
ipconfig /flushdns Clear DNS information on the client so that client updates with new
configuration information more quickly.
ipconfig / Register the client with its DNS server.
registerdns

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 ACTIVITY 8-6
Identifying Networking Tools

Scenario
In this activity, you will identify networking tools.

1. You need to determine if a cable is carrying a signal. Which networking tools might help you?
☐ Crimpers
☐ Cable testers
☐ Multimeters
☐ Toner probe
☐ Punch down tool

2. You need to connect cable wires to a patch panel. Which networking tool might help you?
○ Crimpers
Briefly explain the
○ Loopback plug various types of
○ Punch down tool information displayed by
the ipconfig /all
○ Toner probe
command. If you have
remote participants,
3. Open a command prompt. point out where their
a) Select Start. information might differ
b) In the Search programs and files text box, enter cmd from the information
shown on the computers
c) Select cmd.
in the physical
classroom.
4. Display and examine the TCP/IP configuration information for your computer.
If your course setup
a) Enter ipconfig /all uses a different IP
b) Scroll through the results of the command as your instructor describes the information that is address for the domain
displayed. controller, provide that
address or the DNS
5. Verify network connectivity with the APLUS-DC server. name to participants for
this step.
a) Enter ping 192.168.1.10
Discuss why or why not
b) Examine the results. Were you able to reach the target computer?
participants would
receive a response from
6. Examine the status of network connections on your computer. the target computer.
a) Enter netstat Briefly describe the
output of the netstat
b) Examine the results as your instructor describes them.
command.
Briefly describe the
7. View help for the net command. output of the net /?
a) Enter net /? and net
b) Enter net help helpcommands.
c) Examine the results as your instructor describes them. Encourage participants
d) Select at least one of the net help commands (such as net help view) and display detailed to select different
help information. Share your findings with the rest of the class. commands so that they
can share the
information they
8. Close the command prompt. discover with the rest of
the class.

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 Summary
In this lesson, you identified many different network technologies. Networking is at the heart of any
type of business. Without it, a business simply cannot function in today's world. It is your job to
ensure that the networks behind the business are running properly and managed correctly.
Use the review
questions provided to What do you think are the most important network concepts covered in this lesson?
generate discussion A: Answers will vary, depending on the setup of the work or home computing environments the students
among the participants. use. For example, if an individual is a gamer, he or she might be drawn more toward issues of LANs
and bandwidth. If a person has interest in one day being a system administrator, he or she might be
drawn to technologies such as wireless connectivity.

Do you have any experience working with any of these technologies?

A: Answers will vary according to the backgrounds of different individuals. Possible experiences include:
how do you access library card catalogs from the library, from home, or from the office? How do you
troubleshoot your own Internet connectivity problems? Have you ever set up a home network using a
router or switch?

Note: Check your LogicalCHOICE Course screen for opportunities to interact with your
classmates, peers, and the larger LogicalCHOICE online community about the topics covered in
this course or other topics you are interested in. From the Course screen you can also access
available resources for a more continuous learning experience.

Encourage students to
use the social
networking tools
provided on the
LogicalCHOICE Home
screen to follow up with
their peers after the
course is completed for
further discussion and
resources to support
continued learning.

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8 Installing, Configuring,
and Maintaining SOHO
Networks
Lesson Time: 1 hour, 30 minutes

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will install, configure, and maintain SOHO networks. You will:
• Install and configure a SOHO network.
• Implement SOHO network security.

Lesson Introduction
In the last lesson, you identified basic networking technologies. As an A+ technician, you
might be asked to implement these technologies in a small office or home office (SOHO)
situation, rather than in a corporate enterprise setting. In this lesson, you will install,
configure, and maintain SOHO networks.
Small businesses, whether located in a commercial building or in an individual's home, can
benefit greatly from being able to share files and other resources. SOHO networks generally
contain anywhere from two to ten computers, though there can be exceptions to this
guideline. As an A+ technician, you might be called upon to implement SOHO networks as
part of your job duties.
This lesson covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification
objectives:
• Topic A:
• Exam 220–801: Objectives 2.5, 2.6
• Exam 220-802: Objective 2.3
• Topic B:
• Exam 220–802: Objectives 2.3, 2.5, 2.6

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 TOPIC A
Install and Configure SOHO Networks
In the last lesson, you covered basic networking concepts, the Transmission Control Protocol/
Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) addressing scheme, and how networks are connected. In this topic, you
will use that knowledge to install and configure a SOHO network.
SOHO networks are much like the larger corporate networks, just on a much smaller scale. No
matter what the size or location of the network, you are still responsible for understanding how it is
structured and configured. A+ technicians must understand the needs and complexities of SOHO
wired and wireless networks.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220–801: Objective 2.5: Compare and contrast wireless networking standards and
encryption types.
• Exam 220-801: Objective 2.6: Install, configure, and deploy a SOHO wireless/wired router using
appropriate settings.
• Exam 220–802: Objective 2.3: Implement security best practices to secure a workstation.

What is a SOHO Network?

A SOHO network is a network that provides connectivity and resource sharing for a small office or
home office. Generally limited to fewer than 20 computers or nodes, a SOHO network often
facilitates sharing of files and printers, as well as services such as email, faxing, and so forth. A
SOHO network can contain a combination of wired and wireless computer connections, and all of
the computing devices in a SOHO network usually share the same physical location.

Figure 9-1: A SOHO Network.

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How Small is Small?
SOHO networks can range in size, and there is no real consensus as to the maximum number of
nodes that can be in a SOHO network. Some sources cite the maximum as 10 nodes, while others
say that four or five nodes is the maximum.

Firewalls and SOHO Networks

A firewall is a software program or hardware device that protects networks from unauthorized
access by blocking unsolicited traffic. Firewalls allow incoming or outgoing traffic that has
specifically been permitted by configuring settings. Firewalls use complex filtering algorithms that
analyze incoming network data based on destination and source addresses, port numbers, and data
type. In many cases a firewall will be the first stop in defending unauthorized access attempts in a
SOHO network. Because of the small network size a SOHO the firewall installed must provide the
right level of security for the size of the office and the number of connected computing devices.

Figure 9-2: A firewall in a SOHO network.

Software Firewalls
In some cases a software firewall can be useful for SOHOs. The firewall provides many features that
can be configured to suit various computing needs. Some features include:
• Enabling or disabling port security on certain ports.
• Inbound and outbound filtering. The user can set up rules or exceptions in the firewall settings
to limit access to the web.
• Reporting and logging activity.
• Malware and spyware protection.
• Pop-up blocking.
• Port assigning, forwarding, and triggering.

Hardware Firewalls
A hardware firewall is a hardware device, either stand-alone or built into most routers, that protects
computers on a private network from unauthorized traffic. They are placed between the private
network and the public network to manage inbound and outbound traffic and network access.

DMZs
A demilitarized zone (DMZ) is a small section of a private network that is located between two
firewalls and made available for public access. A DMZ enables external clients to access data on

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 private systems, such as web servers, without compromising the security of the internal network as a
whole. The external firewall enables public clients to access the service whereas the internal firewall
prevents them from connecting to protected internal hosts.
In small offices, DMZs are commonly used to protect any client-facing webservers. This security
method prevents any hackers from seeing the private internal IP scheme.

Figure 9-3: A section of a private network available for public access.

Other Names for DMZs

DMZs might also be referred to as perimeter networks or screened subnets.

NAT Implementations
Network address translation (NAT) can be implemented as software on a variety of systems or as
hardware in a dedicated device such as a router. Internet Connection Sharing (ICS) in Windows
systems includes a simple software-based NAT implementation, but requires a separate device, such
as a modem, to provide actual Internet connectivity. Hardware-based NAT devices, such as cable
modems and DSL routers, often have extended functionality and can double as Internet access
devices.
Note: A vast internal network can be configured with a single public address, which makes NAT
both secure and cost-efficient.

Figure 9-4: NAT Implementation. )

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Static vs. Dynamic NAT
In static NAT, each internal address is mapped to a single specific public address. In dynamic NAT,
there is not a one-to-one ratio of internal to external addresses; any number of internal addresses
can share a pool of external addresses.

WPS
Wifi-Protected Setup (WPS) is a newer standard that was released in 2007 by the Wi-Fi Alliance to
enable an easy yet secure setup of small home networks. The goal of the standard was to ease the
setup and complicated configuration settings of wireless routers designed for use in SOHO
networks. WPS is a service that comes installed on some routers to support quick secure setups for
routers; however, recently the standard has been tainted. The standard has been cracked by brute
force attacks and has been reported to be less secure. It is important to fully understand the
technology installed on network devices before you connect and install them within your network.
In most cases routers come with WPS enabled by default, so you may need to turn it off once the
router is connected.

Basic QoS
The amount of data being transmitted over networks is rising every day. Also, the type of data being
transferred is changing. Traditional applications such as file transfer protocol (FTP) and Telnet are
now outnumbered by real-time multimedia applications such as IP telephony, multimedia
applications, and videoconferencing. FTP and Telnet are very sensitive to packet loss but are
tolerant to delays in data delivery. The reverse is applicable to multimedia applications; they can
compensate for some amount of packet loss, but are very sensitive toward delays in data delivery.
Therefore, an optimum usage of bandwidth becomes very critical while dealing with multimedia
applications. Low bandwidth may result in a bad quality transmission of real-time applications,
leading to dropouts or hangs. In small offices, this issue can be a major problem due to the small
network and need to access the Internet. To avoid this, certain parameters were developed to
prioritize bandwidth allocation for real-time applications on networks such as the Internet and
guarantee a specific QoS.
Quality of Service (QoS) is a set of parameters that controls the quality provided to different types
of network traffic. QoS parameters include the maximum amount of delay, signal loss and noise that
can be accommodated for a particular type of network traffic; bandwidth priority; and CPU usage
for a specific stream of data. These parameters are agreed upon by the transmitter and the receiver,
the transmitter being the ISP and the receiver being the subscriber. Both the transmitter and
receiver enter into an agreement known as the Service Level Agreement (SLA). In addition to defining
QoS parameters, the SLA describes remedial measures or penalties to be incurred by an ISP in the
event that the ISP fails to provide the QoS promised in the SLA.

Relevance for SOHO Networks

In SOHO networks, network performance degradation can occur when several users are running
multiple applications or processes (such as downloads) that consume a lot of network bandwidth.
Often, the effects of this are markedly slow Internet connections or connectivity issues with Voice
over IP (VoIP) phones. By implementing basic QoS to prioritize services such as VoIP over file
downloads and Internet surfing, you can ensure that the services that you decide to prioritize are
getting the bandwidth they need.

802.11 Wireless Standards

The 802.11 standard is a family of specifications developed by the IEEE for wireless LAN
technology.

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 802.11 Standard Description

802.11a 802.11a is an approved specification for a fast, secure, but relatively

expensive wireless protocol. 802.11a supports speeds up to 54 Mbps in
the 5 GHz frequency band. Unfortunately, that speed has a limited
range of only 60 feet, which, depending on how you arrange your access
points, could severely limit user mobility.
802.11b 802.11b (also called Wi-Fi, short for "wireless fidelity") is probably the
most common and certainly the least expensive wireless network
protocol. 802.11b provides for an 11 Mbps transfer rate in the 2.4 GHz
frequency. Some vendors have increased the rate on their devices.
802.11b has a range up to 1,000 feet in an open area, and a range of 200
to 400 feet in an enclosed space (where walls might hamper the signal).
It is not compatible with 802.11a. This standard supports up to 14
channels, but the available channels depend on local regulations. For
instance, in areas where the FCC governs, the available channels are
channel 1 through channel 11.
802.11e 802.11e is a wireless standard for home and business implementations. It
adds Quality of Service (QoS) features and multimedia support to
802.11a and 802.11b, and is compatible with those standards.
802.11g 802.11g is a specification for wireless data throughput at the rate of up
to 54 Mbps in the 2.4 GHz band. It is compatible with 802.11b, and is
replacing it due to its faster speed.
802.11n 802.11n is a recent specification for wireless data throughput. Even
before approval, many "Draft N" or "Pre-N" products were already
being produced and sold, compliant with the specification. The
specification increased speeds dramatically with data throughput up to
600 Mbps in the 2.4 GHz or 5 GHz ranges.

Note: Home-based Wi-Fi networks are often susceptible to interference from microwave ovens,
which also operate in the 2.4 GHz frequency range.

WAPs
A Wireless Access Point (WAP) is a device that provides connection between wireless devices and
enables wireless networks to connect to wired networks. A WAP is sometimes called just an AP or a
WLAN-AP. WAPs have a network interface to connect to the wired network and a radio antenna or
infrared receiver to receive the wireless signals. Many include security features that enable you to
specify which wireless devices can make connections to the wired network.

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Figure 9-5: A Wireless Access Point.

SSID
The Service Set Identifier (SSID) is a 32-bit alphanumeric string that identifies a WAP and all devices
that connect to it. Since a wireless client device must provide the SSID in order to connect to the
WAP, the SSID functions as a sort of password for the wireless network. However, because the
WAP typically broadcasts the SSID in plain text, it does not provide any security. It is more realistic
to think of the SSID as a network name that is applied to the grouping of the WAP and the devices
currently connected to it. The administrator can accept a device's default SSID or specify an SSID
manually to more clearly identify the device.

Figure 9-6: SSID.

What is Encryption?
Encryption is the process of converting data into a form that is not easily recognized or understood
by anyone who is not authorized to access the data. Only authorized parties with the necessary

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 decryption information can decode and read the data. Encryption can be one-way, which means the
encryption is designed to hide only the cleartext and is never decrypted, or it can be two-way, in
which the encryption can be decrypted back to cleartext and read.

Figure 9-7: Encryption.

Wireless Encryption Types

Wireless Encryption The use of wireless computing devices is rapidly increasing every day. This also increases the risk of
Types wireless security attacks on devices to gain access to secure data and resources. Wireless encryption
conceals and protects data during transmission so that if the data were accessed during transmission
it cannot be read. There are a number of encryption types available to provide encryption over
wireless data transmissions.

Wireless Encryption Description

Type

WEP Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) provides 64-bit, 128-bit, and 256-bit
encryption for wireless communication that uses the 802.11a and 802.11b
protocols. While WEP might sound like a good solution at first, it
ironically is not as secure as it should be. The problem stems from the way
WEP produces the keys that are used to encrypt data. Because of a flaw in
the method, attackers could easily generate their own keys by using a
wireless network capture tool to capture and analyze network data and
crack WEP in a short period of time.
WPA Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) is a security protocol that was introduced to
address some of the shortcomings in the WEP protocol during the
pending development of the 802.11i IEEE standard. It uses strong
authentication and data encryption mechanisms.
WPA2 or 802.11i 802.11i is a complete wireless standard that adds strong encryption and
authentication security to 802.11 and relies on 802.1x as the authentication
mechanism. 802.11i is sometimes referred to as WPA2.
• WPA provides improved data encryption through the Temporal Key
Integrity Protocol (TKIP), which is a security protocol created by the
IEEE 802.11i task group to replace WEP. It is combined with the

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Wireless Encryption Description
Type

existing WEP encryption to provide a 128-bit encryption key that fixes

the key length issues of WEP.
• In addition to TKIP, WPA2 adds Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)
cipher-based Counter Mode with Cipher Block Chaining Message
Authentication Code Protocol (CCMP) encryption for even greater
security and to replace TKIP. It provides a 128-bit encryption key.
• Both standards have been extended to include several types of user
authentication through EAP, which is considered poor in WEP. WEP
regulates access to a wireless network based on a computer's hardware-
specific MAC address, which is relatively easy to figure out, steal, and
use (that is, sniff and spoof). EAP is built on a more secure public key
encryption system to ensure that only authorized network users can
access the network.

Router Settings and Configurations

Most routers available today can be configured for wired and wireless networks. Depending on the Router Settings and
router installation, there are a number of settings that can be configured to ensure connectivity, Configurations
security, and access.

Setting Description

Basics Basic settings apply to both wired and wireless routers and can include the
ability to:
• Secure your router or access point administration interface.
• Change default administrator passwords (and user names).
• Disable remote administration.
• Secure/disable the reset switch/function.
• Change the default SNMP parameter.
• Regularly upgrade the Wi-Fi router firmware to ensure you have the
latest security patches and critical fixes.
SSID When installing a wireless router, change the default Service Set Identifier
(SSID) and verify that you are not broadcasting out to the network.
MAC filtering Apply MAC address filtering to both wired and wireless routers. By
configuring a wireless access point (WAP) to filter MAC addresses, you can
control which wireless clients may join your network.
Channels Change the default channel on wireless routers. By changing the router
channel, you can optimize data transmission and reduce interference with
other routers in close proximity. If your router is dual channel, then you
can easily change from the default channel to the other channel available.
To help determine what channel is not being used there are utilities
available that can scan the local area and display used channels. This can be
very helpful in choosing a different less used channel for your router.
DHCP Depending on the needs of your network, turn on DHCP on both wired
and wireless routers to automatically connect and assign an IP address, or
turn it off and enter a static IP address.

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 Port Forwarding and Triggering
If your router has NAT, then you can also configure port forwarding, which forwards a network
port from one network node to another, and port triggering, which automates port forwarding by
specifying ports (triggering ports) to automatically and dynamically forward inbound traffic to.

Access the Checklist tile on your LogicalCHOICE course screen for reference
information and job aids on How to Install and Configure SOHO Networks

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TOPIC B
SOHO Network Security
In the last topic, you installed and configured a SOHO network. As with any other computer
network, SOHO networks need to be secured to prevent unauthorized access and other threats. In
this topic, you will examine how security controls are implemented to secure both wired and
wireless SOHO networks.
Securing your network is critical to keeping data, systems and resources safe from unauthorized
access. You must understand what the security implications are when a network is improperly
secured. Security controls and implementations restrict access to sensitive data and system resources.
As the A+ technician, it's your job to make sure that the right security controls are implemented and
functioning as expected.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220–802: Objective 2.3: Implement security best practices to secure a workstation.
• Exam 220–802: Objective 2.5: Given a scenario, secure a SOHO wireless network.
• Exam 220–802: Objective 2.6: Given a scenario, secure a SOHO wired network.

SOHO Security Methods

When implementing and configuring a SOHO network, you must ensure that the proper security Common SOHO
measures have been taken to prevent any unauthorized access. Security Methods
Ask the students to
Method Description identify what the pros
and cons are to
Change default user name Change the default user name and password for all devices assigning static IP
and password connected to the network. Use strong password guidelines when addresses.
assigning the new passwords.
Enable MAC filtering MAC address filtering provides a simple method of securing a
network. Typically, an administrator configures a list of client MAC
addresses that are allowed to join the network. Those pre-approved
clients are granted access if the MAC address is known by the
network.
Assign static IP addresses When implementing a small network, you can assign each device on
the network a static IP address. When each device has a designated
IP address, you remove the plug-in-and-go capability that DHCP
provides, so only those devices with IP addresses that are in the same
range as the static addresses will be able to connect to the network.
Disable ports Disabling unused network ports can prevent unauthorized access to
your network. Attackers look for open ports on networks to launch
an attack.
Apply physical security Depending on the location of the network, you may need to ensure
controls that the devices and network components cannot be accessed by
unauthorized users. This may be as simple as making sure that all the
entrances have proper security controls installed. This could be
anything from locked doors, surveillance systems, to installing a
biometric identification system.
Perform assessments Perform regular security assessments to determine if current controls
are meeting the needs of the organization.

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 Wireless Security
Wireless Security Wireless security is any method of securing a wireless local area network (LAN) to prevent
unauthorized network access and network data theft. You need to ensure that authorized users can
connect to the network without any hindrances. Wireless networks are more vulnerable to attacks
than any other network system. For one thing, most wireless devices such as laptops, mobile
phones, and other mobile devices search and connect automatically to the access point offering the
best signal, which can be coming from an attacker. Wireless transmissions can also be scanned or
sniffed out of the air, with no need to access physical network media. Such attacks can be avoided
by using relevant security protocols.

SOHO Wireless Security Methods

SOHO Wireless Security There are a number of security methods you can use to ensure that your wireless network is secure
Methods from unauthorized access.

Method Description

Configure the • Secure your wireless router or access point administration interface.
network settings • Disable remote administration.
• Secure/disable the reset switch/function.
• Change the default SNMP parameter.
• Change the default channel.
• Regularly upgrade the Wi-Fi router firmware to ensure you have the latest
security patches and critical fixes.
• Use the Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service Plus (RADIUS+)
network directory authentication where feasible.
• Use a VPN.
• Perform periodic rogue wireless access point scans.
Configure the • Disable the Service Set Identifier (SSID).
SSID • Change the default SSID broadcast.
Setting encryption • Enable WPA2 encryption.
• Change the default encryption keys.
• Avoid using pre-shared keys (PSK).
Properly place the • Position the router or access point and antennae safely. The radio
antenna and access frequency range of each access point should not extend beyond the
point physical boundaries and layout of the organization's facilities.
• Adjust the radio power level controls on routers and access points as
needed to help minimize power consumption within the wireless network.
It can be difficult to manage the radio power of wireless to reduce the
power used, while providing the right level of radio power to operate the
network.
Secure the wireless Specific procedures for implementing security options on wireless devices, as
access point well as the options your devices support, will vary. Always check the
documentation from your wireless device manufacturer before implementing
any security configurations. Common methods include:
• Implementing some form of user authentication.
• Implementing a security protocol that requires over-the-air data
encryption.

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Method Description

• Updating firmware on the device to implement any manufacturer security

patches and enhancements.
• Restricting unauthorized devices from connecting to the WAP by filtering
out unauthorized MAC addresses.
• Implementing a firewall. For a small office or home office, enable a
firewall on the WAP, and then also on the host computer to further secure
your network.
• Configuring vendor-recommended security settings on your wireless router
or access point.
Configure the • Do not auto-connect to open Wi-Fi networks.
workstation • Enable firewalls on each computer and the router.
• Assign static IP addresses to devices to prevent inadvertent broadcasting
of IP addresses to unauthorized parties.

Wireless Client Configuration Options

You have several options for increasing the security on your wireless clients, however specific
procedures for implementing security options on wireless clients, as well as the options your devices
support, will vary. Consult the documentation for your wireless client devices.
• Implement a security protocol that requires over-the-air data encryption.
• Install antivirus software and/or adware and spyware blockers.
• Update clients regularly with any software security patches. 3

Wireless Client
Configuration Options

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 ACTIVITY 9-1
Discussing Wireless SOHO Security Methods

Scenario
In this activity, you will identify some commonly used wireless security methods.
This activity is structured
to be a discussion type
activity. Depending on What security methods do you think a SOHO organization is most likely invest in and implement? What
the size of your class, methods do you think they are less likely to implement?
you can break the class
A: Answers will vary, but the more likely methods may include implementing encryption,
into small groups or
implementing a firewall, and changing the default user name and passwords. Methods less likely
discuss as a class.
to be implemented may include changing the SSID of the router and properly placing the WAP,
because these methods are not as common and can take more expertise to implement correctly.

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Summary
In this lesson, you installed, configured, and maintained SOHO networks. These skills can help you
support users in smaller networking environments so that they can communicate and share
resources in a secure manner.
Use the review
Do you have any experience working with SOHO networks? What do you expect to support in future job questions provided to
functions? generate discussion
A: Answers will vary, but will likely include connecting and setting up a small home wireless network. among the participants.
Most technicians will be installing and supporting SOHO wireless networks within their job role.

What do you think is the most important SOHO network security measure?
A: Answers will vary, but may include changing the default user name and password to network routers.
Without a strong password, attackers can access and gain sensitive data sent over the network.

Note: Check your LogicalCHOICE Course screen for opportunities to interact with your
classmates, peers, and the larger LogicalCHOICE online community about the topics covered in
this course or other topics you are interested in. From the Course screen you can also access
available resources for a more continuous learning experience.

Encourage students to
use the social
networking tools
provided on the
LogicalCHOICE Home
screen to follow up with
their peers after the
course is completed for
further discussion and
resources to support
continued learning.

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356
9 Mobile Computing
Lesson Time: 1 hours, 25 minutes

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will configure mobile computing devices. You will:
• Identify mobile device technologies.
• Configure mobile devices.

Lesson Introduction
Just like laptops, mobile computing devices have specialized hardware and system
configurations that can be used to optimize functionality. In this lesson, you will configure
mobile computing technology, and discover the potential of mobile device use within the
professional community.
Today, mobile devices are used in just about every workplace. Because of the portability and
functionality they provide, use within the workplace is on the rise. As an A+ technician, you
may be expected to not only support desktop and laptop computers, but mobile devices
too. It is crucial that you understand the basic features, networking and email settings, and
security methods used when setting up and configuring mobile devices.
This lesson covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification
objectives:
• Topic A:
• Exam 220–802: Objectives 3.1, 3.4
• Topic B:
• Exam 220–802: Objectives 3.2, 3.3, 3.5

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 TOPIC A
Mobile Device Technologies
Up until this point in the course, your primary focus has been on the more traditional system
hardware components and laptop technologies. In this next topic, you will dive into the mobile
computing realm and will take a closer look at the capabilities and technologies that they employ to
provide optimal performance.
Not only has mobile technology reached a new level of performance and portability, but the use of
these devices is on the rise every day. As a certified A+ technician, you will be expected to
understand how these devices work and how they should be deployed within the workplace.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220–802: Objective 3.1: Explain the basic features of mobile operating systems.
• Exam 220–802: Objective 3.4: Compare and contrast hardware differences in regards to tablets
and laptops.

What is Mobile Technology?

Mobile technology is fast-paced and changing daily. Mobile technology enables instant wireless
communications between users, resources, and computing devices. There are a number of devices
that employ mobile technology to connect to the Internet, cellular networks, and other mobile users.
There are four general types of mobile devices used today:
• Smartphones are high-end mobile devices that provide users with a wide range of functions, such
as portable media players, video cameras, GPS, high-resolution touch screens, high-speed Wi-Fi,
web browsers, and mobile broadband, along with phone service.
• Tablet PCs are mobile computers that function similarly to a full-sized desktop computer that
come with an integrated touchscreen and virtual on-screen keyboard.
• Carputers are wireless computing devices that are specifically designed for cars. Many devices
include features such as a global positioning system (GPS), media players, universal serial bus
(USB), and Bluetooth® communications. Common brands are Xenarc, HP, and Lilliput.
• PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants) are mobile devices used to manage personal information, such as
address books, calendars, and emails.

Mobile Carriers
Mobile carriers, also referred to as mobile providers, mobile network carriers, or wireless carriers,
provide wireless phone and data access to mobile devices. Each carrier provides different phone and
data plans that provide devices with an allotted amount of phone-call minutes, texts, and Internet
access. Common carriers include:
• Verizon Wireless
• T-Mobile
• AT&T Mobility

Mobile Operating Systems

There are two primary operating systems utilized in most mobile devices today: Android™ and
Apple® iOS. iOS is the base software that allows all other applications to run on an iPhone®, iPod
touch®, or iPad®. The iOS user interface supports direct touch, multitouch, and using the
accelerometer. Interface control elements consist of switches, buttons, and sliders. The response to
user input is immediate and provides a fluid interface that includes swiping, tapping, pinching,

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and reverse pinching, all of which have specific definitions within the context of the iOS operating
system and its multitouch interface.
Android, on the other hand, is a layered environment built on the Linux® kernel foundation that
includes not only the operating system, but middleware, which provides additional software for the
operating system (OS), and additional built-in applications. The Android OS was developed by the
Open Handset Alliance and is owned by Google. It supports open source-developed applications and
functions and comes with basic operating system services, message passing, and so on. The major
difference between Android and iOS is that iOS runs on Apple products only, where the Android
OS is used by many different mobile device manufacturers and is more widespread across a number
of different mobile devices. Android also enables manufacturers to overlay a suite of applications
that they support.
Additional mobile operating systems are available but are not used nearly as much as Android and
iOS, such as the BlackBerry® OS, Microsoft® Windows® Phone 8, and HP® webOS. Carputers
tend to be a separate category and mainly use either one of Microsoft's operating systems or an
open-source OS, such as Linux.

Smartphones
New smartphones are emerging almost every day. The market is expanding and demand for Smartphones
powerful mobile devices has never been higher. While Android and iOS dominate the smartphone
device marketplace, there are many other technologies and devices available.
As an A+ technician, it can be challenging to keep up with the mobile device market as it is
constantly changing and there are so many different smartphones all with unique features and
functions. The most popular devices used in the marketplace include:

Mobile Description
Smartphone

iPhone iPhones are a combination of a phone, an Internet gadget, and a widescreen

iPod, which runs on the iOS operating system. Apart from the more common
features of a telephone, music player, camera and games, the latest iPhone
includes features such as video conferencing and Siri®—a voice-controlled
software assistant to perform various tasks and run other applications through
a multitouch interface.
iPhone applications utilize innovative iOS technology to facilitate Wi-Fi
Internet connectivity with General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), an intuitive user
interface, GPS, the accelerometer, audio, video and graphic capabilities, and
other advanced features.
Android Android-based smartphones have similar functions to the iPhone, except that
smartphones the Android OS allows multiple applications to run simultaneously without
interruption. Popular Android-based smartphones include:
• Samsung™ Galaxy S® III
• MOTOROLA® DROID RAZR M
• HTC One™ X
• HTC One™ S
BlackBerry BlackBerry phones are primarily used by professionals to conduct business
smartphone operations and tasks. The BlackBerry OS directly supports corporate business
requirements with functions such as synchronizing with Microsoft® Exchange,
IBM® Lotus® Domino®, or Novell® GroupWise® emails, contacts, and tasks
by maintaining a high level of security.
Windows Windows smartphones run on the Windows Phone OS, which is maintained
smartphone and developed by Microsoft. Features include a suite of Microsoft® Office®

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 Mobile Description
Smartphone
applications, Outlook® Mobile, web browsing, Windows Media® Player, and
other advanced features.

Tablet PCs
Tablet PCs Mobile devices that fall into the tablet PC category range from larger tablets that look like a
traditional laptop but have a touch screen to small notebook-sized mobile devices that operate
similarly to a smartphone, but are a bit larger and have more computing power. Just like
smartphones, tablet PCs can run a number of different operating systems depending on the
manufacturer:
• Apple's iPad and iPod touch both run on iOS.
• The Android OS is used in a number of different tablet PCs including Amazon™ Kindle Fire™,
Samsung™ Galaxy tablets, Toshiba Excite™.
• The Windows® 7 Home OS runs on Acer® ICONIA TAB, ASUS Eee Slate, and Samsung™
Series 7 tablet.
• Microsoft® Surface™ running the Windows® RT OS, which is a tablet version of Windows® 8.
• BlackBerry® PlayBook™, which runs the BlackBerry OS.
For a complete list of Tablet PCs and operating systems visit www.tabletpccomparison.net.

Tablets vs. Laptops

Tablets vs. Laptops Laptops and tablets both offer a wide variety of hardware features that allow for better portability
and ease of use, but there are also some major differences that should be considered.
You may want to show
the LearnTO Identify Note: For additional information, check out the LearnTO Identify Laptops vs. Tablets in the
Laptops vs. Tablets from LearnTOs for this course on your LogicalCHOICE Course screen.
the LogicalCHOICE
Course screen or have
students navigate out to
the Course screen and Characteristic Laptops Tablets
watch it themselves as a
supplement to your Repairs The hardware components of a There are no field-serviceable parts in a
instruction. If not, please laptop can be fixed and replaced tablet. When something breaks, in most
remind students to visit when issues arise. This is still fairly cases, the entire tablet needs to be
the LearnTOs for this common with newer laptops as well. replaced.
course on their
LogicalCHOICE Course Upgrades The hard drive and central processing Tablets are not typically upgradeable,
screen after class for unit (CPU) can be upgraded, if unless it is software-related. The storage
supplemental needed, to meet OS requirements or components cannot be upgraded.
information and to add more functionality to the
additional resources. laptop.
Touch Most laptops do not come with a All tablets come with touch interface
interface touch interface component. You can technology. The touch technology allows
purchase specific laptops that have the user to interact with the tablet. It is
the feature, but it is not common. also the primary input method used for
tablets. Tablets utilize a touch interface
that allows interaction between the user
and the OS.
Multitouch is the technology used on the
surface of the touch screen on tablets and
other mobile devices. The technology can

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Characteristic Laptops Tablets

recognize more than one contact on the

surface at one time. This allows users to
pinch and zoom the screen to make
images or text larger and smaller.
Note: Touch Flow or
(TouchFLO) is an older touch
technology that was used on
HTC phones before the HTC
Sense interface was developed.

Storage Most laptops will have a mobile Most tablets will come equipped with
version of a traditional mechanical SSDs. Because of the space limitations
hard drive that has a higher storage and the portability of the tablet
capacity than solid state drives computers, SSDs make sense. They have
(SSDs). no moving parts to maintain and provides
a more stable mechanical design. The
SSDs are made up of a number of flash
chips that can retrieve data much faster
than a standard hard drive that needs to
start a motor and move the arm to read
data.
OS Laptops can run a number of Tablets can only run the mobile OS that
different operating systems including the device was manufactured to run. The
versions from Microsoft, Linux, and actual mobile OS will depend on the
UNIX. specific tablet due to the CPU architecture
versus the ARM architecture.

Mobile Operating System Features

The features and advanced functions of a mobile device are what makes them so popular with Mobile Device Features
consumers and professionals. Each mobile operating system will have its unique features that stand
out from the rest, but most functions tend to be pretty similar.

Feature Description

Open/closed The programming code used to develop mobile apps can be either open
source source code or closed source code, depending on the platform. Open source
refers to application code, operating systems, and programming languages
that are developed, published, and shared among the developer and
professional community. This process also promotes collaboration among
developers to build various apps and software programs. The Android mobile
operating system was developed using open source methods and is free to
customize.
Closed source refers to any application code, programming code, or operating
system code that is not published or shared with the community. Apple's iOS
operating system is an example of a closed source OS.
App source There are mobile apps for just about everything these days. Ranging from
games, calorie counters, virtual sticky notes, to recipes, and many more. These
apps are developed for personal and professional use and are intended to
make life easier, to entertain, or to connect businesses with consumers. Some
apps come preloaded on smartphones; others can be downloaded for free or

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 Feature Description
a small fee. Apple apps can be accessed and downloaded from the App Store,
or for Android devices from Google Play.
Screen orientation The screen orientation on most mobile devices will change automatically with
the position of the device. This is function is possible using advanced mobile
OS technology which includes an accelerometer and gyroscope. The accelerometer
reads and measures the orientation of the device using a sensor that can
measure the acceleration of the direction the device is moving in order to
reposition the screen. This technology works when the device is in motion
and upright. When the device is flat on a surface, the gyroscope changes the
orientation of the device by reading the x and y coordinates as the device is
moved to quickly update the orientation of the screen. These technologies
work together to provide an instant update to the screen in all environments.
GPS and Most mobile operating systems today use Global Positioning System (GPS)
geotracking technology to determine the location, weather, and time zone information of
a device using the satellite navigation system. Users can enter their starting
location and final destination to start the phone's built-in GPS. Depending
upon the phone and application, the navigator will provide directions or step-
by-step instructions or assistance. GPS technology is also used by certain
smartphone applications to let users check and share their location with
others. This practice is often referred to as geotracking. Geotracking uses the
GPS mobile technology component to constantly track and update a device's
location with applications that share and use positioning information. If
mobile devices do not use GPS technology, they will probably use Wi-Fi
triangulation to provide location services.
Screen calibration Screen calibration is a mobile operating system function typically used on older
PDAs and pen-based interfaces to update the sensors on the device to
respond quicker and more effectively to tapping, swiping, and pinching
actions on the touch screen. On most devices, the calibration settings will be
located in the device settings menu. If it is not, then it may not be available,
so refer to the manufacturer's documentation.
Voice recognition Voice recognition capabilities built in to the mobile operating system is
quickly on the rise. Apple's Siri was the first in a growing trend to use voice
recognition software in a mobile device that can not only recognize and
interpret a user's voice, but can respond and react to the instructions given.
Android has recently added a voice component called Voice Actions that
functions similarly to Siri.

Note: The CompTIA® exam objectives specifically refer to Android 4.0.x versus iOS 5.x.

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 ACTIVITY 11-1
Exploring iOS and Android Devices

Scenario
In this activity, you will examine mobile devices and their operating systems.
This activity assumes
that you have provided a
1. Examine an iOS device, and examine an Android device. mobile device to each
station. If mobile devices
2. Compare the interfaces and settings, and share your findings with the rest of the class. are not provided, you
can ask participants to
use their own
smartphones, or you can
perform this activity as a
demonstration.
Because of the
differences in the
various mobile products
available, you might
need to guide
participants in finding the
settings that you want to
discuss.

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 TOPIC B
Configure Mobile Devices
Now that you are more familiar with the different mobile device technologies available, you are
ready to learn how they can be configured for optimal performance while maintaining an acceptable
level of security. In this topic, you will configure mobile devices.
Mobile devices can be used for a number of functions within the professional workplace. Knowing
that, you must be able to provide basic level support to your users, such as configuring security
settings, configuring email, and setting up basic network connections.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220–802: Objective 3.2: Establish basic network connectivity and configure email.
• Exam 220–802: Objective 3.3: Compare and contrast methods for securing mobile devices.
• Exam 220–802: Objective 3.5: Execute and configure mobile device synchronization.

Mobile Security
Mobile Security Mobile devices today can do just about anything a laptop or desktop computer can do when it
comes to end-user productivity such as making and receiving phone calls, emailing, capturing and
editing photos and videos, accessing the Internet, and in some cases, remotely accessing data and
resources on a private or public network. With all these functions, you can assume all the same
threats related to desktop computers and laptops will apply. For example, viruses and spam can
infect mobile devices as they would desktop and wireless devices by email or downloaded
applications and due to the portability, small size, and always-connected state, threats such as loss,
theft, and damage due to dropping are prominent.

Mobile Device Security Techniques

Mobile Device Security Securing a mobile device is a necessary task that should be required and enforced by any employer
Techniques or user. There are a number of security methods that can be implemented to provide the right level
of security while still providing access to desired resources and applications.
Explain the
complications of using
mobile devices for both Security Control Description
personal and Enable screen lock and The screen lock option on all mobile devices should be enabled with a
professional use.
passcode settings passcode, and strict requirements on when the device will be locked. You
can specify how long the device is active before it locks, which typically
ranges from 1 minute to 5 minutes. Once the device is locked, it can only
be accessed by entering the passcode that has been set up by the user.
This security control prevents access to the device if it is misplaced or
stolen.
On some devices, you can configure the passcode settings to erase all
data stored on the device after a certain number of failed logon attempts.
Often, enabling screen lock can be a requirement in an organizational
security policy, no matter if the mobile device is provided by the
employer or the individual.
Be aware of pattern passcodes that require a user to complete a specific
action on the touch screen to activate the device. Most of the time, the
smudge pattern is visible on the surface and can be re-created to gain
access to the device. Using a numeric pin or a password is considered
more secure.

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Security Control Description
Configure device When available, all mobile devices should be configured to use data
encryption encryption to protect company-specific and personal data that may be
stored and accessed on the device. This method is effective as long as the
hardware cannot be accessed to steal the data. Along with device
encryption, data encryption should also be used so when data is accessed
by physically taking the device apart, the data remains secured.
Device encryption can also be a requirement in an organizational security
policy.
Require remote wipes Data wiping is a method used to remove any sensitive data from a mobile
device and permanently delete it.
Remote wiping is also available for some devices, so you can perform
these functions remotely in case the phone is lost or stolen. Wipe and
sanitization guidelines and requirements might be included in an
organization's security policy if mobile devices are issued to employees
for professional use. In some cases, Admins will have rights to remote in
to any device that is supported by the organization.
Enable location services GPS tracking service functionality is available on a number of mobile
and applications devices and can be added in most cases when required for business
reasons. This feature is used as a security measure to protect and track
mobile devices that may be lost or stolen.
If a mobile device does not have the locating functionality built in, then
you can download a locator application that can track and locate a lost or
stolen device.
Enable remote backup Depending on the type of mobile device, there are remote backup
services available through the OS. For example, Apple offers remote
backup services to its iCloud® through the General Settings of the
device. From there, you can specify what application data to back up.
Android offers remote backup using Google Drive. Both these services
offer the first 5 GB of data for free, then you can purchase more backup
space as needed. These features allow you to recover your data when a
device is either lost or stolen.
Install antivirus There are many different options when it comes to mobile antivirus
software solutions. Organizations that allow mobile devices to connect to the
network and transfer data should require that antivirus get installed to
prevent unauthorized access to data, systems, and resources. There are a
number of solutions available:
• BullGuard Mobile Security
• Kaspersky Mobile Security
• ESET Mobile Security
• Lookout Premium
• Trend Micro Mobile Security
• Webroot Secure Anywhere Mobile
Install updates and Mobile device updates are similar to other computing devices updates
patches and patches. Verify that devices are set up to automatically install updates
from the manufacturer. Updates and patches can resolve security issues
and systems flaws that present a security risk.

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 ACTIVITY 11-2
Examining Mobile Security

Scenario
In this activity, you will examine mobile security components and measures.

Note: For additional information, check out the LearnTO Secure a Mobile Device in the
LearnTOs for this course on your LogicalCHOICE Course screen.

1. How can the use of mobile devices by employees affect the security of an organization as a whole?
A: Mobile devices can function much like a regular computer; therefore, when they are used to send
and receive corporate emails, and to access systems and data within the corporate network, they
are a vulnerability. If lost or stolen, the devices can be used to access sensitive data or launch
attacks. Mobile devices should be secured just as any other system on the corporate network.

2. Examine some of the features on a mobile device. Using the main menu, open the security settings for
your device. What specific security settings are available?
A: Answers will vary, but may include a screen lock setting, device encryption options, and GPS
tracking features.

3. Now, pair up with a partner who has a different mobile device and examine the security features on that
device. Use the main menu to open the security settings. Are the security settings similar? Are there
different options available?

4. Tap to open the various options and check out the security settings that can be customized, such as the
screen lock feature, device encryption options, and GPS tracking features. Compare the available
settings on a couple different devices.

Smartphone Network Configuration Settings

Most smartphones have the functionality to connect to both a cellular network and a Wi-Fi network.
Both modes allow web browsing, email, and a variety of push notifications from apps, and can be
enabled or disabled in the general settings for the device.
Cellular data networks are subscribed to through a mobile carrier such as Verizon and GSM
networks. Users can subscribe to an appropriate wireless data plan that typically comes with usage
and bandwidth restrictions based on the chosen plan. On the other hand, connecting to Wi-Fi
networks provides users with unlimited use of network resources.
To connect to a Wi-Fi network, you must first verify that the mode is enabled on the smartphone.
Once its enabled, the phone will automatically detect local area networks (LANs) within the
discoverable range of the device. If the network is open to the public, then you can simply connect,
but if the network has been secured, you will need the wireless password to establish a secure
connection.

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Figure 11-1: Smartphone network settings.

Bluetooth Configuration Methods

Bluetooth enables mobile devices to connect wirelessly to various devices such as headsets, Bluetooth Configuration
carputers, laptops, MP3 players, and gaming consoles. Newer computers come with a Bluetooth Methods
radio built right into the system, while older computers require an adapter, such as a USB-enabled
Bluetooth adapter. Devices in discovery mode will transmit their Bluetooth-friendly name, which is in
most cases is the manufacturer's name. Once the name has been transmitted, the device can be
paired with another device also transmitting a signal. Using Bluetooth technology, mobile devices
can establish a connection through a process called pairing. When two devices pair, they share a
secret key in order to establish a wireless connection.

Figure 11-2: Pairing.

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 The Bluetooth Pairing Process
The pairing process involves devices sharing a secret key in order to create a working relationship.
The basic steps in this process include:
1. Enable Bluetooth on the mobile device through system settings.
2. Enable pairing on the device.
3. On your mobile device, find a device for pairing.
4. Once the device is found, it will ask for a PIN code.
5. Depending on the type of device, the PIN code will be sent via a text, or will be a standard code,
such as “0000” used for wireless headsets.
6. Verify that a connection message has been displayed.
7. Test the connection by using the two devices together to either make a phone call, transfer data,
or play music.

Data Synchronization
Data synchronization is the process of automatically merging and updating common data that is stored
on multiple devices. For example, a user can access his email contacts list from both his mobile
device and his laptop computer. Synchronization is established when the devices are either
connected via a cable or wirelessly, or over a network connection. In some cases, you may need to
install synchronization software on the devices you choose to synchronize. The sychronization rate
can be controlled and limited to allowing and restricting push and pull notifications from the cloud
over the Internet. There are many types of data that can be synchronized:
• Contacts
• Programs
• Email
• Pictures
• Music
• Videos

Figure 11-3: Data synchronization.

Microsoft has its own synchronization protocol called Exchange ActiveSync (EAS) that enables mobile
devices to connect to an Exchange Server to access mail, calendars, and contacts. Exchange

The Bluetooth Pairing

Process
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administrators can control what devices can connect and synchronize with the server and which
ones are blocked.

Synchronization Requirements
Synchronization requirements will vary and will be specific to each mobile device. There are a Synchronization
number of factors to consider when enabling data synchronization on a mobile device: Requirements
• You might need to use a specific system account to enable synchronization.
• You might require an email account.
• If you are using Microsoft Exchange, then control may be given to the Admin.
• Organizations may have specific requirements to synchronize data.
• Certain devices might require additional software to enable synchronization.

Email Configuration Methods

Once you've established a network connection with your mobile device, you can set up and Email Configuration
configure your email. Mobile devices can be configured to automatically update your email account Methods
information and manage mail. Mobile devices support a number of different email providers such as
Yahoo! Mail, Microsoft Exchange, Windows Live, Gmail, and Hotmail.
Email can be accessed in one of two ways on a mobile device: web-based or client-based. Web-
based access is accomplished by installing the email provider's application available in the mobile
devices store. This method requires you to enter your user name and password to access the web-
based email application. On the other hand, client-based email access is a bit more complicated and
requires more information to access email services. Microsoft Exchange is a client-based email
system that allows mobile devices to sync with the server. Before you can set up your mobile
device's email, you need to determine the type of email account you will be configuring.

Email Server and Configuration Settings

Depending on which email provider you use, there may be additional settings that you need. Email Server and
Configuration Settings
Server Information Description

Protocol Your email server will be configured to support either POP3 or IMAP.
Post Office Protocol version 3 (POP3) is a protocol that enables an email client
application to retrieve email messages from a mailbox on a mail server. With
POP3, the email messages wait in the mailbox on the server until the client
retrieves them, either on a schedule or manually. Once the messages are
retrieved and downloaded to the client, they are generally deleted from the
server. The client then stores and works with the email messages locally.
Internet Mail Access Protocol version 4 (IMAP4) is a protocol that enables a client
to retrieve messages from a mail server. With IMAP4, messages generally
remain on the server while the client works with them as if they were local.
IMAP4 enables users to search through messages by keywords and to choose
which messages to download locally. Messages in the user's mailbox can be
marked with different status flags that denote states such as "deleted" or
"replied to." The messages and their status flags stay in the mailbox until
explicitly removed by the user. Unlike POP3, IMAP4 enables users to access
folders other than their mailbox.
Security In order to establish secure authentication to and from an email server, a
security protocol should be used. There are two main security protocols used:

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 Server Information Description

• Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) is a security protocol that combines digital

certificates for authentication with public key data encryption. SSL is a
server-driven process; any web client that supports SSL, including all
current web browsers, can connect securely to an SSL-enabled server.
• Transport Layer Security (TLS) protects sensitive communication from
eavesdropping and tampering by using a secure, encrypted, and
authenticated channel over a TCP/IP connection. TLS uses certificates
and public key cryptography for mutual authentication and data encryption
using negotiated secret keys. TLS is very similar to SSL, but the two
protocols are not compatible.
Ports Email servers use different ports for incoming and outgoing mail. Before you
can configure any Exchange email settings, you will need to determine the
specific port numbers used. The email provider and the type of protocol used
determines the port number used. You should check the email provider's
website for protocol and port information.

Android Email Configuration Requirements

In order to fully configure an email account on an Android mobile device, you may need additional
email provider server information. Common required settings include:
• The email domain which is the @____ portion of your full email address.
• Your email authentication information.
• The access domain, which is the unique hostname that is assigned to the email provider's server.
You may need to visit your email provider's website to verify the hostname.
You may want to show
the LearnTO Configure Note: For additional information, check out the LearnTO Configure Email on a Mobile
Email on a Mobile Device in the LearnTOs for this course on your LogicalCHOICE Course screen.
Device from the
LogicalCHOICE Course
screen or have students Access the Checklist tile on your LogicalCHOICE course screen for reference
navigate out to the
information and job aids on How to Configure Mobile Devices
Course screen and
watch it themselves as a
supplement to your
instruction. If not, please
remind students to visit
the LearnTOs for this
course on their
LogicalCHOICE Course
screen after class for
supplemental
information and
additional resources.

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Summary
In this lesson, you worked with mobile computing devices. You examined mobile device
technologies including the operating systems for smartphones and tablets. You also examined how
to configure mobile devices to be secure when connecting to a network, connecting via Bluetooth,
synchronizing data, and using email.
Use the review
In your professional experience, have you supported mobile devices? If not then, what kind of experience questions provided to
do you have with them? generate discussion
A: Answers will vary, and experience levels can range from no experience at all to power users that are among the participants.
very comfortable with mobile devices.

What type of technical support do you think will be expected of an A+ technician as mobile devices become
even more prominent within the workplace?
A: Answers will vary, but will most likely include implementing security methods and synchronizing
organizational data with mobile devices.

Note: Check your LogicalCHOICE Course screen for opportunities to interact with your
classmates, peers, and the larger LogicalCHOICE online community about the topics covered in
this course or other topics you are interested in. From the Course screen you can also access
available resources for a more continuous learning experience.

Encourage students to
use the social
networking tools
provided on the
LogicalCHOICE Home
screen to follow up with
their peers after the
course is completed for
further discussion and
resources to support
continued learning.

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372
10 Supporting Printers
Lesson Time: 1 hour

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will support printers. You will:
• Identify printer components.
• Install, configure and maintain printers.

Lesson Introduction
In previous lessons, you have installed, configured, and managed system hardware for
desktops, laptops, and mobile devices, as well as the basic operating software and
networking components on all three systems. The next logical step is to examine some of
the most common external devices in use on personal computer systems: printers. In this
lesson, you will support printers.
Despite predictions that computers would bring about a paperless office environment, the
need to transfer digital information to paper or back again remains as strong as ever.
Therefore, printing and scanning are among the most common tasks for users in almost
every home or business environment. As an A+ certified professional, you will often be
called upon to set up, configure, and troubleshoot printing environments, so you will need
to understand printer technologies as well as to perform common printer support tasks.
This lesson covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification
objectives:
• Topic A:
• Exam 220–801: Objective 4.1
• Topic B:
• Exam 220–801: Objectives 4.2, 4.3

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 TOPIC A
Printer Technologies
In this lesson, you will support printers. Before you can provide the right level of support, you must
fully understand how these systems are used in a production environment. You need to understand
how the various printer components work within a printer to provide the desired outputs. In this
topic, you will identify printer technologies.
As a professional support technician, you might be supporting the latest cutting-edge technology, or
you might be responsible for ensuring that legacy systems continue to function adequately. So, you
must be prepared for either situation and be able to provide the right level of support to users and
clients. Having a working knowledge of the many printer technologies and components will help
you to support users' needs in any technical environment.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220–801: Objective 4.1: Explain the differences between the various printer types and
summarize the associated imaging process.

Printers
A printer is a device that produces text and images from electronic content onto physical media such
as paper, photo paper, and labels. A printer is one of the most popular peripheral devices in use in
most computing environments. Printers employ a range of technologies; the quality of the print
output varies with the printer type and generally in proportion to the printer cost. A printer output
of electronic documents is often referred to as "hard copy." Printers can connect to computers using
a variety of connection types, with the most popular methods being USB, networked, and wireless.

Figure 12-1: Printers.

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Microsoft Printing Terminology
Some Microsoft technical content makes a firm distinction between the software components that
represent the printer, and the physical printer itself. You may find that Microsoft refers to the
software representation of the printer as the "printer object," "logical printer," or simply "printer,"
and refers to the printer itself as the "print device" or "physical printer." However, Microsoft
sometimes also uses the word "printer" as in common usage, to mean the physical print device. Be
aware of the context usage of the terms.

MFDs
A multi-function device (MFD) is a piece of office equipment that performs the functions of a number An MFD
of other specialized devices. MFDs typically include the functions of a printer, scanner, fax machine,
Ask participants what
and copier. However, there are MFDs that do not include fax functions. Although the multi-
types of MFDs they have
function device might not equal the performance or feature sets of the dedicated devices it replaces, experience with, and
multi-function devices are very powerful and can perform most tasks adequately and are an what capabilities were
economical and popular choice for most home or small-office needs. available on the devices.

Figure 12-2: An MFD.

Types of MFDs
MFDs can be broadly classified into three types, based on their size, cost, and functions.

Type of MFD Description

All-in-one (AIO These MFDs are small in size and include basic features of printing,
MFD) scanning, and copying that are required for home users. Interestingly, some
of them include features such as PictBridge and smart card readers that are not
available on high-end MFDs. They have limited or no fax features and do
not support networking.

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 Type of MFD Description
SOHO MFD These MFDs are medium sized and are designed specifically for small and
home offices. They can be connected to a network and can perform tasks at
a faster pace than AIOs. They usually have enhanced faxing capabilities and
some high-end models are loaded with additional time-saving features, such
as an automatic document feeder, duplex printing, duplex scanning, extra paper
trays, and stapling.
Heavy-duty MFD As the name suggests, these MFDs are large, network-enabled machines that
can cater to the documentation needs of an entire office. They may not
include a fax. They are built to handle large volumes of printing, scanning,
and copying. Additional features such as automatic document feeder, duplex
printing and scanning, and enhanced storage space are available by default.

Laser Printers
A laser printer is a printer that uses a laser beam to form images and toner to print the images on a
printing medium, such as paper or photo paper.

Figure 12-3: A laser printer.

Components of Laser Printers

Laser printers include some specialized components not found in other printer types:
• Toner cartridge. This is a single, replaceable unit that contains the fine powder used to create
images as well as additional components used in image production. Frequently, the EP drum is
also incorporated in this cartridge.
• Laser scanning assembly. This is the unit that contains the laser.
• High-voltage power supply. This component converts the supplied current to optimal voltage for
specific components and also converts the supplied alternating current (AC) to direct current
(DC) for specific internal parts of the printer.

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• Paper transport mechanism. This includes the transfer belt and separator pads that move the
paper through the laser printer. If the printer is equipped with a duplexing assembly, then the
rollers and motors will flip the paper and feed it through to the imaging drum twice.
• Electrostatic Photographic drum (EP drum), or imaging drum. This component carries an electrical
charge that attracts the toner. It then transfers the toner to the paper.
• Transfer corona assembly. This is a component that contains the corona wires; it is responsible
both for charging the paper so that it pulls the toner off the drum and also for charging the drum
itself.
• Fuser assembly. This unit, also known as the fuser, applies pressure and heat to the paper to adhere
the toner particles to the paper.
• Formatter board. This unit exposes and processes all of the data received from the computer and
coordinates the steps needed to produce the finished page.

LED Printers
LED printers are similar to laser printers but use the latest printing technology, namely Light
Emitting Diodes (LEDs), to replace the laser beam. Some LED printers can print 420 pages per
minute.

The Laser Print Process

In the laser printing process, laser printers print a page at a time using a combination of electrostatic The Laser Print Process
charges, toner, and laser light. The laser print process follows these steps:

Figure 12-4: The laser print process.

Process Step Description

1. Cleaning The EP drum is cleaned with a rubber squeegee blade.

2. Erasing Charges are removed from the EP drum in preparation for the next
image.
3. Charging The imaging drum is prepared by charging it with a charge roller. The
(conditioning) roller is connected to a high-voltage power supply unit to produce

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 Process Step Description
negative charges. The roller then applies these negative charges, up to
-600 volts (V), on the surface of the drum. This process is known as
conditioning. A finely tuned laser beam, which consists of positive
charges, is cast on the negatively charged drum. A multi-faced mirror that
rotates reflects the laser beam onto the drum.
4. Writing A laser beam writes to the EP drum, giving portions of the drum a
weaker negative charge.
5. Developing Toner is attracted to the areas of the drum that were hit by the laser light.
In this step, the invisible image is now ready to be developed. Inside the
toner cartridge, a thin layer of toner is applied to the surface of the drum.
A thin blade, called a wipe blade, then spreads the toner evenly on the
surface of the drum, leaving behind the toner only on the regions written
by the laser beam.
6. Transferring In the next phase, positively charged papers are fed into the printer by
the pickup rollers. The positively charged paper attracts the negatively
charged toner sticking on the drum. The transferred toner sticks loosely
on the paper's surface, bound by the charges.
7. Fusing In the final stage, the toner is melted and fused with the paper
permanently. There are two transfer rollers, closely placed to each other,
with almost no clearance between them. The heating roller at the top has
heating elements inside it and is also coated with a non-stick material to
prevent the toner from sticking to it. The pressure roller at the bottom
presses the paper against the heating roller and together they melt and
fuse the toner with the paper. When the fusing process is complete, the
printed paper rolls out of the printer.

Inkjet Printers
Inkjet Printers An inkjet printer is a printer that forms images by spraying liquid ink from an ink cartridge out of
nozzles aimed carefully on the printer. Inkjet printers have a self-cleaning cycle and will park the
printhead when not in use. The printer can use heat or vibrations to release the ink.
Note: Canon refers to their inkjet printers as "BubbleJet," and HP refers to theirs as "DeskJet."

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Figure 12-5: An inkjet printer.

Inkjet Printer Capabilities

Inkjet printers are very versatile. Inkjet printers vary by:
• The media they can print on. This includes the following:
• Inexpensive copier paper
• Bright paper made specifically for inkjet printers
• Photo paper
• Transparencies
• Labels
• Card stock
• Envelopes
• Whether they produce black and white or color output.
• Whether they have duplexing capabilities.
• The cartridge design and the cost of cartridges.
• The speed at which they print.
• Whether the printhead is part of the printer or whether it is packaged together with the ink tanks
in a print cartridge.
• The paper path. Some printers have a straight-through paper path and others turn the paper over
as it passes through the printer.
• The resolution in dots per inch (DPI).
• How the ink is released. It could be by:
• The piezoelectric method, used in Epson printers. This uses a vibration to release a droplet of
ink from the cartridge.
• The thermal method, used in most other printers. This method releases a droplet of ink by
heating up the ink.
• The volume of the ink drop, expressed in picoliters (10^-12 liters). The smaller the drop, the less
grainy the print output.

Solid Ink Printers

Solid ink printers are somewhat of a cross between inkjet and laser printers except that they use ink
from melted solid-ink sticks. The melted ink is forced into a printhead, where it is transferred to a

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 drum, which then transfers the image to the paper as it rolls over the drum. Solid ink printers can
produce an image with a clear, fine edge on a wide variety of media, such as standard paper or
transparency film.

The Inkjet Print Process

In the inkjet print process, inkjet printers spray ink on paper to form images. The inkjet print
process follows these steps:

Figure 12-6: The inkjet printing process.

Process Step Description

1. Preparation When the print process is initiated, a motor and belt mechanism moves a
printhead across the printer. Another stepper motor along with gears
advance the paper into the printer.
2. Ink dispersion As the printhead moves across the paper, images are formed by heat or
vibration forcing liquid ink out of carefully aimed nozzles onto the paper.
The printhead does not touch the paper. If the printer has double-sided
printing capabilities, then the duplexing assembly will move the paper or
other printing media through the printer twice.
3. Ink deposit The printhead moves back and forth across the paper, printing one row of
the image at a time. Each row is several dots wide. The amount of ink shot
onto the page is determined by the driver software that controls where and
when each nozzle deposits ink. The printhead typically produces at least 300
distinct DPI. Some printers can print at up to 1,200 DPI or more.
4. Paper advance The paper advances using rollers and feeders after every row until the page is
covered.

Thermal Inkjet Printers

Thermal inkjet printers use heat to release the ink from the nozzle.
1. The ink in the printhead is heated to a specified temperature.

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2. Once the ink is heated, bubbles are formed in the cartridge that burst and shoot ink onto the
media.
3. The heat is turned off and the element cools.
4. More ink is sucked into the nozzle when the bubble collapses. Each thermal printhead has about
300 to 600 nozzles that shoot spheres of ink that can create dots about 60 microns in diameter.

Piezoelectric Inkjet Printers

Some inkjet printers use piezoelectric technology. Piezoelectric technology uses a piezo crystal that
flexes when current flows through it. When current flows to the crystal, it changes shape just
enough to force a drop of ink out of the nozzle and onto the paper.

Duplexing
Duplexing is the process that enables automatic printing and scanning on both sides of printing
media, such as paper and envelopes. This function can be found in both inkjet and laser printers,
and also in MFDs, and in some cases can be installed as an add-on to provide the duplexing
functionality to printers that do not have the function installed. The printer component that is
responsible for duplexing is referred to as the duplexing assembly. Its primary function is to reverse the
media inside the printer so that both sides can be moved through the imaging function of the
printer. In some higher-end commercial printers, the duplexing function can print both sides
simultaneously, without having to flip the media over.

Figure 12-7: The duplexing assembly.

Thermal Printers
A thermal printer is a general term for any printer that uses a heating element to create the image on
the paper with dye, ink from ribbons, or directly with pins while the feed assembly moves the media
through the printer. There are several types of thermal printers that use significantly different
technologies and are intended for different uses. The most sophisticated types of thermal printers
can produce professional photo-quality images. There are also thermal printers for everyday office

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hermal Print Processes

use and for special-purpose applications. Most thermal printers will require special thermal paper that
contain chemicals designed to react and change color as it is heated by the heating element within
the printer to create images. These printers are commonly used with cash registers to print receipts.

Figure 12-8: A thermal printer.

Types of Thermal Printers

There are three basic categories of thermal printers.

Thermal Printer Type Definition

Thermal dye transfer A thermal dye transfer printer, also called a dye sublimation printer, is a
printer sophisticated type of color printer that uses heat to diffuse dye from color
ribbons onto special paper or transparency stock. The resulting
continuous-tone image is similar in quality to photographic printing, and
professional photographers employ them to produce prints quickly
without having to send them to a photographic lab. However, the printers
themselves are expensive and slow, and the special media is also
expensive. Newer and less-expensive snapshot printers produce snapshot-
sized images of acceptable photographic quality.
Thermal wax transfer Thermal wax transfer printers have a thermal printhead that melts wax-based
printer ink from a transfer ribbon onto the paper. These printers can be used in
typical office settings as an economical way to produce color copies or
color prints at an acceptable quality but at lower cost than dye
sublimation printers. They are also used for standard text-based printing.
Direct thermal printer Direct thermal printers use heated pins to form an image directly onto
specially coated thermal paper. Early personal computer printers, such as
Apple’s first printer, the SilenType, were thermal printers. However,
direct thermal printers are found today only in special-purpose printing
devices such as cash registers and some fax machines.

Thermal Print Processes

There are several different print technologies grouped together in the general category of thermal
printers. Each specific thermal printer type uses a unique print process:

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• A thermal dye transfer printer, or dye sublimation printer, uses a heating element to diffuse dye
from color ribbons onto special thermal paper or transparency stock.
• A thermal wax transfer printer uses the heating element to melt wax-based ink from a transfer
ribbon onto special thermal paper as it moves through the printer by the feed assembly.
• A direct thermal printer has a heating element with heated pins to create the image directly on
the paper as it gets passed through the printer by the feed assembly.

Figure 12-9: The wax thermal print process.

Impact Printers
An impact printer is any type of printer that strikes a component directly against the ink ribbon to Impact Printers
create characters on impact paper. The strike can be made with a group of pins or with a preformed
type character. Impact printers tend to be noisy and slow compared to other printers and have
largely been superseded by other printer technologies. The most common use is for printing carbon
or carbonless multi-part forms such as receipts or invoices.

Figure 12-10: An impact printer.

Types of Impact Printers

There are several terms used to categorize impact printers.

Impact Printer Type Description

Dot-matrix printer A dot-matrix printer is a type of impact printer that uses a set of pins to
strike the ribbon. Dot-matrix printers create printed characters by using
various combinations of dots. The printhead contains a vertical column
of small pins that are controlled by an electromagnet. Because it uses an

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 Impact Printer Type Description
array of pins to form images, this type of printer can produce graphics as
well as text.
Formed-character A formed-character printer is any type of impact printer that functions like a
printer typewriter, by pressing preformed characters against the ink ribbon to
deposit the ink on the page.
The printhead might be shaped like a golf ball, with the type distributed
around the ball, or it might be in the form of a wheel with the characters
around the perimeter of the wheel. Because of this type of printhead's
resemblance to flower petals, they are referred to as daisy-wheel printers.
Line printer A line printer is any type of impact printer that can print a full line of text
at a time, rather than printing character by character. These are the
fastest type of impact printers.

Paper Feed Mechanisms

Impact printers can use either tractor feed when printing on continuous-roll impact paper, or
friction feed when printing on individual cut sheets of paper. Tractor feed uses pairs of wheels with
pins evenly spaced around the circumference at a set spacing. Continuous-roll paper with matching
holes in the edges fits over the pins. The wheels turn and pull the paper through the printer. There
are usually just two wheels, but there might be additional wheels or pin guides that the paper is
latched to. There is usually a lever or other setting on the printer that needs to be engaged in order
to use the tractor feed.
Friction feed uses two rollers placed one on top of the other. The rollers turn to force individual cut
sheets of paper or envelopes through the paper path. This is used to print on individual sheets of
paper (cut-sheet paper) and envelopes. Be sure to set the printer lever or other setting to the cut-
sheet mode when printing using friction feed.

The Impact Print Process

The impact print process consists of four steps.

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Figure 12-11: The impact print process.

Process Step Description

Pin strike The printhead has a vertical column of small pins that are controlled by an
electromagnet. The pins shoot out of the printhead and strike an ink-coated
ribbon. The dots created on the page become the printed text or graphics.
More, smaller pins create better quality images. Printers come in 9-pin or 24-
pin varieties.
Ink transfer The impact of the pin transfers ink from the ribbon to the printed page. This
physical impact is responsible for the printer's ability to print multiple-layer
forms.
Printhead move After a set of pins has fired, an electromagnet pulls them back in, the printhead
moves a fraction of an inch across the page, and another set of pins is fired.
Letter quality pass Near Letter Quality (NLQ) printers usually use two or more passes over a line
of text to increase the number of dots used per letter. This connects the dots to
form sharper and clearer letters.

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 ACTIVITY 12-1
Identifying Printer Technologies

Scenario
In this activity, you will identify various types of printers.

1. What printer process is displayed here?

○ Laser
○ Impact
○ Inkjet
○ Thermal

2. What printer is displayed here?

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 ○ Inkjet
○ Thermal
○ Laser
○ MFD

3. True or False? The fuser assembly is a component of a laser printer.

☐ True
☐ False

4. Identify any available printers that may be within your workspace for taking this class. See how many of
the components you can identify inside the printers.
Assist participants in
identifying various
printer components.

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 TOPIC B
Install, Configure, and Maintain Printers
In the previous topic, you examined printer technologies, components, and processes. You can use
this basic understanding when you install and configure printers on laptop and desktop systems. In
this topic, you will install, configure, and maintain printers.
Because printers are such a fundamental component of almost every computing environment, it is
almost a guarantee that you will be called upon to set up and configure printing on devices no
matter what professional environment you are working in. The skills you will learn in this topic
should prepare you to install, configure, and maintain a wide range of printer types efficiently and
correctly.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220–801: Objective 4.2: Given a scenario, install and configure printers.
• Exam 220–801: Objective 4.3: Given a scenario, perform printer maintenance.

Technical Printer Components

Technical Printer Printer types can vary, but there are many common technical components that are used to provide a
Components number of common functions within the printer.

Component Description

Printer memory Printers typically come with their own installed memory to store information
about the current device settings as well as the print jobs in the queue.
Different devices will have a different amount of memory installed by default;
you may be able to upgrade the memory. Upgrading the memory can enable a
printer to handle higher-resolution jobs and to buffer more of each print job
to increase throughput.
Printers store current print jobs in volatile Random Access Memory (RAM);
they typically store device settings in flash-based non-volatile RAM. Consult
your device documentation for the memory amounts and types your device
supports, as well as procedures for installing or upgrading device memory.
Printer drivers Like all hardware devices, printers require appropriate software drivers in
order to enable the device to communicate with the computer system and
function correctly. The driver controls all device-specific functions, including
print resolution and quality choices, color rendition, contrast and brightness,
and finishing options such as two-sided printing, collation, stapling, and so
on. If you open a device's property sheet, you can see the driver functions on
the Advanced page and on any custom pages the driver adds. Printers might
also include management software that is separate from the low-level driver
interface and provides sophisticated control over device settings and
functions.
Printer firmware Many printers include built-in firmware that provides the on-board device
management interface. This enables you to configure printer functions,
monitor and manage print jobs, select output options, and run diagnostic
tests from a console on the device itself, rather than indirectly through a
computer operating system. The firmware type and the functions provided by
the firmware will vary depending upon your device. Check with your device
vendor for any available firmware updates.

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Component Description
Printer interfaces Printers have been traditionally connected to computers using parallel or
sometimes serial cables and ports. However, those connection methods are
considered obsolete. Most printers and multifunction devices used today use
USB and wireless technologies, or are directly connected to the network via a
network cable.

Centronics Ports and Connectors

One of the few places you will come across a Centronics connector is with printers. The Centronics
standard describes a type of parallel port used to connect printers. It is named after the company
that designed the original interface. The Centronics standard uses a 36-pin Centronics connector to
connect to the printer and a DB-25 (25-pin) connector to connect to the PC.

Printer Supplies and Media

There are a number of additional printer supplies and media that are necessary for a printer to Printer Supplies and
function properly. Media

Supply or Media Description

Printer toner Laser printer toner is a fine powder made of particles of iron, carbon, and
resin. Laser printers require a toner cartridge, which is a single, replaceable
unit that contains toner as well as additional components used in image
production. You will need to maintain a supply of the proper toner cartridges
for your printer model. Refill or recycle empty toner cartridges; do not
dispose of them in regular trash.
Users can change toner cartridges, but everyone should follow proper
handling procedures, which are usually printed right on the cartridge. Toner
particles can stain clothing or skin, especially when exposed to heat. Toner
rarely spills, but when it does, clean it up with an electronics vacuum that has
a fine filter and bag to contain the material. Using a regular vacuum can melt
the toner if it gets on the vacuum motor. Use a dry paper towel, toner spill
cloths, or cool water to clean toner from skin or clothing. Do not rub the
area, because the heat from friction will make it harder to remove.
Ink and ink Inkjet printers require ink cartridges to supply black or colored ink. You will
cartridges need to maintain a supply of the ink cartridges for your printer model. Ink
cartridges vary by:
• The size of cartridges and how much ink each cartridge contains.
• Whether black is produced using a separate cartridge or by combining the
cyan, yellow, and magenta inks into a composite black output.
• Whether there are separate cartridges for each color or if they are all in
one unit. The black cartridge is separate on almost all printers, except for
some very low-end printers. If the colors are in one unit and one color
runs out, the entire cartridge needs to be replaced.
Solid ink printers require you to supply solid ink sticks designed for your
particular printer model.
Paper and other Depending upon your printer, you may be able to print to a variety of media
media types types, including:
• Standard-quality copier paper in a variety of form sizes, such as letter,
legal, tabloid, and so on.
• Bright paper made specifically for inkjet printers.

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 Supply or Media Description

• Photo paper.
• Transparencies.
• Labels.
• Card stock.
• Envelopes.
You will need to install paper trays that accommodate the media stock you
select for your printer. You can also select paper trays in different
orientations, whether letter or landscape. Some media sizes and types might
need to be fed into the printer manually.
Most printer outputs goes to an output bin on top of the printer, but there
might be an additional or alternate straight paper path through a drop-down
door, called a bypass tray, on the rear of the printer that you can use for
specialized media, such as transparencies.
Maintain an appropriate media stock on hand. Users can typically refill paper
trays themselves if the correct stock is available.

Printer Driver Types

There are several types of drivers you might encounter when supporting printers. In Windows, each
of these drivers is normally composed of several files. A typical driver will contain a configuration
file (.dll), a driver file (.drv), a data file (.ppd), a .help file (.hlp), and one or more dependent files
(.ntf).

Driver Type Description

PostScript A printer driver used to render print jobs into the PostScript printer language
printer and provide device capability information to the user. It displays specific
description information about the printer itself, such as whether the printer is a color
(PPD) printer. It also contains options that can be modified by the user, such as paper
size, resolution, and print job information. PPD files can be used on Windows®,
Mac®, or LPD (Line Printer Daemon) clients.
Printer control A print driver protocol used to render print jobs into the PCL printer language
language (PCL) and transfer data from the central processing unit (CPU) to the printer. It has
become a standard used mostly by Hewlett-Packard printers. This protocol can
be found for laser, thermal, and dot matrix printers. Sometimes seen as Printer
Command Language.
Universal print UPDs are designed to support multiple printers and MFDs with one driver. The
driver (UPD) universal drivers may only be available for some printer brands. For example,
Hewlett-Packard developed a UPD that can support almost all Hewlett-Packard
printers and MFDs.
Raster/bitmap A universal driver type that supports raster/bitmap printing to most printers.
Plotter/vector Renders print jobs into specialized plotter language, for making large-scale
drawings based on X and Y coordinates.

Print Driver Compatibility

Before you can start sending print jobs to a printer, you must verify that the print driver is installed.
Print drivers must be compatible with the operating system running on your computer and the type
of printer you have installed. You can view the driver files for any installed printer on your system
by opening the printer properties window to see the driver files in use by that printer. Print drivers

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are generally available on installation discs provided with the printer. Updated print drivers are
usually available for download from the printer manufacturer's website. However, in most cases, the
majority of print drivers will be available as part of the operating system.

Local and Network-Based Printers

There are two general types of printers you can install on a Windows system. Local and Network-
• Local printers are managed by and may be physically or wirelessly connected to the local computer. Based Printers
The local computer holds the print queue, which contains the print jobs waiting to print.
• Network-based printers are shared print devices that are managed by a network computer, called a
print server. The print server holds the print queue.
Network-connected printers have built-in network adapter cards and connect directly to a network
cable or via a wireless network interface. Print jobs are sent over the network using a network
protocol such as Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). Some network-
connected printers have on-board print server software so they can be installed on the network
directly and manage the print queue without requiring a separate print server computer.

Print Device Sharing

Depending on an organization's infrastructure, printers can be shared with computers, networks, or Print Device Sharing
other devices using a number of methods. Both local and network printers can be shared with other
computers and devices.

Method Description

Wired With the increased use of USB and Ethernet cables over the years, parallel and
serial cables and ports are just about obsolete. Most wired printers and MFDs
found today will connect to devices using a USB port or are directly
connected to a network via an Ethernet cable.
Wireless Wireless printers offer many capabilities such as flexible printer locations.
Printers can be connected to a wireless network using:
• Bluetooth®
• 802.11x
• Infrared (IR) technology
Print server Print servers hold the print queue for a number of printers connected to the
same network. The server manages print jobs that come from client
computers or devices, and sends the jobs on to the desired printer. You may
also come across occasions when the print server is built into a printer, or is a
component of an appliance that also provides additional functions, such as a
firewall.
Operating system Printers can be shared with other devices on the network by assigning print
permissions that apply to local users and to users of a shared network printer.
Permissions can be allowed or denied within the operating system settings, but
if you deny a user the print permission, the user will have no access to the
printer. Available permissions include:
• The print permission, which enables you to print to the shared printer.
Assigned by default to Everyone.
• Manage this printer, which enables you to print to the printer and fully
administer the printer. Assigned by default to administrators and Power
Users.

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 Method Description

• Manage documents, which enables you to manage other users' documents.

This permission includes the ability to manage all the jobs in the print
queue.
• Special permissions, which is generally only used by the system
administrator to manage printer owner settings.

Workgroup Security Models and Print Permissions

To assign permissions to printer objects on a Windows® 7 computer in a workgroup, you need to
turn off File Sharing and enable Classic authentication so that local users can authenticate as
themselves. In the Network and Sharing Center, select Change advanced sharing settings
from the left pane and then select the Turn on file and printer sharing option.
Note: In Windows® XP, use Simple File Sharing to change the share permissions.

Once you do this, the Security tab will be available in the printer's property sheet.

Printer Configuration Options

Printer Configuration Depending upon your particular printer, you will have various options for configuring and
Options optimizing printer performance.

Printer Description
Configuration
Option

Device calibration The printer manufacturer should provide documentation and tools for
calibrating device-specific settings on the physical print device. For example,
the cartridges on inkjet printers often require alignment after changing the
cartridge (this often happens automatically, or may be done manually through
the print driver interface). Or, you may need to calibrate the color overlays so
that the colors align properly and do not create shadows.
Tray assignments Each physical printer has different numbers and sizes of media and paper trays
that can accommodate different paper and media forms and weights. Once you
have installed the appropriate paper trays, you should verify that the
appropriate media form type is assigned to each tray. Configure form-to-tray
assignments on the Device Settings page of the printer's property sheet.
Tray switching If you have installed multiple trays that use the same media size and type, most
printers can use automatic tray switching to switch a job to a different tray
when the default tray is empty. See your printer's documentation for
information on configuring tray switching.
Print spool You can configure how an individual printer will spool print jobs. The printer
settings can print as soon as a page is spooled, or it can hold the job until the entire
document is spooled. You can also configure the printer to bypass spooling
and print directly to the device. Set spooler options on the Advanced tab of
the printer's property sheet.
Printer availability You can use the printer's availability schedule to postpone printing of long
documents or low-priority documents to off-hours or other convenient times.
Users can send jobs to the print queue at all times; the print server holds the
jobs until the available hours, and then produces the output. To configure
availability, open the properties of the printer and select the Advanced tab.
Select Available From and set the time range in the boxes.

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Printer Description
Configuration
Option
Color The settings on the Color Management page control how Windows will
management select color settings for the printer based on the media type and printer
configuration.
Printer ports You can use the Ports tab to configure the printer to print to local parallel or
serial ports, or to a network port address.

You may want to show

Note: For additional information, check out the LearnTO Install and Configure a Printer in the LearnTO Install and
the LearnTOs for this course on your LogicalCHOICE Course screen. Configure a Printer from
the LogicalCHOICE
Course screen or have
Printer Maintenance students navigate out to
the Course screen and
Proper printer maintenance will extend the life of a printer and will help prevent mechanical issues watch it themselves as a
in the future. supplement to your
instruction. If not, please
remind students to visit
Device Maintenance
the LearnTOs for this
Inkjet printer • Use the printer often to prevent the ink from drying out and clogging the course on their
LogicalCHOICE Course
nozzles.
screen after class for
• Run the printer's cleaning utility to clean the printhead. supplemental
• Run the printer's nozzle test. information and
additional resources.
Impact printer • Regularly clean the paper path and the ribbon path using a dry, soft cloth. Printer Maintenance
• Replace the printhead, ribbon, and paper when needed.
• Regularly vacuum the dust from the wheels in the tractor feed assembly.
• To avoid overheating the printhead, be mindful of the printer's location.
Make sure it is clear of clutter and other machines.
Laser printer • Replace the toner cartridge once it gets low.
• Clean excess toner out of the printer each time you replace the cartridge to
avoid buildup inside the printer.
• Be mindful of the printer's location. Keep it well ventilated with proper
spacing from other devices.
Thermal printer • Replace the paper when needed.
• The heating element may need cleaning to prevent buildup and smudging.
• Remove debris from inside and outside printer to prevent unwanted
particles from getting into the printer components.

Access the Checklist tile on your LogicalCHOICE course screen for reference
information and job aids on How to Install, Configure, and Maintain Printers

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 ACTIVITY 12-2
Installing and Sharing a Local Printer

Scenario
You do not need a One of your clients has just asked you to install a refurbished printer that he purchased online. He
physical printer would like to use this printer on his Windows 7 computer as his default printer. He has also asked
connection to complete that you make the printer available to other users in the company. Even though your client has not
this activity. Students yet received the printer, he would like you to configure his computer so that all he will need to do is
can choose any printer plug in the printer when it arrives.
model from the list to
practice general
installation procedures
1. Start the Win7test## VM.
and work with a local
printer. Point out to a) Select Start→Windows Virtual PC→Win7test##.
students that newer b) Enter !Pass1234 to log onto Windows.
printers will often have
specific installation 2. Install the printer on the Win7test## VM.
instructions from the a) In the Win7test## window, select Start→Control Panel.
manufacturer.
b) Under Hardware and Sound, select View devices and printers.
c) Select Add a printer and then select Add a local printer.
d) From the Use an existing port drop-down list, select USB001 (Virtual printer port for USB), LPT1 or
LPT2, and then select Next.
e) On the Install the printer driver page, from the Manufacturer list, select a printer manufacturer.
f) From the Printers list, select a printer and select Next.
g) In the Printer name text box, type My Local Printer
h) Select Next.
i) Select Finish, and close the Devices and Printers window.

3. Share the printer.

a) Open the Control Panel.
b) Under Network and Internet, select Choose homegroup and sharing options.
c) Select the Change advanced sharing settings link.
d) Under the File and printer sharing section, select the Turn on file and printer sharing option and then
select Save changes.
e) Close the Advanced sharing settings window.

4. Create a print job on the local printer.

a) Open the Control Panel.
b) Under Hardware and Sound, select View devices and printers.
c) Display the pop-up menu for My Printer and select Printer properties.
d) Select Print Test Page.
e) Select Close.
f) Select OK.
g) Select See what's printing.
h) At least one print job should appear in the queue. Close the print queue window and the Devices
and Printers window.

5. Log off and shut down the Win7test## VM.

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Summary
In this lesson, you supported printers. Because printers enable users to transfer digital information
to paper, they are among the most commonly used devices in almost every type of computing
environment. As an A+ certified professional, you can use the skills and knowledge from this lesson
when you are called upon to install, configure, or troubleshoot printers
Use the review
What types of printer have you had experience with in your current job role? questions provided to
A: Answers will vary, but may include laser printers, MFDs, and inkjet printers. generate discussion
among the participants.
In your experience, what printer maintenance tasks are you most familiar with?
A: Answers will vary, but may include replacing toner cartridges, cleaning inside and outside of printers,
printing a test page, and replacing paper.

Note: Check your LogicalCHOICE Course screen for opportunities to interact with your
classmates, peers, and the larger LogicalCHOICE online community about the topics covered in
this course or other topics you are interested in. From the Course screen you can also access
available resources for a more continuous learning experience.

Encourage students to
use the social
networking tools
provided on the
LogicalCHOICE Home
screen to follow up with
their peers after the
course is completed for
further discussion and
resources to support
continued learning.

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396
11 Troubleshooting
Hardware Components
Lesson Time: 2 hours

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will troubleshoot hardware components.
• Describe troubleshooting theory.
• Troubleshoot video and display devices.
• Troubleshoot hard drives and RAID arrays.
• Troubleshoot system hardware components.
• Troubleshoot laptops.
• Troubleshoot printers.

Lesson Introduction
In the previous lessons, you installed, configured, and maintained the hardware, software,
and other components that make up the computer system to ensure that they work
properly. But what happens when one of those components stops working or breaks? In
this lesson, you will troubleshoot hardware components.
Installing and configuring computer systems for an organization is an important task, as
more and more companies and even the general public become more tech savvy. But, the
increased use of technology inevitably invites problems: broken hardware, user accidents,
and natural wear and tear on resources. As an A+ technician, it is part of your
responsibilities to troubleshoot these issues as they arise within your organization.
This lesson covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification
objectives:
• Topic A:
• Exam 220–802: Objective 4.1
• Topic B:
• Exam 220–802: Objective 4.4
• Topic C:

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 • Exam 220–802: Objective 4.3
• Topic D:
• Exam 220–802: Objective 4.2
• Topic E:
• Exam 220–802: Objective 4.8
• Topic F:
• Exam 220–802: Objective 4.9

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TOPIC A
Troubleshooting Theory
In this lesson, you will troubleshoot various hardware components used in computers and printers.
Before you can even begin to troubleshoot a physical problem with a piece of hardware, you need to
understand the basics of troubleshooting and some best practices used. In this topic, you will apply
troubleshooting theory.
The most elaborate toolkit and expensive diagnostic software can be useless if you do not have a
consistent plan of attack for solving problems. Even experienced technicians can sometimes
overlook obvious problems or solutions. Troubleshooting can be extremely challenging and not
always easy, but if you follow common best practices and basic troubleshooting procedures, you will
often be able to determine the specific cause of a problem, as well as possible solutions to the
problem.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220–802: Objective 4.1: Given a scenario, explain the troubleshooting theory.

Troubleshooting Theory
A logical, methodical approach to troubleshooting usually leads to quicker solutions, so there are Troubleshooting Theory
certain general factors that will apply in any troubleshooting situation.
Let students know that
Factor Description recreating an issue can
be one of the most
Identify the Identify the issue or problem. Ask questions and try and extrapolate key useful tools used by
problem information that will help you identify any anomalies. experienced
troubleshooters.
Make sure to perform backups before making any changes. This will allow
you to restore any information that may be lost during the troubleshooting As you discuss the
factors in this table, ask
process. participants to share any
Use open-ended questions when working with users to help identify the issue experiences they have
behind the symptoms. For example, instead of asking if the user can start the with help desk
computer, try asking what happens when the user tries to start the computer. personnel, both as a
Use following questions to help identify the problem: user and as a
technician. Use the
• Were you able to complete this task before? If not, maybe the system is simply responses to generate
unable to perform the task without additional hardware or software. discussion about basic
• If you could do the task before, when did you notice there was an issue? If you can troubleshooting theory.
identify what happened immediately before the problem, then it could lead
you right to the issue.
• What types of changes have you noticed since the last time you completed this task? If
you cannot get a specific answer from the user, then you may need to
follow up with a few more targeted questions such as "Did something get
added to the computer?" or "Did you follow the exact same procedure or
did you do this task differently?"
• Were error messages displayed? If you can get the exact text of any error
messages displayed, you can try searching the manufacturer’s website (or
just a general Internet search) to get an explanation of the message and to
see if any problem reports have been logged related to this message.
Establish a theory Establish a theory. Verify anything that may seem too obvious. Make no
assumptions and check everything that may seem too simple and easy. Always

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 Factor Description

verify that components are plugged in, connected, and powered on.
Oftentimes, problems are the result of simple things.
• If applicable, try to re-create the issue so that you can experience it for
yourself and can see exactly what the results are. If you can, observe the
user as they complete the steps to verify that they are following the proper
procedures.
• Depending on the issue, develop a theory and determine how the problem
may be corrected. Use your personal experiences, refer to support
websites and online forums, and discuss theories with your colleagues to
build possible resolutions and how they may be implemented.
Test the theory Test the theory to determine the cause by testing related components;
inspecting connections, hardware and software configurations; and consulting
vendor documentation, to solve the problem or identify a likely solution.
Once the theory is confirmed, if the problem is not resolved, then determine
what the next steps will be. If the theory is not confirmed, then determine
what the next steps are to resolve the problem. In some cases, you may need
to escalate the issue to a designated party or individual.
Establish a plan Establish a plan of action to resolve the problem and implement the solution.
You may need to conduct further research and establish new ideas and
determine priorities. Research and planning may result in using a different
approach that may need detailed planning. You may also end up with more
than one plan depending on what the possible causes are, so prioritize and
execute each plan carefully. During this process, you need to make sure that
productivity does not suffer and that any downtime is limited.
Verify When the issue is resolved, verify full system functionality and, if applicable,
implement preventative measures. This part of the process may also involve
consulting with colleagues or vendors to communicate known issues,
solutions, and preventative measures. Preventative measures might include
applying system updates and installing antivirus software.
Once the issue has been resolved, make sure that the solution implemented is
actually working the way you intended and did not cause any additional or
new issues. Always make sure that the user or customer is completely satisfied
with the results.
Document Document your findings, actions, and outcomes. Documentation of
computer problems and their solutions can be a helpful part of the overall
documentation plan for your company’s computers. Not only will this
provide you with an ever-growing database of information specific to the
computers you are responsible for, it also will be valuable reference material
for use in future troubleshooting instances.

Troubleshooting Models
Troubleshooting models are used to support computing devices and networks. There are a number
of different models in use by technicians, so you may come across a variety of approaches over the
course of your professional career. Using a model, or standardized approach, can provide you with a
systematic way to tackle an issue or problem. While there is no surefire method that will work every
single time, since troubleshooting requires you to make intuitive guesses based on your own
experience and those of other professionals, using a model will help you break down each phase of
the process in order to identify causes and solutions in areas where you do not have the required

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type of experience. Ultimately, the troubleshooting process that you use will probably be a mix of
more standardized models, plus your own processes and methods that you've used in the past.

Troubleshooting Template Forms

Creating a template form will ensure that all necessary information get included in any reports. This
provides an organization with consistent trouble reports for creating policies and adjusting
procedures based on findings from the troubleshooting process. Many organizations will use some
sort of help desk software or similar forms or tools that allow users and technicians to enter
information. Key components that you should consider including in a troubleshooting template or
help desk form are:
• A general section, listing a description of the issue, the date and time the issue was received, the
person who reported the problem, and the person who has the problem (if the report was made
by someone else).
• A description of the conditions and specifics of the issue, such as the type of device, details
about any other devices connected, the OS, any applications being used on the device, and if the
device is connected to the network, and what type of connection. For example, a laptop running
Windows® 7 connecting to the corporate wireless network.
• The problem identified while troubleshooting.
• Whether or not the problem can be reproduced. If it can be reproduced, then take the necessary
steps.
• The possible cause or causes identified during troubleshooting.
• Any solutions or corrections made during troubleshooting.
• The results of implementing the solutions and corrections.
• All testing results.
• Any external resources that were used, such as vendor assistance, support websites or forums,
contact information for other technicians that provided help, and information for any third-party
service providers used.
• Customer sign-off on the resolved issue. This will ensure that the customer is completely
satisfied with the outcome.

Troubleshooting
Template Forms

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 TOPIC B
Troubleshoot Video and Display Devices
In the previous topic, you examined troubleshooting theory and general troubleshooting tips. Now,
you can start working with those theories and put those tips and tricks to work. In this topic, you
will troubleshoot common video and display devices issues.
It's simple: the display device is a user’s window into the computer system. Without a fully
functioning display, you will not be able to interact with the device. Its crucial to understand
common display issues and how they can be resolved so that users can get back to work quickly. It
is your job to respond quickly and be as timely as you can to resolve the issues and so users can
complete their tasks.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220–802: Objective 4.4: Given a scenario, troubleshoot common video and display issues.

Common Video and Display Issues

Common Video and When it comes to display devices, you will encounter a number of issues that are fairly common and
Display Issues can be resolved quickly. Common issues and solutions include the following.

Issue Possible Problems and Solutions

Dark screen A dark screen, or an indicator light that is not lit, can indicate general
power problems, such as the power is not turned on, the power cable is
disconnected, or the power is on but the display is plugged into a power
strip, surge protector, or uninterruptible power supply (UPS) that is not
turned on.
To correct the problem, turn on the power or power strip and reconnect
the cables and cords at both ends. If a circuit breaker has tripped, reset it.
Press or jiggle the power button on the monitor itself.
Dim image or no If there is no power light, check for and correct power problems.
image in screen
The data cable to the Video Graphics Array (VGA), Digital Video
Interface (DVI), High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI), or display
port on the PC may be disconnected. Except on very old displays, you will
see an On Screen Display (OSD) message in this case, indicating a signal
problem. Connect or re-seat the cables and connectors. If the cable is
disconnected, and you do not see an OSD message, the display may be
bad.
Brightness or contrast may be adjusted improperly. Adjust the settings
using the display controls. (The OSD message is not affected by brightness
or contrast.)
The display may be in power saving mode. The power light will typically
change from green to solid or blinking orange. Press a key or move the
mouse to wake up the monitor.
Flickering or The display cable may need to be adjusted so that is it more securely
distortion connected to the video port. This might also imply that there are bent or
broken pins. Try to straighten any bent pins and re-connect the cable. Use
caution; a severely bent pin may break, in which case you will need to
replace the monitor. Sometimes the cable is removable, in which case you
can replace it.

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Issue Possible Problems and Solutions

This could also be an incorrect display adapter used with incorrect device
drivers. If you can see the Power-On Self Test (POST), but the image goes
black when the system starts up, try booting the device into VGA Mode
and verify that the correct adapter and device drivers are being used.
The refresh rate may be too low or too high. The refresh rate should be set
to as high as the display and the adapter card can support. If the rate is set
too high, then you risk damaging the display.
If the display is placed in close proximity to other electronic or magnetic
equipment, then interference may cause damage. In this case, move the
equipment so that there is adequate space between devices.
Check the color depth setting on the display device. The settings may be
incorrect. If needed, make the necessary adjustments to the color depth
settings for the display.
Display turns itself In this case, power management may be enabled. You can adjust this in
off complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) settings or in the
operating system's display properties.
Another reason might be that the display's video card is overheating. You
can replace the card with one that has a better cooling system, or you can
install additional fans to cool the entire system.
Application problems If the screen goes blank, flickers, or acts erratically when a specific
application is active, the application may require different color depth or
screen resolution. Right-click in a free area on the desktop and choose
Screen Resolution. Adjust the settings on this page to suit the user's
requirements.
Defective pixels The pixels that make up a liquid crystal display (LCD) output sometimes to
do not display as they should. There are generally two types of pixels
issues:
• Dead pixels are pixels that do not display the light as expected. This is
shown visually when the LCD is displaying a picture, and there are
black spots shown with no light.
• Stuck pixels are pixels that only show light, so they appear out of place
when the display is on. Light colors can vary from red, to blue or green.
Fixing defective pixels can be difficult to repair. It is recommended that
you contact the display manufacturer to check for warranty information. If
the LCD unit is an older one, you can attempt to fix the pixels in a number
of different ways:
• Using pressure against the screen using the blunt end of an object.
• Using heat to apply pressure to the defective pixels. You must protect
yourself with gloves and protect the screen by placing a hot, wet cloth
within a plastic bag before placing it on the screen.
• Using defective pixel software utility, such as JScreenFix, Dead Pixel
Tester 2.20, and PixelRepairer.
Color issues If the color patterns are incorrect on the display, then you may need to
adjust the tint in the display settings. If you notice discoloration of the
display, then that could be a sign that you need to degauss the monitor.
Physical damage If there is noticeable physical damage to the display device or you know of
internal physical damage, you may not be able to repair it. In general, most
damaged display devices will need to be replaced rather than repaired.

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 Issue Possible Problems and Solutions
Video card issues There are a number of specific problems that can cause a number of
specific symptoms:
• Visual artifacts are errors or anomalies in the visual display of a picture.
• A Windows® system stop error (known as the Blue Screen of Death, or
BSOD) can be a indicator that there is an issue with your graphics card.
• Distortions, such as curves, waves, or other patterns show in the video
image.
Additional troubleshooting steps to take in the case of a video card issue
include:
• Check to make sure that the actual video card is seated correctly on the
motherboard.
• Always verify that you are running the latest drivers for the video card
and the chipsets on the motherboard.
• Check for interference with other devices within a close proximity. Try
removing devices that you suspect may be causing issues.
• Check to make sure you are not overclocking the system beyond the
capabilities of the card.
• Check the power supply and make sure that all connections are secure.
• Check to make sure that the fans are operating.

Access the Checklist tile on your LogicalCHOICE course screen for reference
information and job aids on How to Troubleshoot Video and Display Devices

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 ACTIVITY 14-1
Troubleshooting Video and Display Devices Consider introducing
each issue on two or
three different systems,
and when students
Before You Begin begin the activity, ask
Your instructor might ask you to take a short break so that issues can be introduced into your them to observe different
computer systems. systems as they are
being repaired, if the
Scenario issue is not actually
introduced on their
Several users are having issues with their displays. You have been assigned to get to each systems. To engage
workstation and resolve the problems appropriately. remote participants,
demonstrate at least one
or two of the steps on a
1. The first user's LCD display is not coming on. The power light is not lit. The user has checked that the system.
display is plugged in and the display is connected to the system. Follow the appropriate actions to To create issue #1, you
resolve this issue. could loosen the power
a) Unplug the display from the electrical outlet and plug in a lamp or other device to verify that the cable on the back of the
display is plugged into a working outlet. If the device works, plug the display back into the outlet. If monitor, substitute a
the device does not work, contact an electrician to fix the outlet and plug the display into another dead monitor, or plug
outlet. the monitor into a power
b) If the outlet is on a UPS, surge protector, or power strip, verify that the unit is turned on. strip and then turn off
power to the strip. To
c) Verify that the connections of the power cord and display cable are secure on the display as well as
create issue #2, you
on the PC and electrical outlet.
could substitute a
d) Try to turn on the display again. monitor that makes
e) If the display still does not come on, replace the display with a known good monitor. crackling noises (caused
by dirty internal
2. When you arrive at the next user's workstation, you can hear that the display is making noises. components) or whines
a) Determine whether the noise is a crackling or whining noise. (which often happens
with inexpensive
b) If it is a crackling noise, clean the display and try to vacuum or blow dust out of the display vents. Do
monitors). To create
not open the display. If necessary, send it out for more in-depth cleaning.
issue #3, you could
c) If it is a whining noise, try the following to fix it: move the display or change the refresh rate. If it will substitute a monitor with
not stop whining, send it out for adjustment and replace the display with a quieter one. bent pins in the monitor
cable, loosen the
3. The next user's older CRT monitor is flickering and the display is distorted. monitor cable at one end
a) Verify that the monitor cable is firmly plugged into the monitor and to the computer. or the other, or turn on a
b) If available, press the Degauss button. fan, heater, or other
c) Check the monitor cable for any bent pins and straighten them, if necessary. monitor near the original
monitor. To create issue
d) Move the monitor away from florescent light, speakers, other monitors, or other electronic devices #4, you could turn the
with powerful motors. contrast and/or
brightness down, loosen
4. The next user's display power light is on, but there is no picture. or disconnect the
a) Verify that the display cable is connected to the display and to the PC. monitor cable at either
b) Adjust the contrast using the buttons on the display. end, or substitute a non-
c) Adjust the brightness using the buttons on the display. functioning monitor. To
create issue #5, you
d) If it still is not working, swap the display with one that you know works to determine if the problem is
could connect a monitor
with the display or the video card.
and configure the
display settings for high
5. At the last user's workstation, the LCD screen is blank with an error message that reads "Out of resolution, and then,
Frequency." without restarting
a) Restart Windows and select F8 before Windows is loaded. Windows, replace the
b) Start Windows in Safe Mode. monitor with one that
c) Display the pop-up menu for the desktop and select Personalize. has a narrower screen
width.

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 d) Select Display Settings.
e) In the Display Settings dialog box, change the resolution to the next lower resolution by dragging the
Resolution slider to the left.
f) Select Apply, select OK, and then close the Personalization window.
g) Restart Windows in normal mode.
h) If the error message "Out of Frequency" appears again, repeat the steps to change the resolution to
a lower resolution until the monitor is recognized by the operating system.
i) Once the monitor is recognized, the error message disappears. Configure the monitor resolution to
the original setting.

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TOPIC C
Troubleshoot Hard Drives and RAID Arrays
In the previous topic, you examined troubleshooting for video and display devices. While input
devices like video and display devices are essential for the end user to be able to interact with the
system, hard drives and arrays are important components in the system as well. In this topic, you
will troubleshoot hard drives and Redundant Array of Independent Disks (RAID) arrays.
End users rely on the hard drive in their systems to store important system information and
personal or professional data and files. Without a hard drive that works properly, the computer
system is essentially worthless. As an A+ technician, you will likely be called upon to fix or
troubleshoot common problems with hard drives. In this topic, you will troubleshoot hard drives
and RAID arrays.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220–802: Objective 4.3: Given a scenario, troubleshoot hard drives and RAID arrays with
appropriate tools.

Drive and Array Troubleshooting Tools

To resolve hard drive and RAID array problems, there is a variety of different physical tools and
software utility tools available.
Drive and Array
Tool Description Troubleshooting Tools

Screwdriver In order to repair a faulty hard drive, you will need a screwdriver to remove
the drive from the drive bay within the computer case.
External enclosures External enclosures protect the hard drive by providing a strong barrier
typically made of plastic all the way around the disk. Most enclosures also
provide power to the drive through an external connection, typically
through a universal serial bus (USB) port.
CHKDSK This utility is also referred to as Check Disk. It is used to verify the logical
integrity of a file system. With the /f switch, chkdsk.exe can repair the file
system data. Enter chkdsk "drive letter" /f in the Run dialog box or
at the command line. With the /r switch, chkdsk can locate bad sectors on
the disk and recover any readable information. Entering chkdsk /?
displays a list of all available switches.
FORMAT The format utility can be used to format partitions to a selected file system.
You can run the format command right from the command line, or right-
click any drive letter in Windows® Explorer and choose the Format
option.
FDISK Use to create and manage partitions on a hard disk. You can run the fdisk
command at the command line to open the utility. The tool can be used to
not only create partitions, but to change, delete, and view current
partitions.
File recovery software File recovery software is used to recover deleted files from your computer
system. In many cases, files that have were moved to the recycle bin, then
emptied, can still be recovered. Some files may still live on the hard disk.
There are a number of free software programs that will provide recovery
functions:

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 Tool Description

• Recuva
• Glary Undelete
• Pandora Recovery

Common Hard Drive Symptoms

When you are troubleshooting hard drives, you will run into a number of different issues with
numerous potential solutions.
Common Hard Drive
Symptoms Hard Drive Possible Problems and Solutions
Symptom

Failure to boot If you receive an error that says "Not Ready—System Halted" then the drive is
damaged, is not configured to be a master or Cable Select to suit the system, or a
data cable is not connected properly. You should check the drive for physical
damage and verify that the connections are properly attached to the drive.
POST error POST errors in the 17xx range could indicate a number of different issues
including:
• 1701: Drive not found
• 1702: Hard drive adapter not found
• 1703: Hard drive failure
• 1704: Hard drive or adapter failure
• 1780, 1790: Hard drive 0 failed
• 1781, 1791: Hard drive 1 failed
• 1782: Hard drive controller failed
You should check for damage to the connections and reconnect drive. You may
need to replace any component that has failed.
Drive not If your hard drive is not recognized by the system when it boots up, then verify
recognized that the system has been set to boot from the hard drive in the system Basic
Input/Output System (BIOS) settings in the boot priority list. You may also
need to verify that the correct drivers for the hard drive are installed.
Drive read/write The drive might have been infected with a virus. Run an antivirus utility to find
failure and remove any infections.
If you suspect that the drive is not writing and reading data properly, then it
could mean that there are bad sectors on the drive, the drive has failed, or the
drive has been infected by a virus. Sometimes, issues that seem to be device-
specific are actually virus infections that can cause physical damage as well, but
in most cases, the damage is limited to the data stored on the device.
Start by running CHKDSK to attempt to recover data from any damaged
sectors of the drive. Use Device Manager to resolve any resource conflicts and
indications of drive failure.
Computer will If the computer will not boot up, then it could be a sign that the drive is
not boot disconnected, is damaged, is not recognized by the system BIOS, or is not
configured properly by the system BIOS. Start by enabling the drive in the
CMOS setup utility and check the startup settings, then visually inspect the drive
for damage and reconnect it to the system.
Grinding noises If you hear grinding noises coming from the system, then it could be a sign that
the drive is physically damaged. If there is data that needs to be recovered, then

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Hard Drive Possible Problems and Solutions
Symptom
power down the system immediately because powering the drive at all will make
the damage worse. Next, remove the damaged drive and send it to a suitable
recovery facility, where it will be rebuilt in a cleanroom, and the data can be
extracted.
Loud clicking Loud clicking noises can be a sign that the drive is trying to park the drive head
noises but cannot park the head. You can try turning off power management to the
drive. This will allow the drive to only park its head when the device is shut
down.
Possible data If you suspect that the data is corrupted, then the system may not have been
corruption shut down properly or the drive is either in the process of failing or has been
infected with a virus. In this case, all you can really do is educate users to be
aware of this and make sure that they are shutting the system down properly
every time. In the event that it may be a virus, run antivirus software to clean the
computer of all infected files.
Slow Slow hard drive performance can mean that the drive is too full or fragmented,
performance the controller is too slow, or the wrong cable type was used to connect the drive.
To resolve these issues:
• Delete all unneeded files.
• Defragment the drive.
• Verify and replace the hard drive cable, if necessary.
External drive External drives come with their own types of issues, including:
issues • The cable connecting the hard drive to the PC may be bad, so check it for
physical damage.
• The USB port may not be functioning, so try connecting to another USB
port and make sure the connection is successful.
• If the drive requires an external power supply, then supply an external power
source to the drive.
Removable drive Removable drives can be problematic if the jumper settings on the drive are not
issues configured properly, or the hard drive bay cable is not connected securely to the
system board. In some cases, issues can arise due to a power issue.
Start by verifying that the jumper settings are set to Cable Select. Then check
the connections of the hard drive and that the drive is seated properly within the
drive bay. Finally, make sure that the drive has power by verifying that the
power cable is connected securely to the bay and confirm that the keylock on
the drive is in the locked position.
OS not found An “Operating system not found” or “Missing Operating System” error can be
common after an operating system is either reinstalled or has been reconfigured.
In this case, the system BIOS does not detect the hard drive or the hard drive
may be damaged or has been corrupted.
Verify that the system BIOS settings are correct and that the hard disk is
recognized within the system, or replace the defective hard drive.
This may also be a symptom of a Master Boot Record (MBR) problem. The
MBR is specific to each operating system, so you will need to check the
manufacturer's documentation and website for possible solutions.
BSOD BSOD, or often referred to as the “Blue Screen of Death,” is a system stop error
that is severe enough to stop all processes and shut the system down without

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 Hard Drive Possible Problems and Solutions
Symptom
warning. BSOD errors can be a sign that the hard drive is damaged or is not
working properly.

Common Solid State Device Issues

Solid state storage device issues can include:
• Limited and slower erase-write cycles. Flash memory devices do not last as long as traditional
hard drives and often performance will suffer because of this. Usually at around 100,000 cycles,
the devices will begin to break down.
• Power consumption. Solid State Drive (SSD) devices do not have their own power source and
will consume power from the system, so if the main device or system cannot provide the right
amount of power, then the SSD will not be accessible.

Common RAID Array Issues

When configuring RAID arrays, you may come across a number of issues that prevent proper
functioning of the drives.
Common RAID Array
Issues RAID Array Symptom Possible Problems and Solutions

RAID not found If RAID is not found when the computer boots up, it could be a sign
that either RAID is not configured within the system BIOS or that the
motherboard does not recognize RAID. You must verify that the
motherboard installed in the system does in fact support RAID. You
may want to refer to the manufacturer's documentation.
RAID stops working If RAID stops working suddenly, then that could mean that the
settings have changed within the system BIOS. If you have made
other configurations or replaced a component in the computer, then
those configurations may have conflicted with the RAID settings.
In the system BIOS, verify that the drive configuration is set to
RAID. Also check the motherboard documentation to see if RAID is
fully supported by the board installed in the computer.
If there is a non-system board RAID controller used, then check the
BIOS specific to the controller and verify that the settings are
properly configured.

SATA Troubleshooting Tips

SATA Troubleshooting There are several points to keep in mind when troubleshooting Serial Advanced Technology
Tips Attachment (SATA) drive problems.

SATA Issue Description

Controller card Not all SATA controller cards are supported on all operating systems.
Check the vendor specifications for the operating system or software you
are using.
Controller driver SATA drives themselves do not require drivers, but the SATA controller
does. Ensure that you are using the latest version.

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SATA Issue Description
Drive not detected If you install a fresh copy of your operating system and the SATA drive is
not detected, then restart the setup process and press F6 when prompted to
install the driver.
Drive size limitation If the SATA controller drivers are not loaded during the operating system
installation, then the drive will only report the 137 GB capacity supported
natively by the operating system.
Speed limitation 1.5 gigabytes per second (GBps) SATA cards do not always auto negotiate
with newer 3.0 GBps drives. Use jumper settings on the drive to limit the
transfer rate to 1.5 GBps.

PATA Troubleshooting Tips

There are some important points to keep in mind as you troubleshoot Parallel ATA (PATA) drive
problems.

PATA Issue Description

Configuring single If you have one drive on a channel, depending on the manufacturer, it
drives might need to be configured as single—not master or slave. Alternatively,
set it to Cable Select and plug it into the PATA cable connector furthest
from the motherboard. Check your manufacturer's documentation for the
proper procedures and settings for your drive.
Configuring two drives With two drives on a channel, set both to Cable Select or configure them
both manually, setting one to master and the other to slave. Do not mix
these settings by setting one to be Cable Select and the other as either
master or slave. Make sure both are not set to master or slave.
Removing a drive If you remove the second PATA hard disk from a computer with two
drives installed, verify that the disk that remains in the computer is set as
single. The master/slave setting should be used only when there is more
than one hard disk in a system; otherwise, a disk-controller error will
occur when you restart the computer.
Moving to another If you need to move a PATA drive from one computer to another, you
system likely will not run into problems. However, especially if there is a great
difference in age between the computers, you might run into problems.
The BIOS of another computer might not support logical block
addressing (LBA) or Large (Extended CHS [ECHS]), or the computer
might not be set up for it. In that case, data on the hard drive would be
lost if you install it in that system. You can change the mode for a hard
drive (from LBA to Large, or vice versa), but this poses a risk of data loss.
Typically, you should set the mode only when you first install the disk. If
you do need to change it, make sure you have a working backup of all of
the data on the disk before doing so.

SCSI Troubleshooting Tips

Keep some basic points in mind as you troubleshoot Small Computer Systems Interface (SCSI)
drive problems.

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 SCSI Issue Description

IDs and termination The vast majority (up to 95 percent) of problems with SCSI disks are
due to incorrect ID settings and improper termination. Verify that all
SCSI devices have unique SCSI ID numbers and are properly
terminated.
Resetting system When a SCSI system is booted or reset, SCSI controllers generally
need to renew all SCSI device connections before activating the
devices, causing a delay during POST.
Cables SCSI cables should be handled carefully to minimize problems. For
instance, rolling SCSI cable onto itself can cause crosstalk and impede
the signal. Running long lengths of it past power supplies can also
cause errors due to signal impedance.
SCSI BIOS If you intend for a SCSI disc to be bootable after you install it, you
must enable the SCSI BIOS by using jumper settings or software
configuration.
Connectors If you are installing an additional SCSI hard drive into a computer
where only one connector is available on the SCSI cable and the cable
itself is terminated, remove and replace the cable with one that has
multiple connectors.

Access the Checklist tile on your LogicalCHOICE course screen for reference
information and job aids on How to Troubleshoot Hard Drives and RAID Arrays

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 ACTIVITY 14-2
Troubleshooting Hard Drive Problems

Scenario
In this activity, you will troubleshoot a number of different issues relating to hard drives.
For this activity, you will
need to dismiss students
1. Problem #1: Grinding Noises from the room so that
you can introduce the
A user has reported that there are grinding noises coming from her computer case. Once you take a issue in step 2 to all of
closer look, you suspect that it is the hard drive. What is the possible cause and solution to this type of their systems. To
issue? engage remote
○ The hard drive is physically damaged, probably due to a head crash, so the drive must be participants, consider
replaced. demonstrating on a
system.
○ A virus has attacked the hard drive, so use antivirus software to mitigate the issues.
○ Data is corrupt on the drive, and has not been shut down correctly.
To create this issue in
2. Problem #2: A Computer Won't Start A user has reported that her computer cannot boot and is getting Step 2, you could
an error message at POST. Diagnose and correct the issue. replace the drive with a
a) Perform a cold boot. non-functioning one,
b) Verify that BIOS lists the correct drive settings. loosen the cables on the
drive, or change the
c) Listen to the drive or touch the drive to determine if it is spinning during POST.
master or Cable Select
d) Using your multimeter, verify that power connection readings are +12 V for Pin 1 and +5 V for Pin 4. setting on multiple drives
Pins 2 and 3 should be grounded. so that they are all set
e) Verify that the data cable is correctly oriented. as slaves. If you
f) Check the drive settings: PATA should be: Master, slave, or Cable Select, or SCSI should be: introduce different
Termination and device ID causes to different
g) If nothing else corrects the problem, replace the drive. systems, you can have
participants observe as
each symptom is
3. Problem #3: A Second Hard Drive is Not Recognized
resolved.
You recently installed a second hard drive into a user's system. He is now reporting that the drive is not
showing up or is not recognized. You know that one of the things you forgot to check when you first
performed the installation is CMOS settings for the drive. What in particular do you need to check in
CMOS for this problem?
A: You need to verify that drive is enabled in CMOS and that the correct device settings for the hard
drive are listed.

4. Problem #3: A Second Hard Drive is Not Recognized (Continued)

Another thing you should check when a second hard drive is not recognized is that the drive was
installed correctly. What exactly should you be checking?
A: Verify that the power cable is connected to the drive, that the power cable voltages are correct,
and that the data cable is connected correctly to the drive and to the controller or host bus adapter
(HBA). For a PATA drive, verify that it is set to master, Cable Select, or slave, as appropriate to its
place in the drive chain. For a SCSI drive, verify that the termination and SCSI ID are set properly
for its place in the SCSI chain. For a SATA drive, restart the setup process and press F6 when
prompted to install the driver.

5. Problem #4: The Drive Letter for a Second Hard Drive is Not Accessible

A second hard drive was properly installed, but you cannot access it by its drive letter. What should be
your next step?

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 A: Use DOS or Windows disk utilities to verify that the drive has been properly partitioned and
formatted.

6. Problem #5: Hard Drive Data Access Issues

A user is encountering the following problem: Her computer boots fine and everything works until the
user tries to access data on the second hard drive, the D drive. The message "Can't Access This Drive"
is displayed when she tries to access the D drive. The user would also like an explanation about what
the error message means. List some of the steps you might take to resolve this problem.
A: You see the "Can't Access This Drive" message when you attempt to access a drive that is not
readable, or if the drive does not exist. Troubleshooting steps you should take include: determine
if the user actually has a D drive; attempt to copy a file from the D drive to C or from C to D; run
the Windows 7 error-checking option. Open Computer, display the pop-up menu for the drive you
want to check, and select Properties. On the Tools tab, in the Error-checking section, select
Check Now and then select Start to determine if there are errors; if none of the earlier steps fixed
the problem, verify that there is a recent backup and try reformatting the drive; and if the previous
step does not fix the problem, replace the drive.

7. Problem #5: Hard Drive Data Access Issues (Continued)

When a user tries to access the hard drive containing his data, the system locks up and makes a
clicking sound. From the command prompt, he can change to drive D, but when he tries to access a file
or list the files on the drive, it locks up and begins clicking again. What steps might you take to attempt
to resolve this problem? What is the most likely cause of the problem?
A: You could try running the Windows 7 error-checking option in the Tools pane of the Local Disk
Properties dialog box. You could also try an older version of Scandisk from a removable disk to try
to identify and repair the errors it encounters. Definitely back up the data if you can get to any of it.
You can try using other software utilities to recover the data or take the drive to a data recovery
facility. You will probably need to replace the hard drive. The most likely cause of this problem is a
bad hard drive—some of the sectors on the hard drive are probably damaged.

8. Problem #5: Hard Drive Data Access Issues (Continued)

A user reports that some of his folders have begun disappearing and some folder and file names are
scrambled with strange characters in their names. What steps might you take to attempt to resolve this
problem? What is the most likely cause of the problem?
A: You could try running the Windows 7 error-checking option in the Tools pane of the Local Disk
Properties dialog box. Definitely back up the data if you can get to any of it. You can try using
other software utilities to recover the data or take the drive to a data recovery facility. You will
probably need to replace the hard drive. You should also check the system for viruses because
the result of some infections looks like this problem. If it is not caused by a virus, the most likely
cause of this problem is a bad hard drive.

9. Problem #5: Hard Drive Data Access Issues (Continued)

A user is questioning the difference between the sizes in GB and bytes. Why is there such a big
difference? The disk reports in some places as 9.33 GB and in others as 10,025,000,960 bytes. Why is
it not 10 GB?
A: Hard drive manufacturers usually round 1,024 bytes to 1,000 because it is easier to work with
round numbers. By the time you get up to billions of bytes, those extra 24 bytes really add up.

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TOPIC D
Troubleshoot System Components
In the previous topics, you examined troubleshooting for some very important hardware
components in the computer system: the display device and the hard drive. Without these
components, the user would have no way of seeing what they are working on or saving the work
they are doing. Equally essential to the system are the hardware components that are vital to all user
interactions. In this topic, you will troubleshoot system hardware components.
It is only a matter of time before a personal computer's internal system hardware components
experience problems, and generally these are problems users themselves cannot fix. As an A+
technician, many of the service calls that you respond to will involve troubleshooting system
hardware components, and your ability to quickly and effectively diagnose and solve the problems
will be essential in maintaining the satisfaction level of the users you support.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220–802: Objective 4.2: Given a scenario, troubleshoot common problems related to
motherboards, RAM, CPU, and power with appropriate tools.

Common System Troubleshooting Tools

Troubleshooting system devices can be challenging when the problem is not visually detected or Common System
obvious. To help you determine where the problem stems from within a computer, you can use a Troubleshooting Tools
few different tools each with a unique function that will enable you to fix the defective hardware
component:
• A power supply tester is a tool that connects to the power supply's 24-pin connector that tests the
functionality of the unit. These testers can be used to test various power connectors including
Berg, Molex, AT, and ATX. You can also use them to test the power supply under load. Some
advanced testers can even test the functionality of other drives such as hard drives, optical drives,
and floppy drives.
• A multimeter can be used to verify correct voltage ranges for a system's power supply.
• A loopback plug can be used to test data transmissions between components.
• A POST card is a card that can be plugged directly into the motherboard in an available expansion
card slot that can read and display any error codes that get generated during the POST process of
a computer. This tool can be extremely useful for determining why a computer will not boot up.
The specific error codes will differ depending on the BIOS version and the specific
manufacturer. You may need to refer to the manufacturer for an updated error code list before
you start using the card in the computer.

Common CPU Issues

When troubleshooting central processing units (CPUs), you must be aware of common issues and Common CPU Issues
how to manage them effectively.

Problem Description

Overheating and Most problems with CPUs can be attributed to overheating or outright
failure failure. The main solution to CPU problems is to replace the CPU. In
some cases, you may be able to add additional cooling units to prevent the
CPU from overheating and prevent further damage from occurring. Other
times, it may be possible to simply pro-actively optimize the existing
cooling system, such as by clearing dust from chips, heat sinks, and fans.

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 Problem Description
Slot and socket Before you replace a processor, you need to make sure you select a
compatibility processor that matches the type of socket on the system board. Most
sockets today use a pin grid array (PGA) that enables the chip to drop in
and ensures that Pin 1 on the processor is properly aligned with Pin 1 on
the socket. This method prevents you from bending the pins when
removing or inserting the processor. The chip fits easily into the socket
and does not need to be forced. Once the chip is in place, the retaining
clip is secured.
The land grid array is another type of socket that contains pins that
connect to pads located on the bottom of the processor package. When
examining CPU issues, confirming the socket type may help you to
identify any possible CPU connection issues.
Cooling system issues Because CPUs are prone to damage from overheating, you should always
consider the cooling system components when you are troubleshooting
CPU issues. For instance, if a user is experiencing intermittent problems
during operation, there could be inadequate airflow within the computer
chassis that can be corrected by providing space in front of the vents and
fans. Also, dust can often accumulate on the CPU's heatsink, and can
reduce the efficiency of the heatsink, possibly causing the CPU to
overheat.
When thermal problems cause a system to shut down or fail to boot, it
could be that the overall system cooling is inadequate, a cooling device has
failed, or the processor is overclocked, whether intentionally or not.
• If you suspect the cooling system is a problem, you can add more
cooling devices, upgrade to more efficient devices, or clean or replace
failed devices.
• If you suspect the CPU is overclocked, use BIOS or jumper settings to
reduce the CPU speed. If you have an advanced system BIOS, then
you may be able to see the actual CPU temperature readings.
Excess power Power consumption is a major factor for manufacturers when designing
consumption CPUs. When troubleshooting possible CPU issues, keep in mind that
because some CPUs operate at higher clock frequencies, they require more
power. If not properly cooled, this can result in the CPU overheating. In
this case, you may need to either reduce the clock frequency of the
processor using Power Management, or install additional cooling devices.

Access the Checklist tile on your LogicalCHOICE course screen for reference
information and job aids on How to Troubleshoot CPU Problems

416
 ACTIVITY 14-3
Troubleshooting CPU Issues

Scenario
You are attempting to resolve problems for a user who has been reporting intermittent but severe
system errors, such as frequent unexpected shutdowns. The problems have been getting more
frequent, and you have been unable to pinpoint a cause within the system software, power supply,
memory, or any adapter cards. You are starting to suspect that there is a bad CPU, and you need to
proceed accordingly to get the user back to work with as little downtime and cost as possible.

1. A user has reported intermittent but severe system errors, such as frequent unexpected shutdowns. The
problems have been getting more frequent, and you have been unable to pinpoint a cause within the
system software, power supply, memory, or any adapter cards. You are starting to suspect that there is
a bad CPU, and you need to proceed accordingly to get the user back to work with as little downtime
and cost as possible.

What initial steps should you take to identify and resolve a potential CPU problem?
☐ Replace the CPU with a known-good processor.
☐ Verify that the CPU fan and other cooling systems are installed and functional.
☐ Replace the motherboard.
☐ If the CPU is overclocked, throttle it down to the manufacturer-rated clock speed.

2. All other diagnostic and corrective steps have failed. You need to verify that it is the CPU itself that is
defective. What should you do?
○ Replace the CPU with a known-good chip.
○ Remove all the adapter cards.
○ Reinstall the operating system.
○ Replace the motherboard.

Common Cooling System Issues

There are a few issues common to computer cooling systems. Common Cooling
System Issues
Issue Solution

Dust buildup Over time, dust will build up on components inside the computer. Dust can
act as a thermal insulator once it has gathered on a system's heat sinks and
fans. In this case, the dust can act as an insulator and keep heat from escaping
from the components, and can inhibit proper airflow within the system. As a
result, system components will not perform to capacity and can burn out
quicker than expected. Make sure to keep system components clean and free
of dust.
Poor airflow When system components are not properly placed inside the computer's case,
the result can be reduced airflow within the system. This can happen when
system board components are placed too close together and create too much
heat. Another cause for concern is when there is more than one fan used in
the cooling system. Both of these examples can create irregular airflow and can

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 Issue Solution
also create small pockets of hot air inside the case. Always check the
manufacturer information for your system before adding additional
components including core cooling devices such as CPUs and case fans.
Poor heat transfer Thermal compounds are used to aid in the cooling of computer devices.
Thermal compounds are often used in conjunction with a heat sink to
maximize the cooling effect. In cases when the thermal compound is not
applied properly, heat transfer may not be effective and can result in heat
damage to the components instead of the heat being properly dissipated.

Access the Checklist tile on your LogicalCHOICE course screen for reference
information and job aids on How to Troubleshoot Cooling System Issues

Common Motherboard Issues

Motherboard problems can be among the most difficult to recognize and diagnose. Typically, the
computer will not boot, or the computer will display erratic behavior, or there may be intermittent
device failures that cannot be resolved otherwise. If you have eliminated all other hardware
components, applications, and the operating system as the source of the problem, then you should
check to see if the system board is the cause.

Causes of System Board Problems

Common sources of system-board-related problems include:
• Computer viruses infecting the system, including the BIOS.
• Loose connections between system components and the system board. For example, front panel
connectors may not be secure.
• Out-of-date BIOS. Check the BIOS firmware and the advanced BIOS settings for your system
board.
• BIOS memory is not holding the BIOS information.
• BIOS time and settings resets automatically. This is caused by either a bad CMOS battery, or a
faulty motherboard.
• System attempts to boot to incorrect device. This is typically a sign that the BIOS has been set
up improperly.
• The CMOS battery is not functioning to keep the system clock information.
• Excessive heat or electrical damage to the CPU. Use a temperature sensor along with cooling
systems to combat overheating, and utilize standard electrostatic discharge (ESD) prevention
methods.
• Electrical shorts on the system board due to improperly seated components or power surges.
This is the most common cause of system board problems.
• Physical damage to the system board. Physical damage can lead to many issues. If the bus circuits
on the board are affected, for example, the result could be slower information transfers by the
system bus, and ultimately slower overall system performance.
• Damage to memory and expansion slots when replacing memory and adapter cards.
• Damage to the processor socket when installing a new CPU. This is common when the pins
inside the socket get bent or broken when inserting the processor chip in the socket.

System Board Jumper Settings

System board jumper blocks are used to change the system board's function settings. For example,
you can use the jumper block to clear CMOS information or to reset the advanced system BIOS
configuration settings. This technique can be helpful when the system will not boot up from a
recent configuration change or if the CMOS password is lost.

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Preventing System Board Problems
When you have to touch the system board, you can prevent damage by handling it with care. When
you install components into the system board, be sure not to bend or break any of the pins. This
includes the pins on the cards as well as the system board. Also, the system board can crack if you
push down too hard on the board itself or the expansion cards. When you secure the system board
to the case, be sure not to overtighten the screws as this could also crack or damage the system
board. ESD damage from handling or from electrical surges such as lightening strikes can ruin the
system board electronics. Be sure to use proper surge protection as well as ESD-prevention
techniques to help prevent such problems.

Repair vs. Replace

Today's system boards are highly integrated and generally not repairable. When you examine a Repair vs. Replace
system board, you will find that there are very few components on the board that are individually
repairable. For example, if a built-in input/output (I/O) port fails, you will have to install an
expansion card that provides that port's functionality. If the chipset or another integrated circuit
fails, you will have to replace the entire system board. Even if you are highly skilled in the use of a
soldering iron, in most cases, when a system board fails, you will replace it. Other than replacing the
battery, there is virtually nothing on it you can repair it.

Access the Checklist tile on your LogicalCHOICE course screen for reference
information and job aids on How to Troubleshoot Motherboard Problems

419
 ACTIVITY 14-4
Troubleshooting Motherboards

Scenario
Several trouble tickets related to motherboards have been assigned to you.

1. Problem #1 When the user turns on the computer, he sees a message stating that the computer's date
and time are incorrect. He must reset this information in the computer's BIOS each time he starts the
computer.

What should you do to resolve this issue?

A: The user is experiencing a problem that indicates the CMOS memory on the motherboard has
failed. Replace the CMOS memory.

2. Problem #2 When the user turns on the PC, it does not always come on and sometimes it just shuts
itself down abruptly, with no warning. When she turns on the system again, there is no fan noise. Her
data is becoming corrupted from the frequent reboots.

What should you do to resolve this issue?

A: The user is experiencing problems that indicate the cooling fan on either the computer's processor
or the motherboard is bad. Open the case to verify which cooling fan has failed. If it is the cooling
fan on the CPU, replace the CPU. If it is the power supply's cooling fan, replace the power supply.

3. Problem #3 One of the other hardware technicians has been trying to troubleshoot a power problem.
The computer periodically and randomly reboots. The other technician has determined that the user has
an ATX motherboard and power supply. You have been assigned to take over this trouble ticket.

What should you do to resolve this issue?

A: The user is experiencing a problem that indicates either the computer's CPU or the motherboard
has failed. First, verify that the CPU is seated properly and that its cooling fan is working. If you
have an available replacement CPU, try replacing the computer's CPU to see if that resolves the
problem. If it does not, perform tasks such as scanning for viruses, verifying that all motherboard
components are seated properly, updating the computer's BIOS, making sure all cooling systems
are functioning properly, and, finally, replacing the motherboard.

Common RAM Issues

Common RAM Issues RAM problems typically show themselves as memory-specific errors, erratic system behavior, or
frequent crashes.

Symptom Possible Causes

Computer crashes, • ESD, overheating, or other power-related problems that can affect
system lockups, and memory.
unexpected shutdowns. • Registry writing to bad memory, General Protection Faults (GPFs),
and exception errors caused by software and operating system.
Memory errors appear on • Memory address errors at boot time.
screen. • Applications that require large amounts of memory or that do not
properly release memory.

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Symptom Possible Causes
Blank screen on bootup • Memory is not correct for the system. For instance, the computer is
expecting memory that uses error checking and you installed non-
parity memory.
• Memory module is not fully inserted into the slot.
Computer does not boot. • CPU cannot communicate with memory due to the memory being
POST beep codes sound. improperly installed or the BIOS not recognizing the memory. Beep
codes are specific to the BIOS manufacturer and the ones for
memory can be found in the manufacturer's beep codes list.
• For additional information on specific beep codes visit
www.computerhope.com/beep.htm.
Some or all newly • You exceeded the maximum amount of RAM that can be addressed
installed RAM is not by the system. Even though the slots can accept Dual In-line
recognized. Memory Modules (DIMMs) containing more memory, the system
can only recognize a certain amount of memory on most systems.
• The wrong memory type was installed.
• The memory was not installed in the proper sequence.
• You might need to leave empty slots between multiple modules, or
you might need to install modules containing more memory in
lower-numbered slots than smaller modules.

Access the Checklist tile on your LogicalCHOICE course screen for reference
information and job aids on How to Troubleshoot RAM Problems

421
 ACTIVITY 14-5
Troubleshooting RAM Issues

Scenario
You have been assigned some trouble tickets that deal with memory issues.

1. Problem #1 The user is experiencing corrupted data in his database application. The hard drive has
been checked and no problems were found with it. The application was reinstalled and the database
was re-indexed and all data problems have been corrected. No other users are experiencing this
problem when they enter data. He has been successfully entering data until just recently.

After troubleshooting this trouble ticket, you have discovered symptoms of a memory problem. What
factors could cause sudden memory problems in this situation?
☐ New virus
☐ Power loss
☐ New memory not compatible
☐ Power surge

2. Problem #2 Additional memory was installed in a user's system, and now it will not boot.

What steps would you take to resolve this trouble ticket?

A: First, verify that the correct memory was installed on the system, then check to see if the BIOS
manufacturer has released any upgrades that would resolve the problem and try swapping
memory around in the memory banks, and finally, verify that memory was installed and configured
correctly.

3. Problem #3 The user is complaining of application crashes. He is fine if he is running only his email and
word processing programs. If he also opens his graphics program at the same time, then the
applications are crashing.

Why is the user experiencing the problem only when additional applications are opened?
○ There is not enough memory in the system.
○ Memory errors are occurring in one of the higher memory modules.
○ The memory modules are incompatible with one another.

Common External Power Source Problems

Common External Problems with external power sources can result in data loss, erratic behavior, system crashes, and
Power Source Problems hardware damage.

Power Problem Possible Causes

Line noise Line noise occurs when there is a fluctuation in the electrical current. Causes
include:
• Electromagnetic interference (EMI)
• Radio frequency interference (RFI)
• Lightning
• Defective power supply.

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Power Problem Possible Causes
Power sag A power sag is when the power level drops suddenly below expected power
levels. Causes include;
• Many electrical systems starting up at once.
• Switching loads at the electric company utility.
• Electric company equipment failure.
• Inadequate power source.
Power undervoltage This symptom can last from several minutes to several days and can be
or brownout caused by any of the following:
• Decreased line voltage.
• Demand exceeds power company supply.
• Utility company reduced voltage to conserve energy.
A variation on this is switching transient or instantaneous undervoltage that
lasts only a matter of nanoseconds.
Frequency variation Usually occurs when using a small power generator. As loads increase or
decrease, the power frequency varies. Generators are not recommended for
supplying direct power to computers and other sensitive equipment. The
variance in frequency (square wave instead of sinusoidal wave) and the
instability of the voltage will cause severe instability in computers, leading
to crashes, data loss, and possible equipment damage. Using a power
conditioner or an inverter with a generator will prevent these issues by
stabilizing the voltage and frequency.
Overvoltage Overvoltage occurs when power levels exceed acceptable levels.
• Suddenly reduced loads.
• Equipment with heavy power consumption is turned off.
• Power company switches loads between equipment.
• Lightning strikes.
Power failure • Lightning strikes.
• Electrical power lines down.
• Overload of electrical power needs.

Common Power Supply Problems

Power supply damage from overheating, lightning strikes, or short circuits can produce a number of Common Power Supply
symptoms. Problems

Note:
POST error codes from 020 and 029 are related to the power supply.

Symptom Possible Causes and Solutions

Fan will not work The fan and openings around the power supply bring in air to cool system
components, but they also allow dirt and dust to gather around the power
supply. This can cause the fan bearings to wear and the fan to turn more
slowly. You can use compressed air to remove this debris from the
system. If the fan becomes damaged due to dust, replace the power supply
or have qualified personnel replace the fan.
No power If the computer will not boot, then the first thing to check is that the
power supply cable is securely connected at the supply and at the power

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 Symptom Possible Causes and Solutions
source. Check to make sure there is power coming from the outlet or
power strip. If the connection is secure, then you will need to open the
computer case and verify that the motherboard status indicator light is on.
The status indicator light is shown when the power is sufficiently supplied
to the board. If the light is not on, then you should check the physical
power connection from the board to the power supply.
Fans spin but no This symptom is a sure sign of a power connection issue. Check all
power to other devices connections from the power supply to the internal components. Verify
that the motherboard is properly connected to the power supply. Look for
the indicator light on the motherboard to confirm the connection is
successful and there is power supplied to the board.
Computer will not • If the computer does not start at all, make sure that there is power to
start or reboots after the outlet. You can check by plugging in a lamp or other device that
startup you know works. If that does not turn on, you know that you have a
bad outlet and not necessarily a bad power supply.
• Check that the connections from the power supply to the system
board are secure, especially on ATX systems. Make sure the master
switch to the power supply, at the rear of the system, is on before
pressing the computer's power button. Also on ATX systems, check
the voltage of the power being supplied using a multimeter.
• A loose power supply drive connector landing on exposed metal can
short-circuit the power supply. The power supply can detect this
problem and disable itself. If you fix the short (by putting the power
cable onto the drive correctly), the power supply should start working
again. Unused drive connectors should be either covered (some
technicians bring rubber end caps) or tie-wrapped to a safe location
(not too tight to avoid damaging the wire). Also check for loose screws
or foreign metallic objects that can cause shorts.
• Check power supply output voltages with a digital multimeter to verify
that the necessary voltages are being provided to the board. This will
not measure voltage under load, but will allow you to determine
whether the output is within the correct range. Most motherboards
also provide a voltage reading within the BIOS. If the system boots,
access this BIOS option to obtain readings as detected by the
motherboard.
An odor or burning An odor coming from the power supply can be the first sign that there is
smell is coming from something wrong. Start by visually inspecting the system and looking for
the power supply. any damaged parts or cables.
To verify the smell is in fact coming from the power supply, you may
need to remove some of the system components. This may include hard
drives, the CD-ROM drive, or a DVD burner. Reboot the system from an
external drive, and check for the smell once again.
Once you confirm that the odor is indeed coming from the power supply,
contact the manufacturer first. Some newer systems may have a smell
initially, but will eventually fade away. However, in other cases, an odor
can be a sign that the power supply is failing, the fan is damaged, or there
is a problem with the electricity source going to the system.
Smoke coming from Smoke coming from the computer can be a sign that there is something
computer. seriously wrong with the power supply. Typically, the only component
that can generate smoke is a failing power supply. When the wrong power
supply is installed in a computer, it can cause issues with not only the

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Symptom Possible Causes and Solutions
supply itself, but it can literally fry the motherboard and connected
components. If you see smoke, in most cases you will need to replace the
power supply, and possibly the motherboard if there are any other
damaged components.
Loud noise is coming Other components, especially drives, also can sometimes make a lot of
from the power noise. Make sure this is not where the noise is coming from.
supply.
A loud whine or squeal from the power supply area is usually from the
fan. A damaged fan with worn bearings will cause a grinding whine that
worsens with time. Sometimes, when the bearings begin to fail, the fan
blade assembly will shift, rubbing against the fan grill or the case, and
produce a high-pitched noise. Also possible, after cleaning with
compressed air, a wire inside the power supply unit could be shifted by
the forced air and end up touching the fan, causing the very loud grinding
noise, possibly stopping the fan altogether. With the power supply off,
you can attempt to carefully shift the wire away from the fan by using a
plastic tool (metal is not recommended so as to avoid damaging any
components).
If the noise is not from the fan, but from another power supply
component, replace the power supply or take it out and send it for service.

Power Supply Troubleshooting Considerations

When troubleshooting power supplies, there are a few things you must consider in order to properly Power Supply
identify the issues. Troubleshooting
Considerations
Consideration Additional Information

Wattages and capacity You should always verify how much power each system component
requires, before installing or replacing a power supply. If you are having
issues with a power supply, then verify that the system component usage
does not exceed the power supply's capacity. Ideally, you want a power
supply that provides more, but not much more, power than the
components require. Use proper power calculations to determine the
power requirements of the system.
Connector types Consider the power supply's connection type when replacing the unit. You
must verify that the connection type on the system board matches the
connection interface on the power supply unit. Also, verify that there are
enough of each type of drive connector for the type and number of drives
the system will be using.
Output voltage The output voltage in a power supply is controlled by a feedback circuit
inside the unit. Verify that the output voltages are within the range of
what is expected.

Access the Checklist tile on your LogicalCHOICE course screen for reference
information and job aids on How to Troubleshoot Power Supplies

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 ACTIVITY 14-6
Troubleshooting Power Supplies

Scenario
You have been assigned a number of power problems to solve.

1. Problem #1 When the user turns on the PC, it does not always come on and sometimes it just shuts
itself down abruptly, with no warning. When she turns on the system again, there is no fan noise. She is
using a legacy database application and the data is being corrupted during the improper shutdowns.

What would you do to resolve this problem?

A: Unplug the power cord. Remove the system cover. Using compressed air, remove the dust from
around the fan spindle. Verify that there is no obvious reason the fan is not spinning. Replace the
power cord and restart the computer. Verify that the computer starts properly. If these actions did
not fix the problem, you would need to replace the power supply. Leaving the problem alone
would allow heat to build up to dangerous levels, causing serious damage to the system.

2. Problem #2 A user is reporting an odor coming out of his computer. You have serviced this machine
recently and replaced the computer's power supply unit.

What would you do to resolve this problem?

A: An odor coming from the power supply could be a sign that there is something wrong. Because
you have just replaced the unit, verify that all the connections are secure and that the fan is
functioning. Restart the machine and verify that the power supply is running as it should. Once the
functionality of the unit is verified, then odor is probably a result of installing a new power supply
unit. If the odor does not go away in a few days, then contact the power supply manufacturer.

If you have power supply 3. Problem #3 One of the other hardware technicians has been trying to troubleshoot a power problem.
testers available, you The system will not come on when the user turns on the power switch. He determined that the user has
can have students use an ATX motherboard and power supply. You have been assigned to take over this trouble ticket.
them instead of a) Set the multimeter for DC volts over 12 V.
multimeters. You will b) Locate an available internal power supply connector. If none are free, power off the system and
need to lead them unplug it, then remove one from a CD drive, and then power on the system again.
through the testing
c) Insert the black probe from the multimeter into one of the two center holes on the internal power
process.
supply connector.
d) Insert the red probe from the multimeter into the hole for the red wire.
e) Verify that the multimeter reading is +5 V DC.
f) Move the red probe into the hole for the yellow wire.
g) Verify that the multimeter reading is +12 V DC.
h) Check the documentation for the ATX motherboard to see if there is a logic circuit switch that signals
power to be turned on or off, that it is properly connected, and how it should be set.
i) Verify that the motherboard, processor, memory, and video card are all correctly installed and
working.

4. Problem #4 The user turns on the power switch, but the system does not come on. He does not hear
the fan, there is no power light on, and he hears no beeps or other sounds coming from the system. His
system is plugged into a surge protector.

What would you do to resolve this problem?

A: Verify that the power cord is securely connected to the power supply and to the electrical outlet on
the surge protector. Verify that the surge protector is turned on and plugged in. Verify that the
surge protector is working by plugging in a known good electrical device and turning it on. If the
device did not turn on, check to see whether any reset buttons need to be reset on the surge

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protector, or check the electric outlet's circuit breaker. Restart the computer. If these actions did
not solve the problem, you would need to replace the power supply.

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 TOPIC E
Troubleshoot Laptops
In the previous topics, you focused on troubleshooting issues that may arise with a typical personal
computer environment. While the PC is still often deployed in many organizations, more often than
not, users are now working on laptops or other mobile devices. In this topic, you will troubleshoot
laptops.
Installing and configuring portable devices is only the first step in your responsibilities as a
computer support technician. You will also need to provide the ongoing maintenance for these
devices, as well as to diagnose and resolve any problems that might occur with them during use. The
information and skills in this topic should prepare you to assist users in proper maintenance of
portable systems, as well as to efficiently and correctly resolve problems with these systems.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220–802: Objective 4.8: Given a scenario, troubleshoot and repair common laptop issues
while adhering to the appropriate procedures.

Maintenance and Handling Techniques

Maintenance and There are many general maintenance and handling techniques that should be considered when
Handling Techniques supporting laptops.

Issue Techniques

Cooling systems Because laptops do not have the air circulation that desktop PCs do, it is
important to keep the device air ducts clean. Dust trapped in cooling
passages acts as an insulator and can prevent proper cooling, possibly
resulting in overheating. Excessive heat should be avoided in such devices as
it can shorten the life of components. In servicing laptops, it is a good
practice to regularly blow dust from the cooling passages using compressed
air or vacuum it with an electronics vacuum. When using the compressed air
to clean the inside of the laptop, you must be extremely cautious of the
internal components. It is easy to damage other components inside the
laptop while cleaning.
The bottom surface of the laptop gets quite hot when improperly ventilated.
This can easily happen when laptops are put on soft surfaces (i.e., tables with
coverings such as table cloths), on people's laps, or in places where there is
not enough room between the vents and a wall. Sometimes people will get
careless and unwittingly cover the vents with books, mouse pads, etc.
Batteries Properly caring for the battery in a laptop not only prolongs battery life, but
also diminishes health and safety concerns. Using an incorrect battery
charging cable or exposing a battery to harsh environmental conditions, such
as extreme heat, can result in an explosion. Some simple guidelines for
acceptable battery maintenance include:
• Follow manufacturer instructions on the proper charging and discharging
of the battery.
• Use the battery charger provided by the manufacturer or an approved
replacement charger.
• Never expose the battery to fire or water.
• Do not drop, throw, or jolt the battery.
• Only use the recommended battery for your device.

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Issue Techniques

• Make use of power management features included with your device/OS

to prolong battery life.
Transportation and Because laptops are carried from place to place, they are exposed to
handling hazardous environments far more frequently than desktop computers.
Careless handling can substantially reduce the life expectancy of such devices.
Whether storing, shipping, or just transporting a laptop, it is important to
choose an appropriate enclosure for the device. Such enclosures should
protect the device from moisture, heat and cold, and dust and debris. The
enclosure should shield the device from objects that could scratch or scrape,
and also withstand the impact of a drop.
When carrying a laptop, be careful not to hold on to it by a corner. This can
cause the laptop to bend slightly and short out the system board.

Operating Environment Best Practices

If you can properly control environmental factors, such as temperature, humidity, RFI, and ESD,
you can help ensure optimal performance and extend the life of your device.

Environmental Factor Description

High temperature Exposure to high temperatures can cause expansion within portable
computing devices and compromise circuitry. High temperature can also
lead to the failure of cooling systems to maintain adequate operating
temperatures, leading to the overheating and failure of internal
components such as the processor, video processor, and hard drive.
Rapid change in Rapid changes in temperature, such as those seen when transporting a
temperature device from one climate to another, could result in condensation within
the device. Devices should be allowed to come to room temperature
before being powered on after a temperature change.
High humidity Avoid operating in high humidity as condensation within the device may
occur and promote corrosion. All manufacturers specify operating
humidity levels. It is important to follow manufacturer operating
procedures/guidelines at all times. Most systems can operate at high
humidity without a problem, as long as there is no condensation (5 to 95
percent relative humidity, non-condensing).
Low humidity Be extra cautious as ESD is more likely to occur in low-humidity
environments ranging anywhere from 10% - 35%.
RFI Erratic errors may occur with laptops when exposed to radio-frequency
interference (RFI). Radio towers, two-way radios, and even cordless
telephones and microwaves have been linked to RFI.
Moving the device further from such sources will help in resolving
interference issues. Properly shielded cables for peripherals will also
minimize the effects of RFI.

General Laptop Issues

As an A+ certified technician, you will be responsible for interpreting a laptop's symptoms and
determining what the specific issues are and how they can be resolved.

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 Symptom Description

Display issues Some common display device issues include:

• Cannot display to external monitor, video device, or projector. Often this
feature requires the user to toggle between display modes. Check the device
documentation for more information on toggle modes for your specific
device.
• No display. In some cases, the LCD cutoff switch remains stuck down even
after the laptop lid is opened. You may need connect the laptop to an
external monitor to verify that the graphics card is still working properly.
• Backlight/brightness functionality and pixelation have been changed. In
some cases, the intensity of the backlight and the amount of pixelation can
conserve power if configured correctly. Verify that the backlight and
resolution settings are configured to suit the user's needs. Often, the laptop's
display is optimized for certain dots per inch (DPI) and resolution settings.
Changing these is not always recommended. In some laptops, the backlight/
brightness settings are configured automatically, so check to see if you can
enable or disable this setting.
• Dim display. The screen goes dark and cannot be adjusted or the hues in the
display are changing. This can be one of two issues: the screen has gone bad
or the LCD inverter is bad. You may need to replace the screen or the
inverter. Check the manufacturer's documentation to verify replacement
options.
• Flickering display. This can be a symptom of a number of different issues.
First, verify that your video card drivers are up to date. Next, check the
screen refresh rate within the display settings for the laptop. If the flickering
continues, then it is most likely a loose wire connection from the
motherboard to the display. In this case, the only way to fix the issue is to
disassemble the laptop and secure the wires.
Battery issues There are usually two main issues with laptop batteries. The first being that the
battery does not stay charged long enough. Battery life can be maximized using
the power management features of your device. Many devices also offer
extended life batteries. To extend battery life, disable devices not being used,
such as wireless (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth®, and infrared [IR]). If not on a network, you
can also disable the network interface card (NIC). These devices have their own
power management options that need to be set.
The second is that the battery is not charging. This could be because of a bad
AC adapter or cable. Nickel cadmium (Ni-Cad) batteries have battery memory,
which means that they can lose most of their rechargeability if you repeatedly
recharge them without draining the batteries first. The only solution to this
problem is to use a conditioning charger, which is designed to first drain the Ni-
Cd batteries before recharging them. Battery memory can sometimes affect
nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) batteries, too. Try replacing the cable and see if
that fixes the issue. If it does not, then you will most likely have to replace the
battery.
Replacing batteries is not uncommon and will need to be done periodically.
Device gets hot Because laptops have very little space in between their internal components,
you can have problems with laptops overheating, which leads to system lockups
and even hardware failures. Strategies you can use to help reduce the heat
within laptops include:
• Use the power management features even when the laptop is connected to a
power outlet, especially if you are using the laptop in a warm room.

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Symptom Description

• Try to keep the bottom of the laptop ventilated. (For example, do not rest a
laptop on a pillow in your lap.)
• Be aware of the fan in the laptop. If you hear it running very fast on a
regular basis, take steps to minimize heat in the laptop.
Laptop is not This can be an indication that the battery contacts are dirty. You can clean them
working properly by using alcohol preps or even just a dry cloth.
when on battery
power
No power when The power cord or AC adapter might have failed, the outlet to which you are
connected to AC attempting to connect the laptop is bad, or the power supply in the laptop has
power failed. Start by checking the power outlet and plugging in a known good
electrical device and verifying whether you can turn it on. If the problem
persists, then try using a known good power cord and then an AC adapter to
determine if either is the source of the problem. You might also test both AC
and DC power by using a multimeter.
Ghost cursor Laptops commonly have touch pads or pointing sticks. Touch pads can suffer
from dirt and hand grease contamination that can make the touch pad behave
erratically; make sure to clean with alcohol preps. Pointing stick heads can wear
out and become slippery, making them very difficult to use; order replacements
from the manufacturer or vendor. In some laptop models, you can actually
recalibrate the touch pad to try and fix the issue.
A ghost cursor is a cursor that jumps around on the screen randomly, or moves
too slow, or opens windows and menus on its own. Causes of this problem
include a corrupt driver, driver incompatibilities after an upgrade to a newer
operating system, and a hardware failure. Steps to take to resolve this problem
include reinstalling or upgrading the driver. If this does not resolve the
problem, many portable devices allow users to connect an external mouse as a
substitute for the touch pad or other integrated pointing devices.

Common Laptop Keypad Issues

Laptop keypads are the source of many user complaints due to their varied key arrangements. Common Laptop Keypad
Issues
Issue Description

Nonstandard key Due to size constraints, laptop manufacturers often rearrange function keys
placement to make them all fit.
Function keys Some keys on a standard desktop keyboard would not fit on a laptop and
have instead been added as function keys. Several keys on a laptop keypad
are shared. For an explanation of key functions, consult the device manual.
Numeric keypad Laptop computers do not have the numeric keypad like desktop keyboards.
Instead, many manufacturers place numbers on letter keys to be used when
NumLock is on. NumLock indicator lights are displayed on the laptop to
indicate that the NumLock function has been turned on.
Sticking keys On occasion, a key will remain in the depressed position due to debris
buildup or a malfunction in the mechanism. These issues can often be
resolved by removing the key, cleaning it, and replacing the key. Methods for
removing keys vary from model to model. Removing a key on a laptop
keyboard can be a risky proposition. They are typically not the type of key
where the key cap is in a peg, which you find on full-sized keyboards. Laptop

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 Issue Description
keys are usually floating on a dual-hinge mechanism, usually plastic, that will
easily break if you attempt to remove it forcefully. Refer to the
manufacturer's instructions when attempting to fix a key on the keyboard.
Keyboard too small The strain of typing on a small or non-ergonomic keyboard may bother
some users.

Common Wireless Connectivity Issues

There are several portable device issues that can cause wireless signal reception and connectivity
problems.

Issue Description

Intermittent Several factors could play a part in poor or intermittent wireless reception,
wireless including low battery, radio interference, and signal barriers such as masonry
connectivity walls or floors. Anything metal can also block signal, such as large metal file
cabinets and metal-clad fire doors, things many people forget to consider
when determining the best location of wireless access points in an office. If
there is an external antenna, check to be sure the antenna is fully extended,
properly connected, and is not damaged. In some cases, if the wireless card is
installed independently from the system board, then you can upgrade the
wireless card to improve connectivity.
No Bluetooth There are a number of issues that can cause Bluetooth connectivity problems:
connectivity • The drivers might need to be updated.
• The devices have not been set to "discoverable" mode. For security
purposes, only enable discovery mode on your laptop when want a
Bluetooth device to find your laptop; otherwise, keep that setting
disabled.
• The Bluetooth settings must be configured to allow devices to connect to
the laptop. This is also referred to as pairing.
No wireless Some portable computing devices allow the user to turn off the wireless
connectivity receiver switch, which would result in no reception. Or, the user might
simply be out of range of the wireless access point. You may also need to
enter the appropriate security key for the wireless access point.
This issue might also be the result of damage or a failure in the wireless
device or the embedded antenna on the wireless network card. Some cards
might have a flip-up antenna that might be damaged through improper
handling. If the card or antenna is damaged, you would typically replace the
wireless card.

Laptop Disassembly Best Practices

When disassembling a laptop, it's important to follow the proper disassembling process to ensure
that the laptop can be reassembled correctly:
• Document and label all cable and screw locations as you go.
• Organize the parts as you remove them from the laptop.
• Refer to the manufacturer's documentation to help with locating components.
• Use the appropriate hand tools, such as a small screw driver to remove the screws.
Servicing laptop components can be difficult depending on where the component is located within
the case. Many times, the components are not serviceable and replacing the entire laptop is required.

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It's also important to check a manufacturer's warranty restrictions before you service a laptop and its
components. In some cases, you can actually break the warranty if you crack open the case.

Access the Checklist tile on your LogicalCHOICE course screen for reference
information and job aids on How to Troubleshoot Laptops

433
 ACTIVITY 14-7
Troubleshooting Laptop Issues

Scenario
In this activity, you will troubleshoot common laptop issues and provide a solution to fix the issues.

1. You received a user complaint about a laptop being extremely hot to the touch. What actions should
you take in response to this issue?
A: Overheating can be a sign that dust and dirt is restricting the necessary airflow within the device,
so start by cleaning the ventilation duct with compressed air and then make sure that the device is
getting proper air circulation around the outside of the case.

2. Which components are typically soldered to a laptop motherboard and cannot be replaced without
replacing the entire board?
A: Typically, the processor, the AC port, and USB ports are attached directly on the board and cannot
be replaced without replacing the whole laptop motherboard.

3. What internal components can be independently replaced within a laptop?

A: Generally, you can replace the hard drive, RAM, the fan, the screen, the battery, and the
keyboard.

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TOPIC F
Troubleshoot Printers
In the previous topics, you employed troubleshooting tools and techniques for hardware
components within the computer system itself. There are other peripheral devices that users may
frequently use with their computer systems, like printers, that will experience problems or
malfunctions that require your assistance. In this topic, you will troubleshoot printers.
As a support professional, you are well aware that one of the most unpleasant problems for users is
being unable to print. If users need hard copies of documents and the systems do not work, it can
be very frustrating. Users will look to you to identify and resolve their problems quickly, so you will
need to perform proper maintenance to prevent problems, to recognize common issues, and to
correct them efficiently when they occur.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220–802: Objective 4.9: Given a scenario, troubleshoot printers with appropriate tools.

Common Printer Troubleshooting Tools

Printing troubleshooting tools can be used to fix common printing issues and can also help you in Common Printer
diagnosing printer problems. Troubleshooting Tools

Tool Description

Maintenance kit Printer maintenance kits for laser printers are made up of printer components
that get worn out with regular everyday use. Most printers are designed to
notify users when they have reached their predetermined page count and
maintenance schedule. Usually, the printer will display a message such as
"Perform Printer Maintenance." This means that the printer manufacturer
recommends installing a printer maintenance kit at this time. Once the kit is
installed, you must reset the page count on the printer to keep an accurate
schedule for maintenance.
Common components included in the kit are:
• Transfer rollers and pickup rollers
• Corona assembly
• Fan assembly
• Fuser assembly
• Cloths and gloves for handling printer components
Toner vacuum When you suspect that the printer needs to be cleaned due to toner build up
within the printer, then make sure to use a toner vacuum. Toner vacuums are
specifically designed to clean up toner within a printer. The vacuum is able to
reserve the particles within the tool so that it is not dispersed back into the air.
Never use a conventional vacuum to clean up toner because the particles are
so small that there is risk of them getting blown back into the air surrounding
the printer. This can be harmful to your health.
Compressed air Compressed air is sometimes used to clean out the dust and debris from
inside the printer. Refer to your manufacturer's documentation for any
guidelines on using compressed air to clean the printer. Some manufacturers
advise against using the air, because it can actually cause moisture build up
within the printer.

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 Tool Description
Extension magnet A telescoping wand with a magnet attached to the end is used to pick up
screws or other metal pieces that may fall into the printer or scanner. For
inkjet printers and dot matrix printers, it can come in handy to retrieve paper
clips people have dropped into the paper-feed mechanism. But for laser
printers, reaching inside the printer can be hazardous. If you need to reach
inside a laser printer, take extreme caution as there are fragile components
and high-voltage electronics inside laser printers.

Printer Software Tools

Printer Software Tools In addition to the standard toolkit, there are several specialized resources you can employ when you
research and troubleshoot printing problems.

Troubleshooting Description
Resource

Test patterns Depending upon your printer, you might be able to run test patterns to
check the clarity and print quality of your printer. It allows you to
determine what settings need to be adjusted or what ink colors need to be
refilled. Test patterns are either built in or external to the printer and are
used to test for calibration and alignment of the printhead and to check
the color/grayscale tone.
Printer spooler The printer spooler can be a useful tool when determining where a print
job is faulting. If the job is getting through the spooler then it may indicate
a hardware issue, but if its not, then it could be a issue with the application
that the job was sent from or a connection issue.
Power cycling Power cycling a device refers to turning the device off and letting it rest
for 10 to 30 seconds before powering it back up. This can give the printer
some time to clear the memory and start up again.
General diagnostic Many printers come with other self-diagnostic programs that can resolve
utilities basic hardware issues. Refer to the printer's manual on the specific steps
required to perform the diagnostics.
Windows and other operating systems often provide help for
troubleshooting general problems as well as for problems specific to that
system. In particular, Windows 7, Windows® Vista, and Windows XP® all
provide troubleshooters that can walk you through the diagnosis and
resolution of common printer problems or problems with other devices.
In Windows 7, common printer problems can be resolved by displaying
the pop-up menu from the Printer icon and selecting Troubleshoot.
There are other generic utilities you can use, such as capturing a printer
with the net use command, or redirecting output to a printer with the
prn command.

Device documentation For device-specific problems, consult the documentation that came with
your printer or scanner.
Manufacturers' Most device manufacturers will maintain technical information on their
websites websites that can help with printer troubleshooting and ongoing
maintenance. You can also download updated printer or scanner drivers or
diagnostic software tools from the manufacturer, or use web-based utilities
to help you diagnose the problem.

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Troubleshooting Description
Resource
Software vendors' Microsoft and other operating system vendors maintain libraries of
websites technical information on their websites that can help with troubleshooting
known problems with specific devices, or general issues related to the
printing function in the specific operating system.
Error codes and Review any error messages at the printer and at the computer. This might
reports involve checking computer event logs. Some printers may have an out of
memory error displayed when the printer memory is beyond capacity.
Service logs and Check prior service records for the system to try to identify recurring
reports problems. Check for previous user reports of similar issues to see how the
issues were resolved.
Troubleshooting As with all troubleshooting, follow a structured process:
principles • Gather information and identify the symptoms.
• Review the data and establish a possible cause.
• Identify and test a solution.

Common Printer Symptoms

When troubleshooting various printers and print job issues, keep in mind that some of the simplest Common Printer
tasks such as pausing, restarting, or canceling a print job from the queue can easily fix some Symptoms
common printing problems. User education and awareness of these common problems and
solutions will enable you to better support users. There are a number of common issues related to
all types of printers.

Symptom Possible Problems and Solutions

Backed up print There are a number of issues that can a print queue to printer transfer
queue or printer problem:
will not print • If you suspect that the printer is out of toner, ink, or paper, then add what
is necessary. Verify the printer's status and press the Test button on the
printer.
• If you suspect that there is a paper jam, or the printer is displaying an error
code indicating a paper jam, then clear the jam. If the paper jams are
frequent, then the printer may need to be serviced to clean or replace old or
worn components such as rollers.
• In Windows, there are a number of settings that will cause issues. The
printer may be paused. In this case right-click on the printer and disable the
pause printing option. The print spooler service may be stalled, so stop and
start the service. Or, the Use Printer Offline option has been enabled.
• If the printer has been configured to be available on a specified schedule,
then you may need to verify and adjust the availability schedule.
• An incompatible print driver will prevent sending print jobs to the printer.
You may need to delete the driver and reinstall the updated one using the
manufacturer's installation instructions, if available.
Printer does not If the print out is not showing the output you expect, then this could be a page
print the way the setup, printer property, or settings issue. You should verify that the page setup
user expects it to options and the printer properties are configured correctly. If you have
confirmed the settings for the printer and the application you are printing
from, then you may need to use a maintenance kit or a driver software update
to fix the issues.

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 Symptom Possible Problems and Solutions

If the printout is streaking, this could be a sign that the printhead needs to be
cleaned.
Print quality There are a number of different print quality issues that indicate the printer
issues problems:
• Streaks may indicate that the printer head needs to be cleaned due to
clogged head openings.
• Faded prints can be an indication of a bad toner cartridge. If you are using
the re-manufactured cartridges, then you may need to try a new one. If that
does not fix the issue, then there may be an issue with the fuser.
• Vertical lines are a symptom of inkjet printheads being out of alignment.
This can also be a sign that the printing ribbon needs to be replaced.
• Color prints in the wrong color. Use the advanced printer settings to verify
that the color settings are correct. You may need to select a different output
option, such as the print quality.
Access denied When users cannot access a network printer, then there is a possibility that
there is no connectivity. Either the printer or the user has lost a connection to
the network. In this case, you can verify which device needs to be reconnected
and make necessary changes. If the connections are functional, then check the
printer or print server status and restart, if necessary. Also verify that the IP
address assigned to the printer is correct. Finally, you can check the printer's
power cycle to make sure it is coming online once it has been powered up.
Garbled When a printer outputs garbled or ghosted images, there is something wrong
characters on with the printer. These symptoms can mean a number of different things:
paper, or is • The printer is low on memory. Check to see if you can install additional
showing ghosted memory.
images
• The resolution needs to be adjusted in the printer settings.
• The driver is incompatible, so update or replace the driver.
• The cabling may be damaged or not fully connected so check all cables to
make sure they are secure and in tact.
• In laser printers, this can be a sign that the drum is not being completely
erased. You should contact the manufacturer or check the website for
additional information and troubleshooting steps.
Print jobs never General network problems. Check the network status of the client, printer, and
appear in print print server.
queue
Insufficient user print permissions. The user probably got an error message.
Update the permissions.
Insufficient space on the drive containing the spool folder. Move the spool
folder or add disk space.
Other sporadic Unfavorable environmental conditions can lead to unexplained problems with
print problems printers. Check for and correct these situations, if possible.
• If the printer is installed in an environment with a large quantity of dust and
dirt, such as a factory floor or a pet shop, debris can accumulate in the
printer case. Keep the printer clean in an enclosure in these environments if
possible, but be mindful of heat accumulation in the enclosure.
• High humidity can lead to moisture problems; low humidity can lead to
static problems. Try to maintain a relative humidity of 50 to 60 percent.
• Low memory errors can indicate that the print driver memory settings need
to be changed. Most print drivers will install a low memory default setting

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Symptom Possible Problems and Solutions

that can be changed, if needed. You can update the driver setting to match
the printer memory capabilities to resolve this issue.

Note: In Windows 7, you can troubleshoot a printer by right-clicking the printer and choosing
Troubleshoot. In Windows XP, the Printing Troubleshooter in Help and Support Center
can be useful in stepping through and resolving common printing problems.

Laser Printer Problems

Laser printers contain chemicals, high voltages, and high-temperature areas that can hurt you. Make
sure the printer is off and the parts are cool before you attempt to work on the machine. Some of
the exposed wires are very thin and can be damaged easily, so treat the printer gently.

Symptom Possible Problems Solutions

Smeared output, Fuser temperature is too low: if the Follow the manufacturer's instructions
or output rubs off fuser is not hot enough, the toner not to set fuser mode for the paper; adjust
the paper fused to the paper ; fuser roller is the fuser roller; clear the paper path;
uneven; problem in paper path; paper use good-quality paper.
not smooth enough.
Low-quality image Poor-quality paper does not accept Use good-quality paper; follow the
charge and transfer toner; transfer manufacturer's instructions to clean
corona is dirty or faulty; there's a the transfer corona; follow the
transfer corona power supply manufacturer's instructions to
problem; a faulty primary corona or troubleshoot other faulty components.
power supply does not charge print
drum.
Repeating Dirty fuser roller; warped or worn Clean all fuser rollers; compare the
horizontal lines or fuser roller; scratched print drum due distance between the repetitions of the
white spaces to debris between wipe blade and lines to the circumferences of the
drum. rollers, and consult manufacturer's
documentation to find which may
have the problem. Follow the
manufacturer's instructions to adjust
or replace rollers and fuser.
Follow the manufacturer's instructions
to replace the scratched print drum.
Repeating vertical Scratched print drum; dirty primary Follow the manufacturer's instructions
lines or white corona or transfer corona produces to replace scratched print drum or
spaces uneven charge; refilled toner cartridge clean corona wires; or, replace with a
produced substandard output. new cartridge.
Pickup and path The paper slips or begins to pick up After a long period of use, these
wheels 2–3 pages or more at once, and then wheels lose their grip. Wheels either
jams; paper is not feeding; paper is need to be cleaned with alcohol or
creased. replaced.

Inkjet Printer Problems

Most issues related to inkjet printers can be resolved by cleaning the printer, cleaning the paper feed
rollers, replacing the print cartridge, and using good-quality paper. There are, however, occasions
when a component will need to be replaced. In this case, it may be more cost effective to just

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 replace the printer instead of trying to repair it. The following are common symptoms and potential
solutions you can use when supporting users.

Symptom Possible Problems Solutions

Poor print quality Clogged nozzles, incorrect paper; Clean the interior of the printer;
empty or defective cartridge. perform one or more print cartridge
cleaning cycles; switch to a paper
specifically designed for inkjet
printers.
Replace the cartridge. If you are using
a refilled cartridge, replace with a new
cartridge.
No output; paper Empty ink cartridges; clogged nozzles; Replace empty or incorrect ink
passes through tape sealing ink cartridge; incorrect cartridges; clean the printer and print
printer but is cartridge or cartridge improperly cartridge; remove the tape seal from
blank seated. ink cartridge; align the cartridge; check
the manufacturer's website for other
troubleshooting procedures.
Feathering/ink Clogged nozzles; low ink in cartridge; Perform several cleaning cycles;
bleed faulty printhead; low-quality refilled replace ink cartridge with a new one
cartridge. (not refilled); replace the printhead;
switch to a paper specifically designed
for inkjet printers.
Pickup and path The paper slips or begins to pick up After a long period of use, these
wheels 2–3 pages or more at once, and then wheels lose their grip. Wheels either
jams. need to be cleaned with alcohol or
replaced.

Common Impact Printer Problems

Dot-matrix printers and other impact printers are not as commonly used as the others but they are
known to rugged and dependable. Most issues related to these printers are due to printhead
problems. The following are common symptoms and potential solutions you can use when
troubleshooting.

Symptom Possible Problems Solutions

Horizontal lines Printhead is damaged or needs to be Attempts to repair a printhead can

appear in the print cleaned. damage it beyond hope. You can clean
so parts of the printhead with a lubricant like
characters are WD-40 or alcohol. Remove any visible
missing grime.
Flecks and The ribbon is not aligned correctly, Reposition the ribbon. Replace the
smudges on the not feeding correctly, or is over-inked. ribbon cartridge; cartridges are not
paper economical to repair. Clean and
lubricate the gears that advance the
printhead.
Poor print quality The printer adjustment for paper Set the thickness to match the paper
thickness is set to an incorrect value; you are using. Use good-quality paper.
poor-quality paper; bad ribbon; dirty Replace the ribbon. Clean the
printhead. printhead.

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Symptom Possible Problems Solutions
Continuous-feed Tractor feed problems. Clean paper from gears. Align tractor
paper jams feed. Replace worn gears.

Access the Checklist tile on your LogicalCHOICE course screen for reference
information and job aids on How to Troubleshoot Printers

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 ACTIVITY 14-8
Troubleshooting Common Printer Issues

Scenario
In this activity, you will respond to common printing issues and provide a suggested solution to fix
the issues.

® ®
1. A user reports that they cannot print from Microsoft Excel to a network printer. After determining that
other users are printing from that printer with no issues, what steps should you take next to troubleshoot
the problem?
A: Check the network availability of the network printer, then make sure that the printer is not paused.
If the user can print from other applications, then the problem might be with Excel, but not with the
printer or print driver.

2. A user reports that he is attempting to print to his local printer, but none of the print jobs are printing.
When you arrive at his desk, you check out the printer hardware and consumables and everything
seems to be fine. When you double-click the printer in the Printers folder, you see the job is listed in the
queue. What should you try next?
A: You should check to make sure that the printer is not paused, then try stopping and starting the
print spooler service. If resetting the print spooler service does not resolve the problem, try
adjusting the spool settings on the printer until you can print from all Windows programs.

3. Another user says all his printouts look garbled. You check the properties of the print object in the
Printers And Faxes window and find that the printer model listed in the Properties dialog box is not the
same as the printer model on the printer itself. What should you do?
A: Remove the printer and reinstall it using the correct printer driver.

4. A user reports that inkjet printers in the corporate training area have various problems, including no
output, fuzzy output, and generally poor print quality. List some of the steps you should take to resolve
these problems.
A: If the print quality is poor, perform one or more cleaning cycles. Clean the printer to make sure that
there is no lint or other debris dragging across the wet ink. Change to a paper specifically
designed for inkjet printers. Next, If the cartridge was recently reinstalled, make sure that the user
pulled the tape off before installing the ink cartridge. Verify that the cartridge is seated correctly in
the printer. Verify that the correct cartridge is installed. You might need to try a brand-new (not
refilled) ink cartridge. Perform an alignment after installing new cartridges as per the
documentation for the printer. If the printhead is separate from the ink cartridge, you might also
need to replace the printhead. In addition, if there is nothing printing, check the documentation or
website for the printer to see if there are any troubleshooting tips or diagnostic tools.

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Summary
In this lesson, you applied troubleshooting techniques to resolve issues related to many different
computing hardware components. It is likely that most of your time as an A+ certified technician
will be supporting users with hardware issues, so it is important to understand the theory and best
practices used by professionals on a daily basis.
Use the review
In your current job role, have you had to troubleshoot computer hardware problems? If so, what did you do questions provided to
and how did you resolve the issues? generate discussion
A: Answers will vary but may include fixing a printing output issue, adjusting display settings to resolve among the participants.
picture issues, or fixing some basic problems with connections, cables, or ports.

What hardware components do you expect to have to troubleshoot most often at your workplace?
A: Answers will vary depending on the type of work environment, but the most common components
could be display devices, system components, and fixing all the various issues that come up with
printing devices.

Note: Check your LogicalCHOICE Course screen for opportunities to interact with your
classmates, peers, and the larger LogicalCHOICE online community about the topics covered in
this course or other topics you are interested in. From the Course screen you can also access
available resources for a more continuous learning experience.

Encourage students to
use the social
networking tools
provided on the
LogicalCHOICE Home
screen to follow up with
their peers after the
course is completed for
further discussion and
resources to support
continued learning.

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444
12 Troubleshooting
System-Wide Issues
Lesson Time: 2 hours

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will troubleshoot system-wide issues.
• Troubleshoot operating systems.
• Troubleshoot wired and wireless networks.
• Troubleshoot common security issues.

Lesson Introduction
In the previous lesson, you focused on troubleshooting the hardware components that
physically make up the computer system. You are well aware that there are other essential
components needed for the entire computer system to work properly; the operating system,
the network, and security are all integral parts of the computer environment. In this lesson,
you will troubleshoot system-wide issues.
You can have all of the components of a PC properly installed and configured, and still not
be able to perform the tasks that you need to perform. Software, network, and security
issues can present their own sets of problems for you to troubleshoot and resolve.
This lesson covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification
objectives:
• Topic A:
• Exam 220–802: Objective 4.6
• Topic B:
• Exam 220–802: Objective 4.5
• Topic C:
• Exam 220–802: Objective 4.7

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 TOPIC A
Troubleshoot Operating Systems
In this lesson, you will troubleshoot system issues. The operating system is an essential component
in the computer environment, managing all the resources that make up the system and providing the
interface for users to interact with these resources. If the operating system is not functioning
properly, the computer system will not be able to perform as needed. In this topic, you will
troubleshoot operating systems.
As a computer support professional, you will be the first line of response to help users when
problems arise with their systems. You will need the knowledge to recognize and diagnose problem
conditions, and you will need to respond to those problems with the appropriate corrective action.
The information, utilities, and skills in this topic should provide you with the diagnostic and
troubleshooting toolkit you will need to identify and correct a range of possible system problems.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220–802: Objective 4.6: Given a scenario, troubleshoot operating system problems with
appropriate tools.

Operating System Troubleshooting Tools

Operating System There are numerous tools and utilities available to help you troubleshoot operating system issues:
Troubleshooting Tools
Tool Description

Recovery Console Use Recovery Console in Windows® XP and 2000 troubleshoot and manage
the system. The console can be installed as a boot option or you can launch
it from the Windows XP CD-ROM.
The console allows you to enable and disable services, manage files and
disks, and to fix any system boot problems.
WinRE Use Windows Recovery Environment (WinRE) in Windows Vista® and
Windows® 7 to troubleshoot and manage system errors that occur within the
operating system.
Bootrec.exe The bootrec tool is available within WinRE for Windows Vista or 7. It can be
used to troubleshoot and resolve master boot record (MBR) issues, boot sector
problems, and Boot Configuration Data (BCD) issues. Two bootrec options
commonly used to troubleshoot and fix issues are:
• The fixmbr option is used to fix MBR corruption issues by writing new
files to the system partition.
• The fixboot option is used to write a new boot sector to the system. It can
be useful when you suspect that the boot sector is damaged or
incompatible with the operating system.
For more information on the bootrec tool capabilities, visit http://
support.microsoft.com/kb/927392.
Sfc System File Checker (sfc) is a Windows utility that scans systems for file
corruptions on startup. The tool is available in Windows XP and Windows
Server® 2003. In Windows 7, this tool can be found within the Windows
Resource Protection center. There are a number of sfc commands that you
can use to manage file corruptions:
• scannow will scan all protected files

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Tool Description

• scanoncescans all protected files one time

• scanboot scans all protected files every time the system boots up
• revert will revert the scan back to the default.
• purgecache will purge all files in the Windows File Protection cache
and
scan protected files.
For more information and full tool parameters, visit www.microsoft.com/
resources/documentation/windows/xp/all/proddocs/en-us/
system_file_checker.mspx?mfr=true.
Repair disks Windows 7 allows for the creation of a system repair disk. This disk can be
used to access system recovery options if you do not happen to have a
Windows 7 installation disk handy. To use this option, you must create the
disk from the Backup and Restore menu, and you will need to set the Basic
Input/Output System (BIOS) to boot from a CD/DVD when you insert
your repair disk into the drive. The System Repair Disk allows you to access:
• Startup Repair
• System Restore
• System Image Recovery
• Windows Memory Diagnostic
• Command prompt
In Windows XP, you can replace system files with the files on the XP CD
used for the Repair Install. Your applications and settings will be left intact,
but any Windows updates will need to be reinstalled.
Pre-installation Windows pre-installation environments (Windows PE or WinPE) are lighter
environments versions of Windows and Server that can be installed in either 32- or 64-bit
versions to replace MSDOS. It is available for Windows XP, Server 2003,
Vista, Windows 7, and Server 2008 R2. Windows PE is commonly used by
large manufacturing companies to load a pre-installed version of Windows to
provide to end users. It can also be used for troubleshooting and file system
recovery by allowing administrators to run forensic and disk imaging tools.
The pre-installation environments are available for free in the Windows
Automated Installation kit (WAIK).
MSCONFIG The MSCONFIG utility is a system configuration tool available in the Tools
group from the Help and Support Center. This tool is frequently used to
test various configurations for diagnostic purposes, rather than to
permanently make configuration changes. Following diagnostic testing,
permanent changes would typically be made with more appropriate tools,
such as Services to change the startup settings of various system services.
When troubleshooting system issues, you can use this tool to:
• Determine what files are initiated on startup.
• Manage services that launch on startup.
• In Windows XP, you can disable any legacy configuration files such as
System.ini and Win.ini.
DEFRAG When systems are running slow and performance is suffering, then you may
want to run the DEFRAG utility. This utility is used to reduce fragmentation
on the hard disk by reorganizing stored data. This can affect disk
performance. The tool can be launched from Computer Management.
REGSVR32 The REGSVR32 utility is used to register Object Linking and Embedding
(OLE) controls that are self-registerable. If you are having issues with
Windows or Internet Explorer®, then you can launch this tool and unregister

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 Tool Description
these controls, then re-register them. Common controls managed with this
tool are Dynamic Link Library (DLL) and ActiveX files.
REGEDIT Use the REGEDIT utility to make changes to infected or corrupted files
within the Registry. Use caution when viewing or modifying these files in the
Registry.
Event Viewer Use the Event Viewer to look at a system's event logs, which may contain
specific information about system errors or significant events on the
computer. This can be helpful in troubleshooting various system issues.
Safe Mode Safe Mode is a Windows system startup method that loads only a minimal set
of drivers and services. If a non-critical driver or service on your system is
causing a severe error, you can use Safe Mode to omit all non-critical drivers
and services from the boot sequence; start the system; load additional
drivers, services, and applications as needed; and correct the problem.
Command prompt Command prompt can be used when troubleshooting a number of different
issues. Windows provides several different command interpreters. The
typical command prompt interface is the standard Windows command
interpreter, available in Windows XP and Windows 7. To access the
command prompt interface, you can either run cmd.exe or select Command
Prompt from the Accessories menu.
Remote Desktop Remote Desktop can be used to access a user's computer to provide
assistance with various types of issues. The problem with Remote Desktop
for troubleshooting an end user's computer is that it must be enabled and a
user must be granted privileges to log in with network access. If a user does
not have a password set up to log in to his or her computer, Remote
Desktop will not allow that user name to be used to log in. If no other user
name exists, there is no opportunity for Remote Desktop to work.
Emergency repair When you install Windows XP, the system stores information about the
disk configuration of the operating system in a hidden folder called \Windows
\Repair. If your installation is damaged, you may be able to repair it by using
this information and the Windows Setup program. In Windows XP, you can
create a copy of the repair information on a CD called emergency repair disk
(ERD). When you create an ERD, the system also updates the contents of
the \Repair folder.
Automated System Automated System Recovery (ASR) is a Windows XP process that uses backup
Recovery data and the Windows installation source files to rebuild a failed computer
system. To perform ASR, you will need:
• The Windows XP installation disk.
• An ASR disk, which provides the information Windows Setup needs to
run ASR recovery.
• An ASR backup set that contains a complete copy of the Windows system
files and all configuration information.

Safe Mode Options

There are a few different options to choose from when running Safe Mode:
• Safe Mode: Starts the computer with a minimal set of drivers and services, including the mouse,
keyboard, Video Graphics Array (VGA) display, and a hard disk. It is used when the system
problem might be with the networking components.

448
• Safe Mode with Networking: Starts the computer with Safe Mode drivers and services, plus
networking drivers and services. It is used when you need to use files on a network location to
repair the system.
• Safe Mode with Command Prompt: Starts the computer with Safe Mode drivers and services,
but with a command prompt interface. It is used when a system problem prevents the system
from creating the Windows graphical user interface (GUI) desktop.

BSOD
Blue screen of death (BSOD) errors, or system stop errors, can be a symptom of file system errors,
viruses, hard disk corruption, or controller driver problems. Stop errors are rare in Windows XP and
Windows 7, but when they occur, they are normally preceded by a blue error screen containing a
summary statement about the error condition and also hexadecimal memory data.

Figure 15-1: A BSOD error.

Responding to Stop Errors

If you experience a BSOD error, you should try to capture as much information as possible from
the error summary information at the top of the screen. You can sometimes use this information to
diagnose the problem. You can record the error codes and then search for the meaning of the error
codes either on the Internet or from Microsoft's website.
You can also configure Startup and Recovery settings to perform a memory dump, which means that
the system writes the contents of memory at the time of the error to a dump file on the hard disk for
diagnostic purposes. You would need special tools and support from Microsoft technical engineers
to interpret a dump file. To configure Startup and Recovery settings, go to the Advanced page of
the System Properties dialog box, and under Startup And Recovery, select Settings.
If you want to prevent the system from restarting automatically after the stop error, reboot and
press F8 during the boot sequence to bring up the Windows Advanced Options menu. Select
Disable Automatic Restart On System Failure and allow the system to restart. Another way of
preventing the system from restarting automatically is to change the settings for the computer. To
do this:
• In Windows 7, display the pop-up menu for Computer, and select Properties. Select the
Advanced system settings, select Continue if prompted by the User Account Control, select

449
 the Advanced tab, and in the Startup and Recovery area, select Settings. Uncheck
Automatically restart and select OK.
• In Windows XP, display the pop-up menu for My Computer, and select Properties. Select the
Advanced tab, and in Startup and Recovery, select Settings. Uncheck Automatically restart
and select OK.

System Lockup Errors

A lockup error is an error condition that causes the system or an application to stop responding to
user input. The system display "hangs" or "freezes" in a particular state, or sometimes the contents
of a window go blank. The system might return to normal after a brief delay for other processes to
execute, or it might be necessary to terminate an unresponsive process. Application lockup errors
are more common than complete system lockups.

Figure 15-2: A lockup error

Responding to Lockup Errors

If your system or an application locks up, sometimes waiting a few minutes is sufficient for the
system to recover resources and begin responding. If not, you can sometimes identify the particular
offending process by running the Task Manager. On the Applications tab, look for applications
with a Not Responding status. You can then select the End Task button to shut them down. On
the Processes tab, look for processes that are monopolizing the central processing unit (CPU), and
use the End Process button to shut them down. Sometimes it is necessary to restart the system.
Although applications might occasionally hang without indicating any serious problem, repeated
system lockups or stop errors are a sign of trouble, and you should investigate them to see if there is
an underlying hardware problem or if they could be caused by malicious software, such as a
computer virus. In addition to hardware or malicious software, they could also be caused by
unstable/incompatible drivers, applications conflicting with each other, resource allocation issues
(multiple video-intensive applications trying to access the same resource), memory limitations (not
enough memory or too many applications running at the same time), and so on.

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I/O Device Issues
Some of the input/output (I/O) device issues that can affect Windows operation include:
• A missing or loose mouse or keyboard connection.
• Blocked signals for wireless devices.
• A missing or incorrect driver for a specialty input or output device.
• Misconfigured monitor settings resulting in display anomalies.

Display Configuration Issues

You can usually configure some settings for the monitor using controls on the device itself. For
example, you can set the contrast and brightness, screen size, and screen rotation. If any of these are
set to incorrect or extreme values, the display might not appear as desired.
You can also configure output settings from within Windows. Open the Display Properties dialog
box from within the Control Panel, or by right-clicking the desktop and choosing Display. For
example, the screen resolution might make items too small for some users to view comfortably. In
this case, you can decrease the screen resolution, which will solve the problem, but a better solution
is to increase the font dots per inch (DPI) setting. Also, the monitor might not display properly if
advanced settings, such as the color quality or screen refresh rate, are set to a value that is not
appropriate for the display device. You can reconfigure settings manually or use the Video Display
Troubleshooter in the Windows Help and Support Center to walk through common problem
scenarios.

Application Errors
There are some common error messages that indicate problems with applications.

Symptom Suspected Problem

Application will not install You are trying to install an application that needs to
overwrite a file that is currently in use on the computer.
Application will not start or load The application was installed incorrectly, a version conflict
between the application and other applications on the
computer exists, or your computer is experiencing memory
access errors.
Application not found One or more of the application files has been deleted,
moved, or become corrupt.
General Protection Fault (GPF) An application is accessing Random Access Memory
(RAM) that another application is using, or the application
is attempting to access a memory address that does not
exist.
Illegal operation An application is attempting to perform an action that
Windows does not permit. Windows forces the application
to close.
Invalid working directory The application cannot find the directory for storing its
temporary files (typically \Temp). This can happen if you
delete the folder that an application needs for storing its
temporary files.

Boot Issues
There are several errors that can occur during the boot process or Windows startup.

Input/Output Device
Issues 451
 Issue Description

POST errors If there are errors during the Power On Self-Test (POST), the system
might display a numeric error message. Typically, you can press F1 to
acknowledge the error and continue booting.
For other POST errors, a series of audible beeps will tell you if a problem
has been detected. The sequence of beeps is a code that indicates the type
of problem.
Invalid boot disk The most common cause of this is a non-bootable disk in a drive. If your
system has floppy-disk drives, or bootable CD-ROM or thumb drives,
check to see if you need to remove a disk from the drive. However, there
could be a hardware problem with the hard disk. Also verify that the
complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) is set to boot from
the hard drive. Most BIOSes allow for the configuration of four or more
boot devices as first, second, third, etc. If one fails, it will automatically try
the next in line. The only way this process will fail is if the boot devices
are set to "None" or all the same (which many do not allow). Also, it
cannot be assumed that the user will want the CMOS to be set to "boot
from the hard drive," since many times there is a need to boot from CD,
or even boot through the network.
Failure to boot There might be a hardware problem with the hard disk or hard disk
controller. Check hard drive and hard drive controller connections. You
may also have a missing Boot.ini file. In this case, you need to use the
Bootcfg.exe to rebuild the file.
Missing operating If you receive an error message on boot up that states the operating
system system is missing, then this could be a sign that the hard disk is damaged.
You should try connecting the disk to another machine to see if it boots
up; if not, then you will need to replace the hard drive.
Missing NTLDR In Windows XP, the NT loader (NTLDR) file might be missing or
corrupt, in which case you might need to copy it from the Windows CD-
ROM. However, the most common problem is that there is a non-
bootable disk in the drive.
Missing dll message On startup, if the device displays a "missing dll" message, then this can
indicate an issue with one of the system files. A file may be disabled,
damaged, or deleted completely. You should first boot to Safe Mode and
run a virus scan on the computer to find any viruses that may have
infected the system and remove them. The next step is to determine what
files are missing. This can be a tedious task and in most cases a third party
dll finder utility can be used. Once you determine the specific files needed,
you can download them from the appropriate website or manufacturer
and install them on the system.
System files fail to If NTOSKRNL.EXE is missing, you can copy it from the Windows
open or are missing installation CD-ROM. This error can also indicate a problem in the
Advanced RISC Computing (ARC) path specifications in the Boot.ini file.
If Bootsect.dos is missing on a dual-boot system, you will have to restore
it from a backup file, as its contents are specific to a particular system.
System files should not be deleted or become corrupt during normal
system operation, so these errors are rare. They might indicate an
underlying hardware problem, a disk error, or the presence of a computer
virus.

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Issue Description
Device or service fails There might be a problem with a missing or corrupted device driver, or
to start there could be hardware resource conflicts (although this is rare on a Plug
and Play [PnP] system).
Boots to safe mode There may be a drive problem, if the computer continues to only boot
into Safe Mode. Use the system BIOS utility to check drives and verify the
boot order.
Device or program in A device driver or related file might be missing or damaged. You might
Registry not found need to reinstall the device.

POST Beep Error Codes

POST beep codes vary from one BIOS manufacturer to another. The following table lists some
typical POST beep error codes and their meanings.

Beep Error Code Video Output Problem Solution

One short beep Command None (normal None.

prompt startup beep)
None None Power Check power cords, wall voltage, PC's
power supply.
None Cursor Power Check the PC's power supply; check for
sufficient wall voltage.
None Command None May be a defective speaker.
prompt
One short, one None Display Check for monitor power; check video
long beep cable; check display adapter.
Two short beeps None or incorrect Display Check for monitor power; check video
display (garbage) cable; check display adapter.
Two short beeps None Memory Check to see that all RAM chips are
seated firmly, swap out RAM chips to
determine which is defective, and
replace the defective chip.
Repeating short Probably none Power Check the PC's power supply; check for
beeps sufficient wall voltage.
Continuous tone Probably none Power Check the PC's power supply; check for
sufficient wall voltage.
One long, one Probably none System board Check to see that all adapters, memory,
short beep and chips are seated firmly; check for
proper power connections to the system
board; use diagnostics software or
hardware to further troubleshoot the
system board.
One long, two Probably none Display Check for monitor power; check video
short beeps cable; check display adapter.
One long, three Probably none Display Check for monitor power; check video
short beeps cable; check display adapter.

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 Beep Error Code Video Output Problem Solution
Two short beeps Numeric error Varies depending upon the source of
code the problem as indicated by the numeric
error code.

POST Numeric Error Codes

The following table lists common POST numeric error codes and their meanings.

POST Error Code Problem

02# Power
01## System board
0104 Interrupt controller
0106 System board
0151 Real-time clock or CMOS RAM
0162 CMOS checksum error
0163 Time and date (clock not updating)
164 or 0164 System memory configuration incorrect
199 or 0199 User-indicated device list incorrect
02## Memory
201 or 0201 Memory error (may give memory address)
0202 Memory address error
03## Keyboard
0301 Stuck key (scan code of the key may be indicated)
0302 Keyboard locked
06## Floppy disk driver or controller
0601 Floppy disk adapter failure
0602 Disk failure
17## Hard disk or adapter
1701 Drive not ready or fails tests
1704 Hard drive controller failure
1707 Track 0 failure
1714 Drive not ready
1730–1732 Drive adapter failure

CMOS Error Codes

In addition to the POST error codes, you might also see a CMOS error code. The following are
examples of CMOS error codes that you might see displayed after the POST.
• The error Display Type Mismatch is displayed if the video settings do not match the monitor
attached to the system.
• The error Memory Size Mismatch is displayed if the amount of RAM detected and the amount
specified in CMOS do not match. This error is usually self-correcting, although you might need

454
 to reboot to fix it. Other devices such as hard drives can also generate mismatch errors. This
generally happens when the physical device is different than what is specified in CMOS.

Common Operating System Symptoms

Operating systems can be difficult to troubleshoot because of their complex nature and file system. Common Operating
It is always helpful to first try to identify the cause of the problem, then categorize it, and finally System Symptoms
document and take the appropriate actions.

Category of Possible Causes and Actions to Take

Problem

General issues • For boot process issues, use standard Safe Mode and boot-process
troubleshooting techniques.
• Viruses can cause a variety of general system problems. Install or update
the user's virus software and perform a complete virus scan to try to
identify what is causing issues.
• If you suspect that the issue is stemming from a specific application, then
use Task Manager to terminate the application and then troubleshoot its
installation and configuration.
• Graphical interface fails to load. This can be an indication of a video card
problem, or that a virus has infected the operating system files.
• Compatibility errors will display if an application or device software is not
fully supported by the operating system.
Memory issues An application or service might be leaking memory, which means that it is
not releasing previously allocated memory back to the system after use.
• Use Task Manager to see which applications are using memory. Have
the user reboot and run for a period of time, then check again to confirm.
• Use System Configuration to see which applications are using memory.
Have the user reboot and run for a period of time, then check again to
confirm.
• Use system monitoring techniques to check the overall memory
performance.
Low system Low disk space can slow system performance. If there is less than 500 MB of
performance and free disk space:
disk issues • Delete temporary Internet files in the Internet Explorer cache and other
browsers.
• Empty the C:\Temp and C:\Tmp directories.
• Search for and delete .chk files.
• Run the Disk Defragmenter, Disk Cleanup, and Check Disk utilities.
• Reduce the size of the Recycle Bin.
• Reduce the amount of space allocated for virtual memory.
• Upgrade the hard disk, if possible.
It is actually preferable to keep at least 20 percent of the hard drive available,
when possible.
CPU issues Use Task Manager to identify processes that dominate the available CPU
usage. Use Services to disable any unnecessary processes at startup.
Shutdown issues Common issues include:
• Improper shutdown of system, which can lead to system file corruption
and possible data loss.

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 Category of Possible Causes and Actions to Take
Problem

• Spontaneous shutdown or restart can indicate a hardware incompatibility

issue or an incompatible application. If you receive an error code, then
that may help you determine where the issue lies within the system.
RAID not detected If Redundant Array of Independent Disks (RAID) is not detected during
operating system installation, then there could be an issue with an older
RAID that may have been used with the system so there are residual firmware
files that are blocking the new RAID from being visible to the system. You
will need to verify that you have the latest firmware for the RAID being used.

Note: For more troubleshooting and support information for Windows 7 visit http://
support.microsoft.com/ph/14019

Note: The ultimate solution to some performance problems might be upgrading the system
hardware by adding more memory or a larger hard disk. As a support technician, you might or
might not be able to request this type of upgrade.

Error and Warning Messages in Event Viewer

Warning and error messages in the system or application event logs do not necessarily indicate a
major problem on your system. Many warning and error messages are usually benign and do not
indicate a problem. If you review the contents of your own system's logs regularly, you will be
familiar with the events logged by normal system operations and be able to distinguish these from
true problem conditions that require action.

Figure 15-3: Error and warning messages in Event Viewer )

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The Structure of Event Log Entries
The structure of event log entries differs by operating system, but they generally share some
common information, such as the type of log, the time the event occurred, the user name of who
was logged on at the time of the event (or who caused the event), keywords, any identification
numbers, and what category (or categories) that the event belongs to.

WER
The Windows Error Reporting (WER) node in the software environment category in System
Information contains data about the faults generated by Event Viewer. When there is a severe
error, Windows will also display an Error Reporting dialog box and generate report data. The
Error Reporting dialog box gives you the option to send the report data to Microsoft for analysis.

Registry Error Messages

In extremely rare cases, you may receive a stop error or another error message that reports a
problem with Registry access, Registry value entries, or the Registry files. For example, a hard disk
problem or power failure may have corrupted the Registry hive files. To protect the Registry, always
maintain proper system backups. The best solution to a specific Registry problem is to search for
the text of the specific error message at http://support.microsoft.com and follow the instructions
in any resulting Knowledge Base article.

Registry Error Messages

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 ACTIVITY 15-1
Identifying System Errors

Scenario
In this activity, you will interpret system errors and discuss possible appropriate responses to error
conditions.

1. A user calls saying that her screen occasionally goes blue and the system shuts down. What should you
advise her to do?
○ Call the help desk the next time the shutdown is in progress.
○ Reboot manually after the automatic restart.
○ Record as much information from the top of the blue screen as she can so that you can research
the particular error.
○ Run the system in Safe Mode.

®
2. A user reports that his Microsoft Word window has gone blank and he cannot type text. What are
possible approaches to resolving his problem?
☐ Reboot the computer.
☐ Run another copy of Microsoft Word.
☐ Wait a few minutes to see if the application returns to normal.
☐ Use Task Manager to shut down the application if it has a status of "Not Responding."

3. A user reports that her monitor display is "fuzzy" and hard to look at. What is a possible cause of this
problem?
○ Display settings for the monitor are incorrectly configured.
○ The power cord is unplugged.
○ The monitor cable is not properly seated.
○ The monitor device is disabled in Windows.

4. A user reports that while she is editing a document, she receives an "invalid working directory" message
from her application. What is the best diagnostic question to ask in response to this error?
○ Did the application work yesterday?
○ Is anyone else having this problem?
○ Who installed the application?
○ Have you deleted any files or folders lately?

Access the Checklist tile on your LogicalCHOICE course screen for reference
information and job aids on How to Troubleshoot Microsoft Windows

458
 ACTIVITY 15-2
Troubleshooting a Remote Computer with
Remote Desktop

Scenario
You have been assigned to support a user whose office is several floors away from yours. You
would like to be able to troubleshoot this computer without having to go to the user's office.
Note: You are going to work with a partner to complete this activity. You will take turns playing
the role of the helper and the user needing assistance. First, the user needing assistance will
enable Remote Desktop. Then, the helper will connect to that computer using Remote Desktop
Connection and the administrator user account.

Assign students to work

in pairs. If you have an
1. Configure the first computer to support Remote Desktop connections. odd number of students,
a) Open the Control Panel and select System and Security. work with one of the
students to complete this
b) Select the System link activity.
c) In the left pane, select Remote settings.
d) In the Remote Desktop section, select Allow connections from computers running any version of
Remote Desktop (less secure).
e) Select OK twice and close the System window.
If a connection can't be
2. At the second computer, connect to the other computer using Remote Desktop Connection. established because
a) On the second computer, select Start→All Programs→Accessories→Remote Desktop Connection. user accounts need
b) In the Computer text box, type the name of your partner's computer. elevation, then add the
AD account to each PC
c) Select Connect.
with administrator rights.
d) Log on as Admin## (where the ## is your partner's number) with a password of !Pass1234 and
select Enter.
e) If necessary, select Yes at the security prompt.
f) If necessary, press the arrow button.

3. From the second computer, change the desktop theme of your partner's computer, and then log off of
the remote session.
a) Display the pop-up menu for the Desktop and select Personalize.
b) Select a theme from the available options.
c) In the Client## bar at the top of the screen, select the Close button, and select OK to exit the
Remote Desktop session.

4. Log back in to the first computer and verify the changes.

a) At the first computer, log back in as Admin##
b) Examine the desktop, and confirm that the theme has changed.

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 TOPIC B
Troubleshoot Wired and Wireless Networks
In the previous topic, you examined troubleshooting for operating systems. In most organizations,
that operating system will be running on a machine that is also running on a network to access the
Internet and other important databases or servers. Just as the operating system is essential for the
system to function, the network is essential for most organizations to function on a daily basis. In
this topic, you will troubleshoot networks.
Every network will run into problems at some point. However, there is a lot you can do to minimize
the problems you encounter. Regular, preventative maintenance will not only keep your network
working at its peak, it will also reduce the risk of network corruption. Difficulties will arise, though,
and good troubleshooting skills will enable you to identify, assess, and repair any network issues
quickly and efficiently.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220–802: Objective 4.5: Given a scenario, troubleshoot wired and wireless networks with
appropriate tools.

Common Network Issues

Common Network There are several common network issues you might be called upon to diagnose and resolve.
Issues
Network Issue Possible Problems and Solutions

No connectivity or No connectivity or a connection loss can be an indication that there is a

connection lost physical problem with a loose cable or a defective network adapter.
Check cables and connections and check for link or light emitting diode
(LED) lights on the network adapter. Reseat connections, replace cables,
or reinstall/replace the adapter, as necessary.
On IP networks, check for a missing or incorrect IP address. If the
address is manually configured, this could be a data entry error;
reconfigure the connection. If automatically configured, the Dynamic
Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server might be unavailable or
unreachable. Make sure the DHCP server is up and that the client is
physically connected to the network.
Slow transfer speeds The network might be experiencing high traffic and many collisions.
Check the activity status indicator light for the collision frequency. This
should be a temporary condition that will pass; if not, network engineers
might need to upgrade the network bandwidth or data rate to increase
throughput.
Local connectivity but The default gateway address might be configured incorrectly, the gateway
no Internet connection might be down, or there might be a problem with the Internet Service
Provider (ISP). Check the default gateway address, verify that the default
gateway is functioning, and contact the ISP to find out if there are any
problem conditions. The proxy settings may also be incorrect. Check the
proxy configuration of your network connection.
Limited connectivity Limited connections to a resource or network location can be due to
insufficient permissions or an unavailable target network resource. Check
to make sure the printer or server is running and connected to the
network, and check to make sure the user has appropriate permissions.

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Network Issue Possible Problems and Solutions
IP conflict Connections by IP address but not by name can be an indication that the
Domain Name System (DNS) configuration is incorrect or the DNS
server is down. Or, the hosts file might be configured incorrectly. Check
the IP configuration settings and verify that the DNS server is running.
Check the hosts file to make sure it does not contain incorrect entries.
Intermittent Electrical noise, or electrical interference, is a general term for unwanted
connectivity signals on the network media that can interfere with network
transmissions. Interference or noise can come from natural sources, such
as solar radiation or electrical storms, or from man-made sources, such as
electronic interference from nearby motors or transformers. Electrical
noise can also cause transient power problems. Some of the common
sources of noise include:
• Ambient noise can come from many sources, including solar
disturbances that affect the earth's magnetosphere, or nearby radio
broadcasting towers.
• Nearby high-tension power lines or a building's own electrical wiring
can create electrical noise.
• Electric motors, such as those used in elevators, refrigerators, water
fountains, and heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC)
equipment, create noise while running, but it is worse when they start
up. Motors require a huge amount of electricity to start up, causing a
burst of noise. These bursts can create short temporary outages that
resolve themselves when the motor reaches full speed or stops.
• Like electric motors, electric heating elements use a lot of electricity
and cause a significant amount of noise while running.
• Fluorescent, neon, and high-intensity discharge (HID) lights produce a
large amount of electrical noise, generally due to the transformers and
ballasts required to make these lights work.
Low RF signals If radio frequency (RF) signals are low, then it could mean that there is an
issue with the access point. The access point may have failed, lost power,
or been misconfigured. For example, if Media Access Control (MAC)
filtering is enabled at the access point, then the PC may not be able to
connect. If the issue is isolated to one PC, there it could be a
configuration issue at the access point or the PC, so you will need to
verify the configuration settings on both devices.
APIPA address issues Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA) is automatically enabled on
Windows computers unless it has been disabled in the Registry. It is
commonly used as a backup IP addressing service to DHCP, so when
DHCP is unavailable, local computers can still get an IP address. The
issue with this configuration is that APIPA can only connect to local
computers that also have APIPA addresses assigned, so connecting to the
Internet is not allowed.

Network Troubleshooting Utilities

Microsoft includes a variety of tools in its Windows operating systems that you can use to
troubleshoot networks.
Command line utilities include:
• IPCONFIG
• PING

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 • NSLOOKUP
• TRACERT
• NETSTAT
• NBSTAT
• NET
Software-based utilities include:
• Network troubleshooters can be used to walk you through the resolutions to various common
network problems. There are several network-related troubleshooters in the Help and Support
Center that can help.
• Wi-Fi locators are utilities that can be installed on computing devices to locate wireless networks
within range of the device. Most locating utilities will not only locate networks, but will monitor
them for anomalies. They will usually display the Service Set Identifier (SSID), signal quality,
MAC address, and other network identifiers.

Network Troubleshooting Tools

Network Network tools can be used when troubleshooting or managing network connections. Useful tools
Troubleshooting Tools include:
• Cable tester
• Loopback plug
• Punch down tools
• Toner probe
• Crimper
• Wire stripper

Access the Checklist tile on your LogicalCHOICE course screen for reference
information and job aids on How to Troubleshoot Wired and Wireless Networks

462
 ACTIVITY 15-3
Troubleshooting Network Issues

Scenario
You have been assigned to assist users who are having network connectivity issues.

1. You receive a call from a client who reports that she is unable to access any websites in Internet
Explorer. While talking with this user, you verify that she can ping the server's IP address on her
network segment, the IP address of the default gateway, and the IP address of a computer on another
network segment. You also determine that none of the other users on her network can connect to
websites in Internet Explorer. What might be the problem?
A: The problem is most likely that her network's DNS server is down.

2. One of your clients reports that he is unable to see computers when he opens the Network window.
Which step should you take first?
○ Determine if any of the other users on the network are experiencing problems.
○ Ask the client to ping another computer on his network.
○ Ask the client to verify that the DHCP server is running.
○ Ask the client to run ipconfig /release and ipconfig /renew.

3. A user is trying to reach a website and is experiencing problems. How can you examine the path of the
transmissions?
A: Use the tracert command to trace the routes of packets between various source and destination
hosts. This can help you locate a packet looping between routers, or the point at which a route
fails.

4. A client reports that he is unable to connect to any computers on the network or the Internet. You have
him run the ipconfig command, and all his TCP/IP addressing parameters are correct. When you have
him ping other computers on the network, his computer is unable to reach them. This computer is the
only one that is experiencing a problem. What should you check next?
○ That the DHCP server is on and functioning properly
○ That the default gateway is on and functioning properly
○ That the DNS server is on and functioning properly
○ That his computer's network cable is plugged into both the network card and the wall jack

463
 TOPIC C
Troubleshoot Common Security Issues
In the previous topics, you have examined troubleshooting for the hardware, software, and network
components of a computer system. As important as it is to maintain these more concrete
components of a system, it is equally important to make sure that the computer system is secure and
that all security measures are functioning properly; if problems arise with security, you must be ready
to address them. In this topic, you will troubleshoot common security issues.
As with many areas of computer support, your responsibility for computer security does not end as
soon as the security measures are implemented. As with printing, networking, hardware, and
software, it is your responsibility to your users and clients to ensure proper security functions on an
ongoing basis as well as to correct security problems that might compromise your systems or
prevent users from accessing the resources that they need. The information and skills in this topic
should help you troubleshoot any security issues that arise and restore your organization's security
functions.
This topic covers all or part of the following CompTIA® A+® (2012) certification objectives:
• Exam 220–802: Objective 4.7: Given a scenario, troubleshoot common security issues with
appropriate tools and best practices.

Common Security Issues

Common Security Most common computer security problems stem from security that is too strict or too lenient, but
Issues there are some specific issues you should be aware of as well.
As you discuss these
symptoms, ask Symptom Description
participants to share
their experiences with Pop-ups Pop-ups are windows or frames that load and appear automatically when a user
security issues. connects to a particular web page. They can sometimes contain buttons or
links that include infected files.
Browser If users are complaining that browser links are taking them to an unwanted
redirection web page, then it probably means that the computer has been infected by a
browser redirect virus. To remediate the issue, you need to remove the virus
and verify that the browser functions properly.
Security alerts In some cases, security alerts can be a sign that the computer has been
infected with malware. Malware created today is complex and can be designed
to look just like an actual security warning generated by the operating system
so that you click on the rogue link and install the needed update that actually
contains malware.
Internet Internet connectivity issues can be sign that a computer has been infected by
connectivity issues malware. If a security breach has occurred, then an attacker gained access and
changed IP configurations and reconfigured network interface cards (NICs) or
DNS redirectors. Check any other network-connected devices for similar
issues, and if none are found, then the issues are due to an infected device.
PC locks up Slow performance can lead to a PC locking up. This can be an indication that
there is a problem with the system files, malware services were installed, or
too many programs have been loaded into memory. This can also be a
symptom of a virus. Make sure to run antivirus software to identify and
remove any infections.

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Symptom Description
Windows update If Windows updates fail, it could be a sign that the state of the machine has
failures changed. This can be due to a virus. Scan the computer for infections and
remove them.
Rogue antivirus Rogue antivirus is a very sneaky attack that can cause major damage to a
system if the user carries out the actions expected by the attacker. The method
involves designing a rogue antivirus application window that looks like a
legitimate antivirus solution. If users follow the instructions, then they are at
risk for downloading a slew of malware.
Email issues If there are noticeable changes to an email account, such as an excess amount
of spam or you find that there have been emails sent from the account that
the email account owner was unaware of, then the computer's security has
been jeopardized.
Email-specific issues to be aware of include:
• Spam is an email-based threat where the user's inbox is flooded with emails
which act as vehicles that carry advertising material for products or
promotions for get-rich-quick schemes and can sometimes deliver viruses
or malware. Spam can harbor malicious code in addition to filling up your
inbox. Spam can also be utilized within social networking sites such as
Facebook and Twitter.
• Hijacked email is an account that has been accessed by an attacker and is
being used by the attacker to send and receive emails. This means that an
attacker can read, edit, an send emails from an account. In a corporate
environment, a hijacked email account can result in unauthorized data
access.
Access denied Access may be denied if systems are unavailable or corrupted. The most
common cause is when a user forgets a password or credentials. Have systems
in place to reset passwords for users, when appropriate.
Repeated patterns of access denial can be a sign of attempted security
breaches.
Malicious software Once malicious software has penetrated your system, numerous security issues
can arise. The best solution to these problems is to prevent infections in the
first place, but if your systems are infected, they must be isolated from the
network and cleaned using various antivirus and security scanning tools.
If your antivirus, anti-spyware, and pop-up blocker's protections are
configured to be too restrictive, it is possible that users might not be able to
load and run legitimate software. However, it is best to keep security tight in
this area and deal with exceptions on a case-by-case basis.
File system issues Changes in system files can indicate that there has been breach in security.
Common file system security symptoms include:
• Renamed system files
• Files disappearing
• File permission changes
If permissions are set too tightly, users will not be able to access data. If they
are too loose, there will be inappropriate access. Also, because permissions are
cumulative, users may obtain permissions from a number of different groups
of which they are members. If a user cannot access a resource, you might need
to check the permissions assigned to all the relevant groups.

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 Symptom Description
Data access issues Data access across the network depends upon share permissions which, like
file system permissions, might be set too high or too low. Also, like file system
permissions, the user's effective permissions might be derived from several
group memberships that you might need to examine.
A special issue for Windows is the interaction of share and file system
permissions—since both sets are evaluated for network file access, the user
will have only the most restrictive of the two permission sets.
If you have used policies to restrict accounts from accessing systems locally or
across the network, make sure the policies are not so strict that legitimate
users cannot gain access.
Backup security Set system policies so that only legitimate users can restore data. However, if
policies are too restrictive, you might not have enough users available to do
backup restorations in an emergency. Verify that all legitimate backup
administrators have the necessary rights. Do not forget to verify that the
appropriate users have physical access to the backup storage location,
especially if the backup tapes are maintained by a third party who has
responsibility for controlling access.

Malware Removal Process

Malware Removal To properly remove malware from an infected computer, follow the process steps to ensure that the
Process computer is "clean."

Process Step Description

Identify malware Use adware and spyware detectors. If your antivirus software does not
symptoms guard against adware and spyware, you can install separate tools to
specifically protect against these types of threats.
Disable system restore When malware is detected, it is wise to disable system restore to prevent
infected restore points in the system.
Schedule scans and Schedule scans and antivirus update schedules. By scheduling regular
updates system scans and updating your antivirus software, you are taking a more
proactive approach to vulnerability detection before a full system infection
occurs. Scanning systems regularly allows you to discover potential
malware threats and to develop useful removal techniques accordingly.
Remediate infected In some cases, you may need to employ additional scanning and removal
systems techniques to ensure that systems are clear of infections. When viruses
infect critical operating system files that are "in use" when the operating
system is running, you may need to perform an alternate startup process
in order to prevent the files from being locked against a clean and repair
cycle. You may also need to boot into Safe Mode to clean the infected
files, or it may be necessary to boot into a completely different pre-
installation environment in order to clean viruses that are deep-rooted
into the core operating system files. If you suspect that the boot blocks
have been affected by a virus, you may need to repair infected boot blocks
using the Windows Recovery Console in Windows XP, or System
Recovery in Windows 7
Quarantine infected Once an infected system is discovered, you can then quarantine it and fix
systems it to prevent the further spread of the virus to other systems.

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Process Step Description
Enable system restore Once the system is clean of all malware infections, then you should enable
and create restore system restore and make sure to create a fresh restore point of the clean
point system.
Educate end users Provide user awareness and education, which is the best protection against
malicious software or any security threat. Providing end user education
will enable users to recognize and delete hoax email messages, avoid
unauthorized software, and keep antivirus definitions updated.
Many types of malicious software are introduced through email
attachments. Users should not save or open attachments they do not
recognize, are not expecting, or are from senders they do not recognize.

Malware Removal Best Practices

When identifying and removing malware, there are several techniques you can employ to fully Malware Removal Best
protect systems attacks. Practices

Best Practice Description

Trusted installation Always use trusted installation sources and websites. This may include
sources various "mirror" websites that offer authorized software downloads. Even
software you install deliberately can be infected with viruses. Do not
install software just because a particular website or Internet page prompts
you to do so.
Email protection Always use email attachment protection.
Research Research malware types. In order to protect systems from infections, you
must research all the possible malware types and symptoms. For example,
using various virus encyclopedias, you can recognize possible malware
types and develop solutions to fix them.

Security Troubleshooting Tools

Security measures are usually implemented to conform with the security requirements in an Security Troubleshooting
organization's security policy. There are a number of different tools used depending on the systems Tools
and the desired level of security. In many corporate environments, you will be working closely with
the security administrator to install and manage security tools and controls based on the
organization's security policies.

Tool Description

Anti-malware software Some anti-malware programs will scan for unknown, harmful software
already installed on the computer and attempt to remove them. In most
corporate environments, you will work closely with the security
administrator to make sure all computers are configured to meet the
guidelines set forth in the security policy. It is strongly recommended to
install anti-malware software on all computers, and keep it updated
according to your organization's patch management policies.
Antivirus software Antivirus updates must be managed as they are made available.
Antivirus engine updates can include enhancements, bug-fixes, or new
features being added to the software engine, improving the manner in
which it operates. Updates can be implemented automatically or

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 Tool Description

manually, depending on the software. Automatic updating refers to

software that periodically downloads and applies updates without any
user intervention, whereas manual updating means that a user must be
involved to either initiate the update, download the update, or at least
approve installation of the update.
Anti-spyware software Some antivirus software packages include protection against adware and
spyware, but, in some cases, you may need to also include anti-spyware
protection in addition to antivirus protection.
Pop-up blockers Pop-up blockers are included in most Internet browsers and will prevent
pop-ups from launching when a website is visited.
Spam blockers Spam blockers will detect specific words that are known to be included in
a spam message. The message may be rejected once the words are
found. This can cause issues if the detection system rejects legitimate
messages that may contain one of the keywords. Other spam detection
methods are used to block IP addresses of known spammers or to pose
an email address that is not in use or is too old to collect spam. You can
use any of these techniques to reduce the number of spam messages in
your inbox.
Recovery Console Recovery Console can be used to help identify when a security incident
has occurred.
System Restore You can use a restore point to help identify when a security breach
occurred and to recover the system to an earlier state before the
incident affected the system files and data.
Event Viewer You can use Event Viewer to review the stored event logs for unusual
activity or any logged errors.
Pre-installation If a system has been infected and cannot be fixed using other methods,
environments then a pre-installation environment can be used to rebuild the system.

Access the Checklist tile on your LogicalCHOICE course screen for reference
information and job aids on How to Troubleshoot Common Security Issues

468
 ACTIVITY 15-4
Troubleshooting Common Security Issues

Scenario
You have been assigned to resolve several security issues raised by users.

1. John has reported that a pop-up security alert keeps coming up when he switches application windows
on his laptop. What do you suspect is going on with his computer?
A: Often, malware is delivered through legitimate-looking methods, such as a Windows security alert.
In this case, his laptop was likely infected with a virus.

2. You have been asked to provide a list of common malware symptoms for users to be aware of in order
to prevent security breaches within your organization. What common symptoms would you provide?
A: Answers will vary, but should include: keeping an eye out for unusual email messages that may be
a hoax or social engineering attempt. Do not open or forward unrecognized email attachments.
Avoid downloading any software from the Internet that has not been approved by the IT
department.

3. True or False? The safest way to deal with unsolicited email is to delete it without opening it.
☐ True
☐ False

4. Alex reports that in the midst of composing an email at work, an unfamiliar pop-up appeared on his
screen, indicating that his email connection has been dropped and that he should log on again by using
the pop-up screen. What do you suggest he do in this situation?
A: First, you let him know that he was right to report the incident without entering the information in
the pop-up window. Next, you should run an antivirus scan to identify if the computer is infected
and remove any viruses until the system is "clean."

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 Summary
In this lesson, you used many different troubleshooting methods to resolve common issues related
to operating systems, network connectivity, and security. In your role as an A+ technician, you will
be advising and supporting users in a number of areas surrounding computing devices, so using the
guidelines and procedures provided in this lesson will enable you to provide the required level of
support to users.
Use the review
questions provided to What system wide area do you think you will provide the most support to users?
generate discussion A: Answers will vary, but will most likely include troubleshooting various operating system or network
among the participants. issues, which can often end up being a symptom of a more severe security problem.

Have you ever had to recover a severely compromised computer system? If so, then describe your
experience.
A: Answers will vary, but may include having to use Last Known Good Configuration or Safe Mode to
identify issues and recover systems.

Note: Check your LogicalCHOICE Course screen for opportunities to interact with your
classmates, peers, and the larger LogicalCHOICE online community about the topics covered in
this course or other topics you are interested in. From the Course screen you can also access
available resources for a more continuous learning experience.

Encourage students to
use the social
networking tools
provided on the
LogicalCHOICE Home
screen to follow up with
their peers after the
course is completed for
further discussion and
resources to support
continued learning.

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